.fvr.-- 



i LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, l 






» i 



^ fp. 

P. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. ^ 







THE HOKSE, 

IN THE STABLE AND THE FIELD 

HIS VAEIETIES, 

MANAGEMENT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE, 

ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, 



By J. H. WALSH, E.R.C.S. (Stonehenge), 

EDITOR OF " THE FIELD ; " 
AUTHOR OF " BRITISH RURAL SPORTS," ETC. 



ILl.USTRATED WITH ONE HUNDRED AND SEVENTY ENGRAVINGS BY BABRAUD, 
H. WEIR, ZWECKER, ETC. 



NEW EDITION. 



NEW YORK: 

GEOEGE EOUTLEDGE AND SONS. 

416, BROOME STREET. 




1869. 

c/ 



P U E r A C E. 



We believe it may be asserted, without fear of contradiction, 
that no book has yet been published, in the English or any 
other language, which even professes to give a complete descrip- 
tion of the Natural History, Anatomy, Physiology, Pathology, and 
General Management of the Horse, in a form and style suited to 
the country gentleman of the nineteenth century. It is true, that 
some of these departments are adequately described in separate 
works ; but they are generally written in technical language, suited 
rather to the Veterinary Student than for the use and compre- 
hension of the ordinary reader. The writings of Percivall in 
England, and of Girard, Chauveau, and Colin in France, contain 
full and accurate details of the Anatomy and Physiology of this 
animal ; while the Structure and Diseases of his Foot have been 
the subjects of various elaborate treatises by Bracy Clark, Spooner, 
Coleman, and Turner, in this country. But in order to reach the 
information which he requires, the reader has to wade through 
many long and wearisome chapters, wholly irrelevant to the prac- 
tical subjects in which he is interested, and he therefore gives 
up the study in disgust as a hopeless task. So also, in reference 
to the general diseases of the horse, Percivall's " Hippopathology " 
is a mine of information ; but it is so elaborate, and so diffuse in 
style also, that it is consequently never or rarely seen on the 
library shelves of the private gentleman. Stable management was 
well described by Stewart, of Edinburgh, five-and-twenty years 
ago, and his work still continues to be the best manual on this 
particular subject ; but since it was written many great changes 

h 



iv PREFACE. 

have been introduced into general use, and it is therefore now 
somewhat behind the times. For these reasons the author of this 
work has thought that a book, combining all the above subjects, 
treated in a practical manner, and in a style popularly intelligible, 
yet containing the most recent views of eminent authorities in 
veterinary knowledge, would supply a deficiency which has long 
been complained of by all who are interested in the proper 
management of the horse. 

In order to compress within the limits of one volume the infor- 
mation which has hitherto been spread over so many, it has been 
necessary to forego all attempts at illustration by anecdote or by 
records of cases ; and the several chapters, therefore, will be found 
to contain only what is absolutely necessary for the elucidation 
of each subject, with the aid of numerous engravings, carefully 
executed by the Messrs. Dalziel, after drawings by Barraud, 
H. Weir, Zwecker, Scott, &c. &c. For the first 304 pages the 
author has drawn solely upon his own resources ; but in the 
remaining chapters he has received the assistance of two veterinary 
surgeons of good standing in their profession. Since the first 
edition appeared, the chapters on the anatomy of the bones and 
ligaments have been entirely rewritten, and numerous errors which 
had crept in there and elsewhere, from causes which it is un- 
necessary to explain, have been carefully corrected. It is therefore 
hoped that the utility of the book, which has been so well received 
by the public in its imperfect state, Avill be increased as an aid to 
the large class for whom it was written ; and if the author has 
succeeded in attaining this object, it will be a source of pride and 
gratification to him that he has been enabled to promote the 
interests of those who keep horses, as well as to ameliorate the 
treatment of the noble animal which forms the subject of his book. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

EARLY HISTORY OP THE HORSE. 

PAGE 

The Horse of Scripture— The Greek Horse— That of the Romans — The Arab 
of Antiquity — E^^yptian, Libyan, Numidian, and Moorish Horses — The 
Original British Horse — Ancient Methods of Using the Horse 1 



CHAPTER 11. 

NATURAL HISTORY AND GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 

Synonyms and Classification in the Scale of Creation— Habits — External 
Form, as indicated by Points— Proportions— Period of Matiu-ity— Average 
Age— Periodical Moulting— Mental Development — Small Stomach . . \ 5 

CHAPTER III. 

THE HORSES OF THE EAST. 

The Barb — the Egyptian Horse — The Horses of Dongola and Abyssinia — 
Other African Horses — The Modern Arab — The Persian Horse — The Turk- 
ish Horse — Other Asiatic Horses— The Austrahan Horse 15 

CHAPTER IV. 

THE HORSES OF THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE. 

The South American Horse— The Mustang— The Indian Pony— The Cana- 
dian Horse— The Morgan Horse — The Amercian Trotter — The Nairaganset 
Pacer — The American Thoioughbred— The Vermont Cart-horse — The Co- 
nestoga Draught-horse 27 

CHAPTER V. 

EUROPEAN CONTINENTAL HORSES. 

Spanish and Portuguese Horses— The Italian Horse — The German Horse— 
The French Horse— The Flemish Horse— The Hanoverian Horse— The 
Russian Horse— The Norwegian and Swedish Horses 44 



vi CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER VI. 

THE ENGLISH THOROUGHBRED HORSE. 

PAGE 

General History— The English Thoroughbred Horse of 1750— His Origin— 
The Modern Thoroughbred— Increase of Size and Symmetry— Comparative 
Stoutness— Early Maturity-Object of Encouraging the Breed— Essentials 
in the Thoroughbred— Purity of Blood— External Formation— Height- 
Colour— Coat, Mane, and Tail— The Thoroughbred Hunter and Steeple- 
chaser 53 



CHAPTER VII. 

HALF-BREDS, COBS, AND PONIES. 

The Half-bred Hunter — The Irish Hunter— The Charger— The Covert, Road, 
and Park Hack— The Ladies' Horse — Cobs, Galloways, and Ponies— The 
Carriage, Brougham, or Cabriolet Horse — The Heavy Machiner — The Phae- 
ton Horse — The Gigster, or Fast Trotter 95 



CHAPTER VIII. 

AGRICULTURAL AND DRAY HORSES. 

The Old English Black Cart-horse— The Suffolk Cart-horse— The improved 
Lincolnsliire Dray-horse— The Clydesdale Horse — Other mixed Breeds . . 112 



^ CHAPTER IX. 

ON THE LOCOMOTIVE ACTION IN THE VARIOUS PACES. 

Natural and Acquired Paces — Distribution of Weight — Attitude assumed in 
Standing — Mode of Progression — Tlie Walk — Trot — Canter— Hand-gallop 
— Extended Gallop— The Amble — Racking, Pacing, and Running— The 
Paces of the Manege — Leaping 119 



CHAPTER X. 

THE PRINCIPLES OP BREEDING APPLICABLE TO THE HORSE. 

Theory of Generation — In-and-in Breeduig— Crossing : Advantages and Dis- 
advantages attending on each Plan — Causes of a " Hit" — Importance of 
Health or Soundness in both Sire and Dam — Best Age to Breed from — 
Time of Year best suited to each Variety of the Horse — Inlluence of Sire 
and Dam respectively — Choice of Sire and Dam — Selection of Blood in each 
Class — The kind of Horse most likely to be Profitable to the Breeder— 
Concluding Remarks on Breeding 137 

CHAPTER XL 

THE BROOD MARE AND HER FOAL. 

The Hovel and Paddock — General Management of the Brood ]\Iare — Treat- 
ment when in Foal — After Foaling — Early Management of the Foal — 
Weaning — Castration . 156 



CONTENTS. vii 

CHAPTER XII. 

TnE BREAKING OF THE COLT. 

PAGB 

Mr. Rarey's Principles and Practice— Ordinary Method of Breaking for the 
Saddle— Superiority of the Latter, when properly carried out—Breaking 
to Harness— Dr. Bunting's Break 164 



CHAPTER XIII. 

STABLES. 

Situation and Aspect— Foundations— Superficial Area and Height required 
— Stalls versus Loose Boxes— Hay Chamber and Granary — Best Materials 
for Walls, Floors, Doors, and Windows — Drainage and Water Supply- 
Ventilation and Lighting— Fittings— Harness Room-Coach- house— Ser- 
vants' Rooms — Plans of Stables— Necessity for ailing New Stables . . . 186 



CHAPTER XIV. 

STABLE MANAGEMENT. 

The Coachman, Groom, and Helper— Stable Implements, Clothing, &c. — 
Food and Water — Theoiy and Practice of Feeding — Bedding— Dressing or 
Groomuig — Clipping, Singeing, and Trimming — Use and Application of 
Bandages — Management of the Feet — Exercise 214 



CHAPTER XV. 

STABLE MANAGEMENT, CONTINUED. 

Recapitulation of Daily Duties — Proper Temperature — Remedies for Stable 
Vices and Bad Habits — Preparation for Work — Ordinary Svv-eating — The 
Turkish Bath — Ph3^sic — Final Preparation — Treatment after Work — Sum- 
mering—A Winter's Run — The Straw-yard — Care of Saddleiy and 
Harness 256 



CHAPTER XVL 

RIDING AND DRIVING. 

Saddles— Bridles— Mounting and Dismounting — The Seat — Management of 
the Reins— Use of Spurs— Modes of Starting the Horse into his various 
Paces— Riding to Hounds — Out-door Vices and Bad Habits— Harness — 
Driving a Single Horse— A Pan-- Four-in-Hand 282 



CHAPTER XVII. 

CLASSIFICATION OP THE VARIOUS ORGANS, AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THS 
SKELETON. 

Classification of the various Organs — Structure of Bone— Of the Skeleton in 
General — The Artificial Skeleton — Number of Bones composing the Ske- 
leton — General Anatomy of the Spinal Column — Of the Head and Face 
— Of the Hyoid Arch — Of the Thoracic Arch and Anterior Extremities — 
Of the Pelvic Arch and Hind Extremities — Of the Tail — Of the Fore and 
Hind Extremities considered as Organs of Locomotion 305 



viii CONTE:tiTS. 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY OF THE SEVERAL BONES. 

The Head — Bones of the Cranium — Of the Face — The Lower Jaw — The 
Teeth — Os Hyoides — Character of Vertebrae in General — General Character 
of the Cervical Vertebrae — Peculiarities of certain Cervical Vertebrae — 
General Character of the Dorsal Vertebrae — Peculiarities of certain Dorsal 
Vertebrae — General Character of the Lumbar Vertebrae — Peculiarities of 
certain Lumbar Vertebrae — Os Sacrum — The Coccygeal Vertebrae — The 
Ribs and their Cartilages — The Sternum— The Scapula— Humerus — Pore- 
arm — Carpus and Metacarpus — The Phalangeal Bones — The Pelvis — 
Femur and Patella — Bones of the Leg — jMstatarsal and Posterior Pha- 
langeal Bones 314 

CHAPTER XIX. 

OF THE JOINTS, AND THE TISSUES ENTERING INTO THEIR COMPOSITION. 

General Remarks— Cartilage— Fibrous Tissue— Fibro-cartilage— Synovial 
Membranes— Classification of the Joints — Their Movements — Articula- 
tions of the Vertebral Column— Ligamentum Colli, or Great Cervical 
Ligament, and other Peculiarities of the Vertebras of the Neck — Move- 
ments of the Vertebrae in General, and of certain of their Joints in 
particular — Tlioracic Articulation — Temporo-maxillary Articulation — Pe- 
culiarities in the Articulations of the Lumbar Vertebrae — Lumbo-sacral 
Articulation — Coccygeal Joints — Sacro-iliac Articulations — Ischio-pubic 
Symphysis — The Shoulder Joint — Elbow Joint — Knee Joint — Inter- 
metacarpal Articulation — Fetlock Joint — Pastern Joint — Coffin Joint — 
Hip Joint— Stifle Joint— Tibio-fibular Articulation — Hock Joint and 
Articulation between the Bones of the Tarsus — Tarso-metatarsal Articu- 
lation — Tcimina Articulation of the Posterior Limbs 3-19 

CHAPTER XX. 

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 

Physiology of Muscle — Cutaneous Muscles — Muscles of the Head — Anterior 
Maxillary Region — Muscles whose office it is to move the Lower Jaw — 
Muscles of the External Ear — of the Eyelids — Ocular Region — Muscles of 
the Tongue — of the Pharynx— Laryngeal Region — Superficial Muscles of 
the Neck and Trunk — Lateral Cervical Region — Inferior Cervical Region 
— Inferior Cervico-occipital Region — Superior Cervico-occipital Region — 
Muscles connecting the Scapula with the Head, Neck, and Trunk— of the 
Thorax — Dorsal Region— Muscles of tlie Abdomen — Superficial Abdominal 
Region — Deep Abdominal Region — Pelvic Region— jMuscles of the Fore 
Extremity — External Scapidar Region— Antero-inferior Scapular Region — 
Internal Scapular Region — Postero-internal Scapular Region — Postero- 
external Scapular Region — Antero-external Humeral Region — Postero- 
internal Humeral Region— Muscles of the Arm and Fore-leg — Muscles of 
the Haunch— Gluteal Region — External liio-femoral Region— Anterior 
Ilio-femoral Region —Internal Ilio-femoral Region— Deep Muscles of the 
Ilio-femoral Region — Anterior Femoro-crural Region — Posterior Femoro- 
ciTiral Region 383 

CHAPTER XXL 

THE TUORACIO ORGANS AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 

Contents of the Thorax — The Blood — General Plan of the Circulation — The 
Heart and Ai'teries — The Veins — Piiysiology of Respiration —Mechanism 
of tlie Pulmonary Apparatus — The Nasal Orifices and Cavities — The Larynx 
—The Trachea and Bi'uuclii — The Lungs— Pulmonary Glands 407 



CONTENTS. ix 

CHAPTER XXII. 

THE ABDOMINAL AND PELVIC VISCERA. 

PACK 

The Abdomen and its Contents — Physiology of Digestion — Absorption — 
Structure of Glands and Pliysiology of Secretion — Depuration, and its 
Office in the Animal Economy — Anatomy of the Salivary Glands, Pharynx, 
Esophagus, and Stomach — The Intestines — Liver — Spleen— Pancreas — 
Kidneys— Pelvis— Bladder — Organs of Generation, Male and Female . . 424 

CHAPTER XXIII. 

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

Physiology of the Nervous System — Chief Divisions of the Nervous System 
— The Spinal Cord — Medulla Oblongata— The Encephalon— The Sympar 
thetic System 438 

CHAPTER XXIV. 

SPECIAL ORGANS. 

The Organ of Smell -The Eye— The Ear— The Organ of Touch— The Foot . 444 
CHAPTER XXV. 

THE DISEASES AND INJURIES OF BONE. 

General Remarks — Splints — Ringbone and Sidebone— Ossification of the 
Lateral Cartilages— Bone Spavin — Exostosis of the Humerus and Scapula 
— Fistula of the Withers — Poll Evil — Caries of the Jaw — Osteo Sarcoma 
—Fractures 453 

CHAPTER XXVL 

INJURY AND DISEASES OF THE JOINTS, MUSCLES, AND TENDONS. 

Diseases of Muscle, Tendon, and Ligament — of Cartilage and Synovial Mem- 
brane— Inflamed Tendinous Sheaths — Inflamed Bursas Mucosre — Strains 
— those of the Back and Loins — of the Shoulder — of the Knee — of the 
Fetlock — of the Coffin Joint— of the Suspensory Ligaments— of the Back- 
sinews — Breaking Down — Strains of the Hip Joint, Stifle, and Hock — 
Curb — Dislocation — Wounds of Joints 467 

CHAPTER XXVIL 

DISEASES OP THE THOBACIO ORGANS AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 

General Remarks — CataiTh — Influenza — Bronchitis — Chronic Cough — Laryn- 
gitis — Roaring, Whistling, &c. — Pneumonia and Congestion — Pleurisy — 
Pleurodynia— Phthisis — Broken Wind — Thick Wind— Spasm of the Dia- 
phi-agm— Diseases of the Heart — of the Blood-vessels in the Chest and 
Nose 479 

CHAPTER XXVIII. 

DISEASES OP THE ABDOMINAL VISCERA AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 

General Remarks — Diseases of the Mouth and Throat — Gastritis — Stomach 
Staggers— Dyspepsia — Bots — Inflammation of the Bowels — Colic — Diar- 
rhoea and Dysentery — Strangulation and Rupture — Calculi in the Bowels — 
Worms — Disease of the Liver — of the Kidneys— of the Bladder— of the 
Organs of Generation 497 



CONTENTS. 
CHAPTER XXIX. 

DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

PAGE 

Phrenitis, or Mad Staggers— Epilepsy and Convulsions — Megrims — Rabies — 
Tetanus— Apoplexy and Paralysis — String Halt 517 

CHAPTER XXX. 

DISEASES AND INJURIES OF CERTAIN SPECIAL OROANS. 

Diseases of the Ear — Inflammation of the Eye — Cataract— Amaurosis — Buck 
Eye— Surfeit— Hidebound — Mange— Lice — Mallenders and Sallenders — 
Warbles, Sitfasts, and Harness Galls — Grabs — Bites and Stings of In- 
sects — Swelled Legs — Chapped Heels — Grease —Warts — Corns — Sand- 
crack — False Quarter— Quit1 or — Thrash — Canker — Laminitis — Seedy Toe 
— Contraction of the Foot — Navicular Disease— Accidents to the Legs and 
Feet 523 

CHAPTER XXXL 

CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES. 

Fevers — Anasarca — Glanders— Farcy 550 

CHAPTER XXXIL 

OPERATIONS. 

Shoeing — Administration of Chloroform — Methods of Confining the Horse — 
Bleeding — Firing — Setons and Rowels — Blistering — Castration — Docking 
and Nicking — Unnerving— Reduction of Hernia — Administration of Physic 
— Clysters— Back-raking 553 

CHAPTER XXXIII. 

THE ACTION OF MEDICINES, AND THE FORMS IN WHICH THEY ARE 
PRESCRIBED. 

Alteratives — Anaesthetics — Anodynes — Antacids —Anthelmintics — Antispas- 
modics — Aperients — Astringents —Blisters —Caustics — Charges — Clysters 
— Cordials — Demulcents — Diaphoretics — Digestives — Diuretics — Embroca- 
tions — Emulsions — Expectorants — Febrifuges — Lotions — Narcotics— Refri- 
gerants — Sedatives — Stimulants — Stomacmcs — Styptics — Tonics — Vermi- 
ftiges, or Worm Medicines 583 

CHAPTER XXXIV. 
List of Veterinary Drugs, with their Actions and Doses . . . 59fi 



APPENDIX. 

Ok the Law of Soundness, and on the Purchase and Sale of Horses . 801 



THE HOKSE. 



CHAPTER I. 

EARLY HISTORY OP THE HORSE. 



THE HOESE OF SCRirTURE — THE GREEK HORSE — THAT OF THE ROMANS — THE ARAB OF 
ANTIQUITY — EGYPTIAN, LIBYAN, NUMIDIAN, AND MOORISH HORSES — THE ORIGINAL 
BBITISH HOESE ANCIENT METHODS OF USING THE HORSE. 

THE HORSE OF SCRIPTURE. 

The earliest record of the Horse which we possess is in the Old 
Testament, where we first find him inferentiallj^ mentioned in the thirty- 
sixth chapter of Genesis, as existing in the wilderness of Iduniea about 
the beginning of the sixteenth century before Christ. Many commenta- 
tors, however, render the word which is translated " mules " in our version, 
as " waters," and thus a doubt is throAvn upon the correctness of the in- 
ference which is thence drawn. Moreover, in the thirty-second chapter of 
Genesis, camels, goats, sheep, cattle and asses are all severally alluded to, 
but no horses ; so that it is highly probable that in the time of Jacob, 
whose departure from Laban is there narrated, horses were unknown to 
the Israelites. It was not until after their arrival in Egypt that the horse 
is clearly alluded to. Jacob, on his deathbed, leaves us no room to doubt 
his knowledge of the horse, and of its being domesticated, for be speaks 
of the " horse and his rider " in the same sentence. We need, therefore, 
go no further for a proof of the early existence of tliis animal in Egypt, 
and may assume that there were large numbers of them there, for Pharaoh 
is recorded to have taken " six hundred chosen chariots, and all the horses," 
to pursue the Israelites to the Red Sea. It is generally supposed from 
the omission of all mention of horses while the Israelites Avere in Arabia, 
that this country, which has since become so celebrated for them, was at 
tliat time entirely without them. The proof, however, is entirely of a 
negative character, though I confess that it is as strong as any of that 
nature can weU be. Indeed, six hundred years later, Arabia could not 
have been remarkable in any way for her horses, for Solomon, while he 
resorted to her for silver and gold, mounted liis cavalry from Egypt. Yet 
the latter country could scarcely be the native land of the horse, not pos- 
sessing the extensive plains which are peculiarly suited to his existence in 
a wild state, and it is considered probable that he was introduced from the 
central regions of Africa, which are undoubtedly the native plains of the 
Quagga, the Zebra, and some other congeners of the Horse ; but where, 
curiously enough, he is not now found in a wild state. Thence he would 

B 



2 THE HORSE. 

naturally fiBd his way into Egypt, and through Arabia to Persia, Tartary, 
and Greece, ultimately reaching Great Britain ; but in what century he 
was introduced there we are quite at a loss to conjecture. 

THE GEEEK HOESE. 

Of the precise form of the Horse of Scripture we have no accoiant, 
beyond the glowing language of Job, which will apply to almost any 
variety possessing the average spirit of the species. The horse of the 
Greeks is far better kno^vn, being handed down to us in the writings of 
Xenophon, and preserved in the marble friezes of the Parthenon, which 
are now removed to our own IsTational ]\Iuseum. The above Greek writer, 
in giving his advice on the purchase of a horse, says, " On examining the 
feet, it is befitting first to look to the horny portion of the hoofs, for those 
horses wliich have the horn thick are far superior in their feet to those 
which have it thin. ISTor will it be well, if one fail next to observe 
whether the hoofs be upright both before and behind, or low and flat to 
the ground ; for high hoofs keep the frog at a distance from the earth, 
while the flat tread with equal pressure on the soft and hard parts of the 
foot, as is the case Avith bandy-legged men. And Simon justly observes 
that well-footed horses can be known by the sound of their tramp, for the 
hollow hoof rings like a cymbal when it strikes the soHd earth. But 
having begun from below, let us ascend to the other parts of the body. 
It is needful then, that the parts above the hoof and below the fetlocks be 
not too erect like those of the goat, for legs of this kind being stiff and 
inflexible, are apt to jar the rider, and are more liable to inflammation. The 
bones must not, however, be too low and springy, for in that case, the 
fetlocks are liable to be abraded and wounded, if the horse be gallopped 
over clods or stones. The bones of the shanks should be thick, for these 
are the columns which support the body, but they should not have the 
veins and flesh thick likewise ; for if they have, when the horse shall be 
gallopped in difficult ground, they will necessarily be filled with blood, 
and "will become varicose, so that the shanks will be thickened, and the 
skin be distended and relaxed from the bone ; and when this is the case, 
it often follows that the back sinew gives way and renders the horse lame. 
But if the horse, when in action, bend his knees flexibly at a walk, you 
may judge that he will have his legs flexible when in full canter ; for all 
horses as they increase in years increase in the flexibility of the knee. 
And flexible goers are esteemed highly, and with justice, for such horses 
are much less liable to blunder or to stumble than those which have rigid, 
unbending joints. But if the arms below the shoulder-blades be thick and 
muscular, they appear stronger and handsomer, as is the case also with a 
man. The breast also should be broad, as well for beauty as for strength, 
and because it causes a handsomer action, of the fore-legs, which do not 
then interfere, but are carried wide apart. And again, the neck ought not 
to be set on hke that of a boar, horizontally from the chest, but like that 
of a game-cock, should be upright towards the crest, and slack towards the 
flexure ; and the head, being long, should have a small and narrow jaw- 
bone, so that the neck shall be in front of the rider, and that the eye shall 
look down on what is before the feet. A horse thus made will be the 
least likely to run violently away, even if he be very high-spirited, for 
horses do not attempt to run away by bringing in, but by thrusting out, 
their heads and necks. It is also very necessary to observe whether the 
mouth bo fine or hard on both sides, or on one or the othei'. Eor horses 



4. 



THE ROMAN HORSE. 3 

which have not both jaws equally sensitive, are likely to be hard-mouthed 
on one side or the other. And it is better that a horse should have promi- 
nent than hollow eyes, for such a one will see to a greater distance. And 
widely-opened nostrils are far better for respu'ation than narrow, and they 
give the horse a fiercer aspect ; for when one stallion is enraged against 
another, or if he become angry while being ridden, he expands his 
nostrils to their full width. And the loftier the crest, and smaller the ears, 
the more horse-like and handsome is the head rendered ; while lofty 
withers give the rider a surer seat and produce a firmer adhesion between 
the body and shoulder. A double loin is also softer to sit upon, and 
pleasanter to look at, than if it be single ; and a deep side, rounded 
toward the belly, renders the horse easier to sit, and stronger, and more 
easy to keep in condition. The shorter and broader the loin, the more 
easily will the horse raise his fore-quarters and collect his hind-quarters 
imder him in going. These points, moreover, cause the belly to appear 
the smaller ; wliich, if it be large, at once injures the appearance of the 
animal, and renders mm weaker and less manageable. The quarters should 
be broad and fleshy, in order to correspond with the sides and chest ; and, 
should they be entirely firm and solid, they would be the lighter in the 
gallop, and the horse would be the speedier. But if he should have his 
buttocks separated under the tail by a broad line, he will bring his hind 
legs under him with a wider space between them, and, so doing, he Avill 
have a prouder and stronger gait and action, and will in all respects be the 
better on them." 

Here we have described, in most exact terms, a cobby but spirited and 
corky horse, with a light and somewhat peculiar carriage of the head and 
neck, just as we see represented in the Elgin marbles. 

THE eoma:n" hoese. 

Op the Eoman Horse we know far less than of that of the Greeks ; 
but the fact of its inferiority to those of the surrounding nations is 
established, for no sooner were they brought into collision with the 
cavalry of Macedonia and Epirus than they succumbed. This could 
only be owing to the quadruped, for the Eoman foot-soldier was still 
unmatched. Csesar depended for his cavalry upon Gallic horses, which 
were able to ride down the Eoman horses of lus rival Pompey without 
the slightest difficulty. So also Crassus was unable to make head in Asia 
against the Parthian horse ; and from his day until British horses were 
transported to Oriental soil, the superiority of Asiatic horses remained 
undisputed. 

THE AEAB OF ANTIQUITY. 

The Arab op the present day is said by his countrymen to be the 
same in form, in courage, and in endurance, with the horse which existed 
in Arabia before the time of Christ. I have shoAvn that there is every 
reason to believe that the Israelites who dwelt in Arabia had no horses 
in the time of Jacob, and therefore it is scarcely likely that this variety 
could have arrived at its present state of excellence much before the 
commencement of the Christian era. But beyond the traditional accounts 
which are preserved in the various tribes, there is no means of arriving 
at the truth, and they are to be regarded with considerable suspicion. 
Eufibn comes to the conclusion, nevertheless, that Arabia is the birthplace 
of this animal, and his opinions are followed by a host of subsequent 

b2 



4 THE HORSE. 

writers ; but I have already given the reasons for the contrary conclusion, 
-The dry nature of the country, and the scantiness of herbage, show that 
in a wild state the horse could hardly exist there, and that it is only by 
the care and superintendence of man that the Arabian horse has become 
so famous. 

EGYPTIAIT, LIBYAN, ITUMIDIAN, Al^D MOOEISH HOESES. 

The Egyptian Horse is handed down to us on some of the sculptures 
found in the ruins of Nineveh; the carvings of which are in a high state 
of preservation, and are very elaborate and spirited. Even the superficial 
veins are carefully rendered ; and hence we may plage some reliance upon 
the fidelity of the portraiture. In aU these bas-reliefs the animal is 
represented T\ath a large and coarse head, a high crest, and a heavy, 
lumbering body, not very dissimilar to the Flemish horse of the nine- 
teenth century. 

Of the Libyan, Numidian, and Moorish horses, which are alluded to 
by classic writers, we know little beyond the cursory description of 
iElian, who says that they were slenderly made, and carried no flesh. 

THE OEIGHSTAL BEITISH HOESE. 

The nature of the original stock which formed the foundation of the 
modem European horse is extremely doubtful. In Great Britain horses' 
bones are found in caves which are of extreme antiquity, but they do not 
define with any certainty the form of the original British horse, nor can 
we, with certainty, arrive at the exact era at which the animals to which 
they belonged lived and died. It is, however, an ascertained fact that 
when the Eomans iuvaded Great Britain they found the people in posses- 
sion of horses, and using them for their chariots as well as for the purposes 
of riding. After the irruption of the Goths, and the commencement of 
the dark ages, we have no reliable history to guide us, and we are left to 
grope in the dark from the fourth century, when Vegetius wrote on the 
veterinary art, until the time of the Stuarts, when attention was first paid 
to the improvement of the breed of horses in this country. 

ANCIENT METHODS OF USING THE HOESE. 

The mode of using the horse adopted by the ancients was at first by 
harnessing him to a rude chariot, without springs. In course of time, the 
grooms who took care of him found that they could manage hini while on 
his back without the aid of the saddle and bridle, which are comparatively 
modern inventions. Hence, we see the horse represented in the Elgin 
marbles as ridden without either the one or the other ; and there is also 
abundant written testimony in support of this mode of equitation being 
practised by the early Greeks. This ingenious people, however, invented 
the snaffle-bridle, and both rode and drove with its aid, after the esta- 
blishment of the Olympian games, in which chariot races formed an 
essential feature. The curb-bit was invented by the Eomans, or, at all 
events, was first used by them ; but both that people and the Greeks 
were ignorant of the use of the stirrup, and either vaulted on their horses, 
or used the back of a slave as a stepping-stone, or sometimes had recourse 
to a short ladder for the purpose. The earliest period when it can be 
proved that the stirrup was in use was in the time of the Norman 
invasion of this country. The incidents of tliis event in history were 



SYNONYMS AND CLASSIFICATION. 5 

recorded on the Bayeux tapestry by the wife of "William the Conqueror 
and on this the stirrup was depicted, according to the authority of 
Berenger, as a part of the traj^pings of the horse. Shoeing Avas not 
practised by either the Greeks or Eomans, and only in cases of lameness 
was the foot defended by a sandal, which, however, was sometimes tipped 
with iron. 

Until some time after the installation op the Olympian Games 
the use of the horse was confined to war and the chase. These o-ames 
were held every four years, and are supposed to have commenced about 
774 years before Christ, and as it was not until the twenty-thu-d Olympiad 
that the horse was introduced in the arena, the birth of horse-racino- may 
be fixed at about the year 680 b.c. At first the horses were ridden, and 
the distance was about four miles, but in the twenty-fifth Olympiad the 
chariot was introduced, and after this time became the prevailing instrument 
of testing the speed and powers of the Grecian horse. Here, also, the 
distance was about four miles, but as a pillar was to be rounded several 
times, the race depended quite as much on the skill of the charioteer as 
on the qualities of his horses. 



CHAPTEE 11. 

natural history and general characteristics. 

8INONYMS AND CLASSIFICATION IN THE SCALE OF CREATION — HABITS — EXTERNAL 

FORM AS INDICATED BY POINTS — PROPORTIONS PERIOD OF MATURITY AVERAGE 

AGE — PERIODICAL MOULTING — MENTAL DEVELOPMENT — SMALL STOMACH. 

STN"ONYMS AND CLASSIFICATIOI^. 

The Horse, in English, is synonymous with I'ttttos, Greek ; equus, 
Latia ; pferd, German j cheval, French ; paard, Dutch ; hast, Swedish ; 
hest, Danish ; cavallo, Italian ; cahallo, Spanish ; loschad, Russian ; hon, 
Polish ; sukh, Turkish ; hysdn, Syriac ; hozan, Arabic ; al, Toorkman ; 
ma, Siamese ; fur or pur, Bornou ; harree, Timbuctoo ; as, Pustoo. 

In the classification adopted by modern natural historians he belongs 
to the division Vertebrata, class Mammalia, tribe Ungulata, order Fachy- 
dermata, family Solipeda, and genus Equus. 

His dental formula is as follows : — Incisors f , canine (in the male 



only) \ \, molars | f , total 40. 



HABITS. 



The Habits of the horse in a wild or free state, are similar to those of 
most of the gregarious and graminivorous animals. That is to say, he 
places his safety in flight ; but when compelled to make a stand against 
any of -the larger carnivora, he fights strongly with his heels and teeth. In 
all countries he feeds upon grass, (green, or dried as hay,) straw or grain ; 
in addition to Avhich articles may be placed camel's milk, which is used 
occasionally in the deserts of Aiabia, when the usual supply of food is 
altogether deficient. In a free state, where the horse has to travel far for 
his food, he becomes inured to fatigue, and is able to make long journeys, 
without the traiidng which the domesticated animal requires. Thus the 



C, THE HORSE. 

Soutli American and Californian horses, immediately a-fter being taken 
with the lasso, are able to carry their riders for sixty or seventy niUes on 
end at a fast pace, suffering, of course, from the unaccustomed pressure of 
the saddle, but not otherwise the worse for their exertions. The walk 
and gallop are the only natural paces of the wild horse ; the trot and 
canter being acquired, though to some extent exhibited by the domesti- 
cated horse before breaking, and evidently the result of the tendency 
which is always displayed to hand down from one generation to another 
habits which are not natural to the species. 

EXTEENAL FORM, AS INDICATED BY POINTS. 

The anatomy of this animal will form the subject of a special division 
of this book, but the external form may now be discussed with propriety. 
By horsemen in general this is considered under certain subdivisions, 
which are called " points," and which are severally represented by figures 
in the following outline. 




POINTS OF THE HORSE. 



1. 

2. 
3' 
4. 
6. 


Muzzle. 

Nostril. 

Forehead 

Jaw. 

Poll. 




6. 
7. 


NECK. 

6. Crest. 

Thropple or windpipe 



FORE-QUARTER, 

8. 8. Shoulder-blade. 

9. Point of shoulder. 

10. Bosom or breast. 

11. 1 1. True-arm. 

12. Elbow. 

13. Forearm (arm). 

14. Knee. 

15. CannoD-bone. 



POINTS OF THE HORSE. 

16. Back sinew. 29. The sheath. 

17. Fetlock or pastem-joiut. SO. The root of the dock or tail. 



18. 


Coronet. 






THE HIND-QUARTEH. 


19. 


Hoof or foot. 








20. 


Heel. 




31. 
32. 


The hip-joint, round, or wh 
The stiHe-joint. 




BODY OR MIDDLEPIECE. 




33. 


33. Lower thigh or gaskin. 


21. 


Withers. 




34. 


The quarters. 


22. 


Back. 




35. 


The hock. 


23. 


23. Eibs (forming together 


the 


36 


The point of the hock. 




barrel or chest). 




37. 


The curb place. 


24. 


24. The circumference of 


the 


38. 


The cannon-bone. 




chest at this point, called 


the 


39. 


The back sinew. 




girth. 




40. 


Pastern or fetlock-joint. 


25. 


The loins. 




41. 


Coronet. 


26. 


The croup. 




42. 


Foot or hoof. 


27. 


The hip. 




43. 


Heel. 


28. 


The flank. 




44. 


Spavin-place. 



The relative proportions of, and exact sliape desirable in, each of 
these points, vary considerably in the several breeds. Thus, when speed 
and activity are essential, an oblique shoulder-blade is a si7ie qud non ; while 
for heavy harness it can scarcely be too upright, enabling the pressure of 
the collar to be more easily borne, and allowing the animal to exert his 
strength at right angles to its long axis. Many men are good judges of 
hunters and hacks, but are almost wholly ignorant of the qualities desirable 
in a coach or cart-horse. There are some elements, however, which are 
wanted in any horse, such as big hocks and knees, flat legs with large 
sinews, open jaws and full nostrils. It will, therefore, be necessary to de- 
scribe the points of each breed ; but I shall here give those which are 
always to be attended to as being of importance in any kind, whether used 
for racing or hunting, for the road or for agricidtural purposes. 

Taking first the head : — It shoxild be known, that the volume of brain 
contained within it determines the courage and other mental qualities of 
the individual. Now as, cceteris paribus, size is power, so without a wide 
forehead (which part marks the seat of the brain), you cannot expect a full 
development of those faculties known as courage, tractability, good temper, 
&c. The size of the muzzle is partly regarded as an element of beauty, 
and partly as a sign of high breeding. Hence, in the cart-horse, a coarse 
jaw and thick muzzle are not regarded. A large and patent nostril can 
not be dispensed with in horses intended for fast work, and should be 
desired even in the cart-horse, for in drawing heavy loads on a hot day, 
his breathing may be rendered almost as laborious as that of the highly- 
tasked racehorse or hunter. So also with the jaw, if there is not ample 
width between the two sides for the development and play of the larynx 
and windpipe, the wind is sure to be affected, and, in addition, the head 
cannot be nicely bent on the neck. A defect in this last point is the 
usual cause of that straight and inelegant setting on of the head which is 
BO common, and which the practised horseman avoids, as alike unsightly 
and prejudicial to the wind and the mouth ; for a horse which cannot give 
way to the pressure of the bit is sure to become dull in his mouth, and 
therefore unpleasant to ride or drive. The eye is to be examined with a 
twofold purpose, firstly, as an index of the temper, the nature of which is 
marked by the expression of this organ ; and secondly, in reference to its 
present state of soundness, and the probability of its continuing healthy. 
A full and clear eye, with soft, gazelle-like expression, is scarcely ever 
associated with a bad temper, and will most frequently continue sound, if 
the management of the horse to which it belongs is proper in itself. The 



8 THE HOKSE. 

ear should Le of medium size, not too small, nor too large, nor should it 
be lopped, though many good lop-eared horses have been known, and 
some very superior breeds, like that of the celebrated Melbourne, are 
notorious for this defect. 

The IsTeck should be of moderate length, all beyond a certain dimension 
being waste, and even a moderate-sized head at the end of an extremely 
long lever being too much for the muscles to support. It should come out 
full and muscular, with a sweep between the withers and the bosom, and 
sliould gradually diminish till it runs into the head, with an elegant bend 
just behind the ear. A very narrow throat suddenly bent at the upper 
part, marked as the thropple, is apt to be connected with roaring, and on 
that account is objected to by horsemen. 

In the Fore-quarter, there are several points to be attentively ex- 
amuied, and among these, the shoulder is regarded as of most consequence, 
when the horse under consideration is intended for the saddle. It is 
evident that, unless there is length of the blade, and also of the true arm, 
there cannot be a full surface for the attachment and play of the muscles, 
nor can there be the same amount of spring to take off the jar which follows 
each footfall. The straighter the angle formed by the long axis of each 
of these bones, the less spring there will be. So, also, if the angle is not 
sufficient, the muscles of the shoulder-blade will not thrust forward the 
true arm, nor will the latter be sufficiently clothed with muscles (withou* 
being loaded) to act on the fore-arm', commonly known by the horseman 
as the arm. Hence it is found, that with an upright shoulder, not only 
is the stride in all the paces short and the action stumpy, but there is not 
that elastic movement which enables the horse to carry his body along 
rapidly and evenly, without rising alternately behind and before, and 
thereby jaiTing himself or his- rider. On the other hand, the upright 
shoulder, loaded with a thick mass of muscles, is useful in the cart-horse, 
and to a certain extent also, in the carriage-horse, in both of which the 
pressure of the collar requires a steady and comparatively motionless sur- 
face to bear it. The difference between the two extremes of oblique and 
upright shoulders is well illustrated in the accompanying -woodcut, in which 
it will be seen that in the former the angle between the blade (a) and the 
true arm (b) is very considerable, while in the latter it is much less. 
Hence it results, that when the muscles of the blade bring the axis of the 
arm into nearly the same line with its own axis, the forearm (e) in the 
oblique shoulder wiU be thrust forward and raised to a greater degree 
than in the upright formation, as is sho-\vn in the engraving in the parts 
represented by dotted lines (d e). It folloAvs, therefore, that horses intended 
to have high, and at the same time forward, action should have oblique 
shoulders, for -sAathout them they will almost to a certainty either have 
very mean and low action, or, if they do bend their knees, they will put 
their feet down again nearly on the same place as they took them from, 
which peculiarity we so often see displayed in the cart breed, or those 
nearly allied to it. This is one of the most important uses of the 
obliquity of the shoulder blade as it seems to me, and one wliich has not 
been generally admitted by writers on this branch of the subject, though 
aU are ready to admit that in some way or other this formation is essential 
to good action. Another reason for the obliquity of the shoulder in the 
riding-horse, is that without it the saddle is not kept back in its proper 
place, and the horseman's weight being thus thrown too forward, the action 
of the fore-quarter is impeded. Mere obliquity, however, is not sufficient for 
tliis purpose; for, without a proper development of muscle, the blade itself 



POINTS OF THE HORSE. 9 

will not keep the saddle in its place. If, therefore, there is a hollo-w just 
behind the top of the blade, even if this is slanting enough, you must ex- 
pect the saddle to slip forward, and should, in all doubtful cases, be careful 
to put one on before concluding a purchase. The point of the shoulder 
should be well developed, but not showing any rough protuberances, which 
are equally objectionable with a flat or ill-developed point. The length 
of the true arm is mainly dependent upon that of the blade ; but sometimes, 
when this is oblique enough, the true arm is short and upright, and the 





OBLIQUE SHOuriDEll. 



UPHICiaT SHOULDER 



elbow stands under, or only a little behind, the shoulder point. This is 
a very faulty conformation, and is seldom attended with good action. The 
chief defect in the elbow is seen when it turns inwards, and rubs so closely 
against the ribs that the finger can hardly be insinuated between them and 
it. Here the elbow is said to be tied or confined, and the horse is very 
apt to turn his toes out ; while the opposite formation is indicated by 
turned-in, or "pigeon" toes, and turned-out elbows, frequently accom- 
panying long-standing rheumatism of the shoulders. It does sometimes 
happen, however, that the toes are turned in or out without affecting the 
elbow, but this is an exception to the rule. A long and muscular fore-arm 
is a sure accompaniment of strong and sweeping action, and should be 
carefully prized ; in other respects there is little to be noted here. Next 
comes the knee, which should be broad, and when looked at from the 
front should be much wider than the limb above and below. It should 
taper off backwards to a comparatively thin edge, and should have a good 
development of the pisiform bone, which projects backwards at its upper 
part. The leg, immediately below the knee, should be as large as any 
other part, and not " tied in " there, which indicates a weakness of this 
part. A bending of the knee backw^ards is called a " calf-knee," and is 
not objected to in cart-horses, in which it is by no means uncommon ; but 
it is very apt to lead to strains of this joint in the racehorse or hunter. 
A knee naturally bending somewdiat ibrward is much preferred by good 
judges, though, when it is the r(\sult of over- work, it is ahnost equally to 



10 THE HOUSE. 

he avoided with, the calf-knee. Flat, and at the same time large, cannon- 
bones, without gumminess, are of great importance, and if attended with 
a full-sized suspensory ligament, and with strong, clean, and free back 
sinews, the leg is to be considered faultless. The fetlock-joiut should be 
of good size and clean, whilst the pasterns should form an angle with the 
ground, of between forty -five and sixty degrees. Lastly, th.e foot should 
be well formed ; but the construction of this part beiug hereafter more 
fully described, I shall omit its consideration here. 

In the Middlepiece the withers come first under notice. It is usual 
to desire them high and thiu, but they are very commonly too much 
developed, and if the bony processes stand up like the edge of a razor, 
without muscle on them, they are to be regarded as objectionable rather 
than otherwise. The inexperienced horseman is apt to consider the exi3- 
tence of high withers as a sure sign that the saddle will be carried well 
back, but there are some horses whose withers are the greatest annoyance 
to the rider, for having upright and short shoulder-blades, together with 
high vrithers, the saddle rides forward upon the latter, and chafes them in 
spite of all the padding which can be introduced. In looking at this 
point, I beheve the purchaser should almost entirely disregard it, except- 
ing to take care that it is not too high for the formation and position of 
the shoulder-blades. If these are long, and therefore slanting, and espe- 
cially if in addition to a proper position of the bones they are furnished 
Avith plenty of muscle, the withers may be disregarded, and the action may 
be expected to be good even if they are so low as to show no rise between 
the neck and the back. 

The volume of the chest is the measure not only of the capacity of the 
lungs, but of that of the large organs of digestion. Sence, unless there is 
a middlepiece of proper size, the_ wLud is seldom good, and the stamina of 
the individual will scarcely ever be sufficient to bear hard work. But 
there is a limit to the development of this part in those breeds which are 
required to move with much velocity, where weight is a great object ; and 
if the body of the racehorse or hunter was as heavy as that of the dray- 
horse, the speed would be greatly reduced, and the legs would give way 
during the first severe gallop. So also, a wide chest interferes with the 
free and rapid action of the shoulders and arms as they glide on the ribs ; 
and an open_ bosom is almost always fatal to high speed. In the racehorse 
and hunter, therefore, capacity of chest must be obtained by depth rather 
than width ; while iu the cart-horse, a wide chest and a frame roomy in 
all directions is desired, so as to give good wind, and, at the same time, 
enable the animal to keep up his flesh while working eight or nine hours 
per day. For light, quick draught, a formation intermediate between the 
two is the proper one ; the large frame of the cart-horse being too heavy 
for the legs to bear at a fast pace, and leading to their rapid destruction 
in trotting over our modern hard rcjads. The capacity of the lungs is 
marked by the size of the chest at the girth ; -but the stamiua wiU depend 
upon the depth of the back ribs, which should be especially attended to. 

A SHORT BACK, with plenty of ground covered nevertheless, is the desi- 
deratum of every practised horseman. Uidess the measurement from the 
shoulder point to the back of the quarters is somewhat greater than the 
height at the withers, the action is confined, especially in the gaUop, for 
the hind legs cannot be brought sufficiently forward on account of the 
interference of the fore-quarter ; and, indeed, from the want of play in 
the back, they are generally too much crippled in that respect. A horse 
**short above and long below" is the perfection of shape in this particular. 



POINTS OF THE HORSE. U 

but lie is not very comiuonly met with. Where length below is seen, 
there is generally too much space between the last rib and the hip , while, 
on the other hand, coupled Avitli a short back we too often see the legs all 
"jumped up together," and the action short and stumpy. Next to these 
points in the middlepiece it is important to pay attention to the upper 
line of the back, which should bend down a httle behind the Avithers, and 
then swell out very gently to the junction with the loins, wliich can 
hardly be too wide and muscular. The inexperienced eye will often be 
deceived by the hips, for if these are narrow the muscles rise above them, 
and make the loin and back look stronger than they really are, the 
contrary being the case where the hips are wide and ragged. This latter 
formation, though not so elegant as the level hip, is prized by the man 
who wishes to be carried well to hounds, and he will jump at a horse 
wliich woidd be passed over with contempt by -the tyro as "a great raw- 
boned brute." A slightly arched loin i» essential to the power of 
carrying weight ; a much arched, or " hog" back, is almost sure to give 
uneasy action from its want of elasticity. 

In examining the hind-quarter, so much depends upon the breed, 
and the purposes to which the animal is to be put, that only a few 
general remarks can be given. "Thus, for high speed, there should be 
plenty of length in the two bones which unite at the stifle-joint, without 
which the stride must be more or less limited in extent. The exact posi- 
tion of the liip-joint not being easily detected, the tyro has some difficulty 
in estimating the length from it to the stifle-joint, but he can readily 
measure the length from the root of the tail, either with his eye or with 
a tape, if he cannot depend upon his organ of sight. In a flat outline 
this will come to twenty-four inches in a horse of fifteen hands three 
inches, but measured round the surface it will be two inches more. 
Again, the lower thigh or gaskin should be of about the same length ; but 
if measured from the stifle to the point of the hock it wUl be fidly twenty- 
eight inches in a well-made horse of high breeding. These measurements, 
however, will be much greater in proportion than those of the cart-horse, 
who requires strength before all things, and whose stride is of no conse- 
quence whatever. In him, the length of the upper or true thigh is 
generally as great as that of the thoroughbred, but the lower thigh is 
much shorter, and the horse stands with a much straighter hind leg, and 
consequently with his hocks making a very slight angle. Muscular 
quarters and gaskins are desirable in all breeds ; for without strong pro- 
pellers no kind of work to which the horse is put can be duly pt^-formed. 
The judge of a horse generally likes to look at- the quarters behind, so as 
to get a good view of their volume,, and \inless they come close together, 
and leave no hollow below the anus, he suspects that there is a want of 
constitution, and rejects the animal on that account. But not only are 
muscles of full size required, but there must be strong joints to bear the 
strain wliich these exert, and one of the most important of all the points 
of the horse is the hock. This should be of good size, but clean and flat, 
without any .gumminess or thoroughpins, and with a good clean point 
standing clear of the rest of the jomt ; the " curby- place " and the situation 
of spavin should be free from enlargement ; but to detect these diseases 
a considerable amount of practice is required. Lastly, the hocks should 
be well let down, which depends upon the length of the thigh, and ensures 
a short cannon bone. The pasterns and feet should be formed in cor- 
respondence with those of the fore extremity, to wliich I have already 
alluded. 



12 



THE HORSE. 



Such, are the recognised points to be desired in the horse ; but in spite 
of the general opinion of good judges being in favour of theni, as I have 
described, no one can predicate with certainty that a horse possessing 
them all in perfection will have a corresponding degree of action out of 
doors. ]^o one who has bought many horses will be content with an 
inspection in the stable, even if the light is as good as that of the open 
air, for he well knows tliat there is often a vast difference between the 
estimate of the value of a horse which he forms indoors and out. Much 
of this depends upon the temper of the individual, for if he is dull and 
heavy he will not " make a good show," though still he may be capable 
of being sufficiently excited by hounds, and many such horses are invalu- 
able hunters. Independently, however, of this element, it will be some- 
times found that the frame which looks nearly perfectly symmetrical while at 
rest, becomes awkward and com2Daratively imsightly while in motion ; and 
the horse which is expected to move well will often be sent back to his 
stall with " That will do, thank you," after a single run. 

PEOPOETIOITS OF THE VAEIOUS POINTS. 

The proportions of the component parts of the horse, as I have already 
remarked, vary a good deal in the different breeds. The following, 
however, may be' taken as the most perfect; but they refer especially to 
the racer, hunter, and hack, as well as to the lighter and more blood-like 
harness horses, and must not be strictl}^ applied to the draught-horse in 
any of his varieties : — 




This scale is drawn in inches, and, in the outline, the horse is supposed 
to be fifteen hands three inches, or sixty -three inches high. The measure- 
ments aie the average of those carefully taken from six horses considered 



MATURITY. 13 

to be of perfect symmetry. Two of these were celebrated stallions, two 
thoroughbred hunters, and two chargers of great value. 

inches. inches- 
Height at withers and croup . . . 63 From the withers to the hip. . . 22 
Length from shoulder-point to From the stifle to the point of the 

quarter 66 hock, in the attitude shown in 

From the lowest part of chest to the plan 28 

the ground 36 From the root of tail to stifle-joint 26 

From the elbow-point to the ground 39 From the point of the hock to the 

From the withers to the pole, just ground 22| 

behind the ears, in a straight line 30 Length of arm from the elbow to 

The same measured along the crest 32 the pisiform-bone 194 

Length of head 22 From the pisiform-bone to the 

Width across the forehead ... 94 ground 194 

Girth varies from 76 to 79. 

Circumference of fore cannon-bone, 75, 8, 8, 8, 8|, and 9 inches. 

Circumference of arm just below the elbow, 16^ to 18 inches. 

On comparing these measurements with those of Eclipse, as recorded 
by St. Bel, it will appear that there is some considerable variation 
from those of that celebrated horse, which he is said to have measured 
during Hfe, and to have also checked his dimensions after death. Thus, 
though Eclipse was very low before, and yet was sixty-six inches high, 
his head was twenty -two inches long, being the same as the average length 
of the six horses given by myself, though they are three inches lower at 
the withers, and at least five inches lower at the croup. Again, though 
thus shown to be particularly short, it must have been of extraordinary 
width ; for, according to the same autliority, it measured one foot across 
below the eyes ; but, as Mr. Percivall remarks, this must be a mistake 
for above the eyes. Indeed, 1 cannot help thinking, in accordance with the 
opinions of the above distinguished English veterinarian, that in other 
respects " there appears some discordance in his admeasurements " of 
Eclipse. I^evertheless, it may safely be assumed, according to Mr. 
Percivall's summing up, that " he was a big horse in every sense of the 
word ; he was tall in stature, lengthy and capacious in body, and large in 
his limbs. For a big horse his head was small, and partook of the Arabian 
character. His neck was unusually long. His shoulder was strong, suffi- 
ciently oblique, and though not remarkable for, not deficient in, depth. 
His chest was circular. He rose very little in his withers, being higher 
behind than before. His back. was lengthy, and over the loins roached. 
His quarters were straight, square, and extended. His limbs were lengthy 
and broad, and his joints large, in particular his arms and thighs were 
long and muscular, and his laiees and hocks broad and well formed." 

The scale which I have given likewise differs in many particulars, 
though only slightly, from that wliich is usually found in treatises on the 
horse ; but I have preferred trusting to Nature herself rather than to the 
observations of previous writers, which may be consulted by the reader at 
any time. 

MATURITY. 

The horse completes his dentition at five years old, when he may be 
said to be mature. At eight or nine years the lower teeth lose their 
marks, or black concavities, after which there is no reliable evidence of 
age, which can however be tolerably accurately guessed at from the length 
of the front teeth or nippers, and from the general appearance of the 
horse, especially about the eyes, as will be hereafter shown. 



14 THE H0R5R 

Map.e3 are vert ooimoxLT ALLOWED TO BREED in their third year, 
■being put to the hoise as two year olds. They often, however, come " in 
season" as yearlings, and many would then breed if allowed to be covered. 
It is found by experience that the foal robs the dam of some part of the 
nourishment which is destined by nature to develop the maternal frame, 
and hence the young mare is injured in size and substance if she breeds 
before she has come reiy near to maturity. 

AYEEAGE AGE. 

The average age of the horse, when allowed to live without the risk 
of accidents and disease which he incurs ia his usual work, is about 
twentv-five vears. Instances of greater longevity are record-d on good 
authority, and there is reason to believe that occasionally he has reached 
to thirty-live or even forty years, but these are rare exceptions, and there 
are few which live beyond the twenty-eighth year, while a large proportion 
die before the twenty-fifth. StaUions are over-fed and under-exercised 
in proportion, so that it is no wonder they become diseased, and seldom 
die from old age ; but brood-mares are not so mismanaged, and it is found 
that they become quite worn out soon after their twentieth year ; and 
even if allowed to live they waste away and die by degrees, generally 
somewhere between their twenty-third and twenty-eighth year. 

PEPJODICAL ilOULTIXG. 

The horse sheds his coat once a year in all countries, and in our 
climate a second balf-moult is performed in the autumn, when the summer 
short coat is partially shed. This second change consists, however, chiefly 
in a growth of the akeady existing hairs, which become coarser and longer, 
especially about the legs and under-parts of the body. At the same time 
the coat 'loses its gloss, and the colour is less rich, blacks becoming rusty 
brown, and bays more yeUow or sandy-coloured than before. The hair of 
the mane and' tail is constantly in a state of growth, and is not shed 
periodically. 

AfFA'TAT. DEYELOP:iIEXT. 

Ix i£E>TAL DEVELOP3n2rr the horse ranks below the dog, but he is 
capable of a considerable degree of education, though in countries where 
he is kept constantly confined he does not appear to great advantage in 
this respect. That he may be made to understand what is said to him is 
clear enough from the mode of managing farm-horses, which are all taught 
to obey the voice. I have on one occasion seen a circus-horse walk, trot, and 
gallop at the word of conanand, and change his paces on the instant ; but 
this feat I have never known performed by any other exhibitor, nor do I 
think it would easily be imitated. It requires a high order of intellect to 
distinguish between the three paces and change them on the instant, and 
if I bad not myseK witnessed the performance on two several occasions 
I should scarcely have credited it. The brain of this a nimal does not 
require much rest by sleep, and four or five hours in quiet are sufficient 
to keep him in health if he is not very hard worked- He readily sleeps 
standing, and some individuals never He down ; but this habit of sleeping 
standing should not be encoun^ed, as it greatly distresses the legs, and 
tends to produce fever of the feet^ or some other mischief in the lower 
extremities. 



THE BARB. ]» 

s:mall sto:mach. 

Q^TE OF THE GREATEST rEcrLiAEiTrES in the structare of the horse is the 
small size of his stomach, -^hich is also of a very simple nature. He is like- 
•vrise without a gall bladder, shoVing that the digestion must be continuous 
and not interrupted by distinct intervals, as in the ruminants and camirora. 
Nature has thus framed this animal, in order that he may be at all times 
able to exert his utmost speed, which he could not do with the mass of 
provender in his stomach which is carried by the cow or Aeep. The 
same provision is shown in the udder of the mare, which is not larger 
than that of the goat or sheep. 

All these several characteristics of the hoise will be more minutely 
considered under the different heads to which they each belong ; but they 
arf; here grouped together to give a better general idea of the animal which 
is under examination- 



CHAPTER HL 

THE HORSES OF THE EAST. • 

THE BARB — THE EGTPTIAX HOESE — THE HOKSES OP BOyCOLA A^TD ABTSSiyiA — 0THE3 
AEHICAS HOESE3 — THE MODERS ARAB — THE PEBSIAS HOBSE — THE TURKISH HOESB 
OTHER ASIATIC HORSES — ^THE ACSXRALIaS HORSE. 

For THE FOLLOWING DESCRrPTTON*s of Oriental varieties of the horse I 
am indebted to the accounts of travellers, having only seen one or two of 
them, and those only as single specimens, with the exception of the Arab, 

THE BAPlB. 

This kim) is named after the country in which it is found, which is 
rather an extensive one, comprehending the states of Tunis, Tripoli, 
Algiers, Eez, and Morocco, all h"ing on the northern coast of Africa to the 
west of Egypt Vegetation is very luxurious in the valleys watered by 
the streams which descend from the Atlas Mountains in their course to 
the Mediterranean, and grass is abundant in the early spring and autumn, 
but in the summer season the great heat bums it all up ; and therefore the 
horse is dependent upon the care of man for fodder during a great part of 
the year. Berenger describes the true Barb as follows : — 

" The fore-hand is long, slender, and badly famished with mane ; but 
the neck rises distinctly and boldly out of the withers ; the head is small 
and lean ; ears, of good size, and well placed ; shoulders, light, obliquely 
sloping, and broad ; withers, thin and high ; loins, straight and short ; 
flanks and ribs, round, and well developed ; haunches, strong ; croup, 
somewhat too long ; quarters, muscular and fuU ; legs, clean, and the 
tendons clearly marked and separate from the bone ; pasterns, somewhat 
too long and slanting ; feet, sound and of good shape. In size they are 
lower than the Arabs, seldom measuring more than fourteen and a half 
hands, and they have not as much spirit, speed, or endurance, although 
in external things they are perhaps superior to him." 

The GoDOLPHix Arabian, of which the annexed cut is a representation, 
is said to have been imported into France from Barbary, and is supposed 
to have been presented by the Emperor of Morocco to Louis XIT. as a 
fine barb : but he was thought so little of in Paris that he was set to 



u 



THE HORSE. 



draw a cart about the streets, from wliicli ignoble occupation he was 
rescued by Mr. Coke, and brought over to England. This gentleman 
gave him to a Mr. Williams, M^ho kept the St. James' Coffee-house, and 
by him he was presented to the Earl of Godolphin for stud purposes. It 




was, however, only by chance that his value was discovered ; for being used 
as teazer to Hobgoblin, he was merely put to Eoxana on the refusal of 
that horse to cover her, the produce being Lath, one of the best horses of 
the day. The Godolphin Arabian was of a larown bay colour, and is 
said to have been about fifteen hands in height. He is supposed to 
have been foaled about the year 1724, and died in 1753. A remarkable 
feature in this horse is the height of his crest, and he is also invariably 
represented with round and drooping quarters. Several portraits of him 
are in existence, but all render these points in the same manner. I am 
not aware that there are any reliable grounds for considering this 
celebrated horse as a Barb rather than an Arab, and according to the 
usual description of the former, his size is against the hypothesis. StiU, 
as he is generally so considered, I have added his description to that of 
the Barb, leaving my readers to draw their own conclusions. 

THE EGYPTIAN HOESE. 
In the first Chapter I have shown that there is a strong reason for 
believing that the horse was introduced to Arabia through Egypt, and 
that the latter country again derived its supply from the central regions 
of Africa, which probably also furnished the Barbary States. The modern 
Egyptian horse is a very second-rate animal, and, according to Burckhardt, 
" is ugly, of coarse shape, and looking more like a cart-horse than a racer." 
He says, " Their legs and knees, and short and thick necks, are frequent 
defects among them. The head is sometimes fine ; but I never saw good 
legs in an Egyptian horse. They are not able to bear any great fatigue, 



THE MODERN ARAB. 17 

but when -well fed their action occasionally is more brilliant than that of 
the Arabian; their impetuosity, however, renders them peculiarly desirable 
for heavy cavalry, and it is upon this quality alone that their celebrity 
has ever been founded." 

There are said to be some fine breeds in the interior of the country ; 
but, as a rule, the Egyptian horse stands very low in the estimation of 
travellers. Of late years more attention has been paid to his breeding by 
the Viceroy and his subordinates, and it is said that some considei-able 
improvement has taken place. 

THE HORSES OE DONGOLA AKD ABYSSINIA. 

The Dongola breed has been celebrated by that trustworthy authority, 
Mr. Bruce, as of the highest symmetry, size, and strength. He also 
praises highly their temper and docility, but seems to know nothing of 
their actual performances. Other writers, however, find fault with their 
want of substance, and pronounce them to be deficient in. stoutness. 

The Abyssinian Horse is generally described as of good size and 
power, but I know of no reliable authority on which to depend in refer- 
ence to particular points. 

OTHER AFRICAN" HORSES. 

Besides the above distinct breeds of Afrifean horses there are several 
others wliich are not clearly made out, but to which individual travellers 
have alluded as, in their opinion, decided varieties of the animal. Thus 
Mr. Tully speaJf s of the Bornou horse as superior both to the Barb and 
Arab, but his statement is not verified by travellers of later date. The 
South African horse, used by the Kafirs in the recent wars with the 
Boors of the Cape of Good Hope, is a most wiry and useful animal ; but 
there is no doubt that he has been greatly altered from the original form 
of the native horse by crosses with the English and Arabian breeds, which 
have been obtained by -theft. In the early days of this settlement the native 
horse was very small, seldom reaching to fourteen hands, and though 
hardy and capable of standing a good deal of work, yet plain and 
unsightly in appearance. The colonists have so improved this original 
stock that they can now furnish several thousand horses annually for 
exportation, averaging fifteen hands in height, and of very superior form 
and action. They show a great deal of Arabian blood, but many of them 
bear a strong resemblance to the thoroughbred English horse, several of 
which breed have been at various times introduced into the colony. 

THE MODERN ARAB. 

The controversy relating to the value of this breed in the stud has 
raged with such vehemence that it is difficult to obtain an unprejudiced 
opinion upon it. One thing, however, is quite clear, namely, that to it in 
great measure we owe the pre-eminence of our English thoroughbred. 
But how long it Avould take to bring a modern Arab, even of the highest 
caste, to the state of perfection in which we find our own West Australians 
and Stockwells it would be difficult to say. This subject, however, will 
be better discussed in treating of the English breed itself 

Ali Bey, who has investigated the subject with great acuteness, and 
who has had opportunities beyond the reach of ordinary writers, describes 
six distinct breeds of Arabs. "The first," he says, "named thr. ' Dgelfe,' 

c 



IS THE HORSE. 

is found in Arabia Felix. They are rare at Damascus, but pretty common 
in the neighbourhood of Anaze. They are remarkable for speed and fire, 
yet mild as lambs ; they support hunger and thirst for a long time, are of 
lofty stature, narrow in the chest, but deep in the girth, and with long 
cars. A colt of this breed at two years old will cost in his own country 
two thousand Turkish piastres. 

" The second breed, called * Seclaoni/ comes from the eastern part of 
the Desert, resembles the ' Dgelfe ' of Anaze in appearance^ but is not 
quite so highly valued. 

" Next comes the ' ]\Iefki,' handsome, though not so swift as the two 
former breeds, and more resembliBg the Andalusian in figiu'e. They are 
very conmion about Damascus. 

" Then the Sabi resembles the Mefki ; and the fifth i>reed, called 
Fridi, is very common, but it is necessary to try them weU, for they are 
often vicious, and do not possess the excellent qualities of the other 
breeds. 

" Sixth, comes the l^ejdi, from the neighbourhood of Bussorah, and if 
they do not surj)ass, they at least equal, the 'Dgelfe of Anaze, and 
►Seclaoni.' Horses of tliis breed are little Imown at Damascus, and con- 
noisseurs assert that they are incomparable ; thus their value is arbitrary, 
and always exceeds two thousand piastres." 

The first and last of these breeds are those which are most sought after 
by East Indian sportsmen*; and Colonel Bower, who is one of their 
strongest admirers, tells us that he once possessed a three-year-old colt 
which stood fifteen hands and an inch at that age. He describes him as 
having " the stereotyi^ed assortment of Eastern beauties : could stick his 
nose in a tumbler, and looked the gentleman all over ; remarkably mus- 
cular, and as stately in his bearing as an autocrat, but liis clean flat wiry 
legs, measuring eight inches round the shank below the knee, had nothing 
English in their composition. This was a pure Anaze Ai'ab, but his 
career in the field was cut short by his casting himself in his stall, and 
dislocating his hip." It "will be seen that no mention is here made of the 
breed which has been so long familiar to those who read our modern 
histories of the horse as that called "Kochlani" or "Kailhan," descended 
from the stud of IMahomet, who is supposed by many historians to have 
laid the foundation of the Arabian pedigrees. There is a tradition that 
the Prophet, being desirous of selectmg mares for his stud, had a number 
of them which had been used as chargers kept for two days without 
■\7ater. At the end of that time, when mad with thirst, they were set at 
liberty, and at the moment when they were close to the coveted water, 
his trumpets sounded a war charge, which had such an efi'ect upon five of 
them that they abandoned the water, and gallopped to the spot where 
they expected to meet with the still greater excitement of war. These 
five were therefore selected to form the foundation of his stud, and from 
them it is supposed that the race called " Kochlani " are descended. 
There is a slight similarity between this name' and that of the second in 
the list enumerated by Ali Bey, and perhaps his " Seclaoni " may be 
identical with the "Koclilani" of previous writers. It is asserted by 
Oriental travellers that pedigrees exist which can be traced five hundred 
years back, and in the highest breeds there is no doubt tliat at present 
great care is taken, and many ceremonies performed at the coveruig of tiie 
niare. After the bhtli of the foal, a certificate is alwayf -duly made out 
1 ly the local authority, and this must be done within seven days of its 
being dropjied. 



THE MODERN ARAB. 



19 



Arabia is, in great measure, made up of rocky mountaius and sandy 
deserts ; but in Arabia Felix there are numerous valleys of remarkable 
fertility ; though it is chiefly on the limited oasis surrounding each well or 
spring 01 water that the Arab horses are dependent for their food. It is 
found even in this country that a very luxuriant herbage does not suit the 
horse, whose frame becomes coarse and heavy if he is reared ujoon the 
succulent grasses of rich meadows, and therefore it is probable that much 
of the wu-yness of leg and lightness of frame in the Arab is due to the 
sandy soil in which the grasses of these oases take their roots. Besides 
this, the dry air may have something to do with the development of 
muscle and tendon, while the soft sands of the desert render it unneces- 
sary to protect the feet with iron shoes, and thus they are enabled to grow 
into the form which nature has designed for them as the most suitable to 
bear the superinctunbent weight. 






CHABAX, AN ARAB STALLION 



Pure Arabs are considerably smaller than our modern thoroughbreds, 
seldom exceeding 14 hands 2 inches in height. The head is remarkable 
for the width across the forehead, which is also full and square, while the 
muzzle is finer, the face more hollowed out, and the jav^s more fully 
developed in their proportions than in any other breed with which we 
are acquainted. The eye is full and soft, yet sparkling with animation 
on the slightest excitement ; the ear is small ; the neck arched ; the 
fchoulders oblique, but muscular ; the withers moderately high and thin ; 
tlie chest rather light in girth, but the back ribs deep in proportion, and 
the hips, though narrow, well united to the back by a rounded mass of 
powerful muscles. The croup is high, and the tail set on with a con- 

c2 



20 THE HORSE. 

siderable arch. Tlie bones of the legs are large in proportion to the size, 
and the tendons full and free, the suspensory ligaments being particularly 
strong and clean. The hocks are large and free both from curbs and 
spavins ; and, lastly, the feet, though small, are sound, and capable of 
bearing an amount of battering which few well-bred English horses can 
sustain. The prefixed engi-aving of " Chaban," an Arabian stallion, shows 
most of these points extremely well, and the general characteristics of 
the breed are particularly well ind'cated by the artist, who took the 
sketch from a celebrated Arabian of high caste in the stud of the King 
of Wurtemburg. 

From the full development of the brain in this breed it might be 
expected, a priori, that the amount of intelligence and courage jjossessed 
by them would be far above the average ; and such is the result of experi- 
ence. Most of theiu are extremely docile, and in their native plains, 
where they pass their lives in constant communion with their masters, 
they are possessed of fine tempers ; but if they are Mghly fed, and at the 
same time deprived of exercise and cruelly treated, their nervous system 
is so sensitive that they rebel, and when they fight they persevere to the 
death. A vicious Aral)ian is, therefore, a very unmanageable brute, and 
difficult to cure of his bad propensities. Good treatment, however, has 
its effect upon him, and when he once shows his forgiveness he may be 
depended on by the individual that he takes into his good graces. This 
trait has been well exemplified in the savage Arabian lately tamed by 
Mr. Rarey, and in a still more marked manner in former years in the case 
of Chillaby, who was, if possible, more savage than Cruiser, and yet was 
so completely tamed by Hughes, the celebrated cii-cus-horse trainer, that he 
was able to exhibit him as a trained horse, and was never once disappointed 
by him. This is, I believe, more tlian Mr. Earey can say of the above 
well-known savage horse, which was one of the first he operated on in 
this country. 

The food of this kind of horse is of a very dry though nourishing 
nature, and neither when at liberty nor when tied up can he get much 
water, the prevalent opinion being that an unlimited supply of this fluid 
injures his shape, and interferes with his wind. It is said that the Arab 
horse is only fed twice a-day; but I conclude that this only refers to his 
allowance of corn, and that in the intervals he is permitted to pick up 
Avhat little dry herbage the soil affords. Wonderful stories are told of 
the distarices Avhich yoimg colts are compelled to go when first mounted, 
but I confess that I look -with great suspicion upon these travellers' tales. 
About five or six pou.ids of barley or beans, or a mixture of the two, 
constitute the daily allowance of corn, which is about the weight of half 
a peck of good oats, and would be considered poor feed by our English 
horses, unless the proportion of beans is very large. 

The colours of the Arabian horses are mostly bay, chestnut, and grey, 
but occasionally blaclc. The skm itself of the grey horses is of a deep 
slate colour, and the manes and tails are darker than the rest of the body. 

The speed of the Arabs, which have recently been brought over to this 
country, is undoubtedly not nearly equal to that of our thorough-bred 
horses for courses of moderate length, that is, not exceeding two miles ; 
and there is no reason to believe that at longer distances there would bo 
any essential difference in the result. In the Goodwood Cup an allowance 
is made them of a stone, yet no Arab has ever had a chance of winning, 
and as far as this test goes they are proved to be inferior to the French 
and Amei'ican horses. In India a difference of weight, varying from 



THE iMODERN ARAB. . 21 

1 stone to 1 stone 7 ;gjbiinds, is made in favour of AraLs as against 
imported English •horses,'*" in order to bring the two together " in racing 
parlance, yet even then few Arabs can compete with the second-rate 
horses which are imported from this countrj'. Colonel Bower tells us that 
" in India the weights range from 7 J stone to 10 stone, and no uncommon 
timing for Arabs is 2 minutes and 54 seconds the mile and a half; 
3 minutes and 52 seconds the 2 miles — it has been done in 3 minutes 
and 48 seconds, and the Arab that did it was once my property, and his 
name was the Child of the Islands. He was a daisy-cutter, and yet I 
have ridden him over the roughest ground, and never detected him in a 
trip. A pleasanter, safer hack could not be, and a fleeter Arab the world 
never saw. He stood 14 hands 2 inches, bay with black points, wiry 
limbs, very muscular all over, and measiu'ed 7f inches round a fore leg 
of the finest bone and flattest sinew." This time is as good as that of the 
average of our Derbys, but the test is a very fallacious one, and unless 
the time is taken over the same course, and that in the same running 
condition, no comparison can possibly be drawn. 

Captain Shakspear, in his recently published work on the "Wild 
Sports of India," gives the following most minute description of the Arab, 
as he is now met with in India. As it diff'ers in some particulars from 
the accounts of other observers, I extract it entire. The price of a good 
Arab, he says, varies from 150^. to 200^., and there is plenty of choice in 
the Bombay and Bengal markets. 

" The points of the highest caste Arab horse, as compared with the 
English thoroughbred, are as follow : the head is more beautifully formed, 
and more intelligent ; the forehead broader ; the muzzle finer ; the eye 
more prominent, more sleepy-looking in repose, more brilliant when the 
animal is excited. The ear is more beautifully pricked, and of exquisite 
shape and sensitiveness. On the back of the trained hunter, the rider 
scarcely requires to keep his eye on anything but the ears of his horse, 
which give indications of everything that his ever-watchful eye catches 
sight of The nostril is not always so open in a state of rest, and indeed 
often looks thick and closed ; but in excitement, and when the lungs are 
in full play from the animal being at speed, it expands greatly, and the 
membrane shows scarlet and as if on fire. The game-cock throttle — that 
most exquisite formation of the throat and jaws of the blood-horse — is not 
so commonly seen in the Arab as in the thorough-bred English racehorse ; 
nor is the head quite so lean. The jaws, for the size of the head, are 
perhaps more apart, giving more room for the expansion of the windpipe. 
The point Avhere the head is put on to the neck is quite as delicate as in 
the English horse. This junction has much more to do with the mouth 
of the horse than most people are aware of, and on it depends the pleasure 
or otherwise of the rider. The bones, from the eye down towards the 
lower part of the head, should not be too concave, or of a deer's form ; for 
this in the Arab as in the English horse denotes a violent temper, 
though it is very beautiful to look at. Proceeding to the neck, we notice 
that the Arab stallion has rarely the crest that an English staUion has. 
He has a strong, light, and muscular neck, a little short perhaps compared 
to the other, and thick. In the pure breeds, the neck runs into the 
shoulders very gradually ; and generally, if the horse has a pretty good 
crest, conies down rather perpendicularly into the shoulders; but often, if 
he is a little ewe-necked, which is not uncommon with the Arab, it runs 
in too straight, and low down in the shoulders. The Arab, hoAvever, 
rarely carries his head, when he is being ridden, so high in proportion as 



22 . THE HORSE. 

the Englisli, He is not so well topped, wliicli I attribute to the different 
way he is reared, and to his not being broken in regularly, like the 
English horse, before he is put to work. His shoulders are not so flat 
and thin, and he is thicker through in these parts generally for his size 
than the English thorough-bred horse. His girth does not show so deep, 
that is, he does not look so dee]D over the heart ; but between the knees 
and behind the saddle, where the English horse very often falls off, the 
Arab is barrel-ribbed ; and this gives him his wonderful endurance and 
his great constitutional points. This also prevents him from getting 
knocked up in severe training or under short allowance of food, and in 
long marches. His chest is quite broad enough and deep enough for 
either strength or bottom. The scapula, or shoulder-blade, is both in 
length and backward inclination, compared to the humerus, or upper bone 
of the arm, quite as fine in the high-caste Arab as in the English horse ; 
while both bones are generally better furnished with muscles, better deve- 
loped, and feel firmer to the hand. But some of the very fastest Arabs 
have their fore legs very much under them ; indeed, so much that no 
judge would buy an English horse so made. Yet, whether it be that this 
form admits of the joints between these bones becoming more opened, 
when the horse extends himself, or Avhatever be the cause, it is a fact that 
blood-horses thus made are almost always fast horses. The upper part of 
their shoulder-blade seems to run back under the front part of the saddle, 
when they are going their best. This formation is most common in the 
lower-sized Arab, and apparently makes up to him for his deficiency in 
height. The very finest-actioned Arabs have had this peculiarity of form. 
They are rather apt to become chafed at the elbow-points by the girths, 
and almost require to have saddles made on purpose for them. The 
elbow-point, that essential bone, which for the sake of leverage should be 
prominent, is fine in the Arab, and generally plays clear of the body. Tlie 
fore-arm is strong and muscular, and is pretty long ; the knee square, with 
a good speedy cut for the size of the animal, equal to the English horse ; 
while below the knee the Arab shines very conspicuously, having a degree 
of power there, both in the suspensory ligaments and flexor tendons, far 
superior, in proportion to his size, to the English horse. These are dis- 
tinct and away from the shank-bone ; they give a very deep leg, and act 
mechanically to great advantage. The bone looks small, but then it is 
very dense, the hollow which contains the marrow being very small, and 
the material solid, more like ivory than bone, heavy, and close-grained. 
The flexor tendons are nearly as large and as thick as the canna bone. 
The pasterns and their joints are quite in keeping with the bones above 
them, and are not so long, straight, and weak as those of the English 
horse. The feet are generally in the same proportion : but the Arabs 
themselves appear to be very careless in their treatment of them. The 
body or centre piece of the Arab horse has rarely too great length. This 
is a very uncommon fault in the pure breed ; and there is no breed of 
horses that are more even in this respect than the Arab, Behind this, we 
come to a great peculiarity in the breed — his croup, I might say an 
Arab horse is known by it : he is so much more beautifully made in his 
hind quarters, and in the way his tail is put on, than most other breeds. 
His loins are good ; he is well coupled ; his quarters are powerful, and 
his tail carried high ; and this even in castes that have very little more 
than a high-bred stallion to recommend them. The straight-dropped 
hind leg is always a recommendation, and almost all racing Arabs have it; 
and this, when extended, brings the hind foot under the stirrup, and the 



THE MODERN ARAB. 23 

propellers being of this shape give a vast stride, -withoiit fear of overreach. 
The thighs and hocks are good ; the latter very rarely know either kmd 
of spavin or curbs. The points and processes are pre-eminently well 
adapted for the attachment of the muscles ; while the flexor tendons of 
the hind legs generally correspond Avith those of the fore. The hocks aro 
not so much let down, nor the hind legs so greyhound-like, as in the 
thorough-bred English horse. In stride, too, he is somewhat different, 
inasmuch as it is a rounder way of going, and is not so extended or so 
near the ground, but is more like a bound. However, there are excej)- 
tions ; and I have bred pure Arabs whose stride, for their size, was very 
extended, and quite like that of English racehorses." 

The Mare is commonly supposed to be more higlily prized by tlie 
Arabs than the stallion j but this idea is said to be unfounded by tho 
celebrated Abd el Kader, in a highly interesting letter to General Daumas, 
which is published in the fifth number of Baily's Magazine of Sports. 
He remarks : — 

" It is true that the foal proceeds from the sire and from the dam, but 
the experience of ages has proved that the essential parts of the body — 
s\Tch as the bones, the tendons, the nerves, and the veins — proceed 
always from the sire. This is beyond all doubt. The meanest Arab 
knows now that any malady specially belonging to the bones, under 
which the sire may be suffering at the time of covering, will be perpetuated 
in his prodiice, such as splints, bone and blood spavins, the shape of the 
bones, and all diseases of the A^ertebral column. The dam may give to her 
prodiTce colour, and a certain amount of resemblance in form, the foal 
naturally partaking of some of the qualities of the animal which had so 
long borne it ; but it is an incontestable fact, that it is the sire who gives 
strength to the bones, substance to the tendons, vigour to the nerves, 
rapidity of pace, in short, all the principal qualities. He also communicates 
what may be called moral qualities, and if he be unquestionably of high 
blood the foal is preserved from vice. Our fathers have said, El aond 
for ma aiulouche Mela — ' A horse of noble race has no vices.' An Arab 
will lend his stud horse gratuitously ; he never accepts payment for his 
services. To hire out a stud horse for money is, in the eyes of an Arab, 
an unworthy action, and is contrary to the generosity for which he is re- 
nowned, and although the law allows it, I have never known an instance 
of it. But though the Arab lends his stud horse gratuitously, he does 
not do so to the first comer, nor for any mare. No ; the suppliant is 
often obliged to make use of the intercession of persons of great interest, 
or even of his wives, if he would not see his request refused. On tho 
other hand, the Arabs are very difficult in their choice of a stud horse, 
and if they cannot find one of pure blood, they prefer leaving their mares 
unproductive rather than put them to a common horse. To procure a 
good sire they do not hesitate to travel any distance. The preceding has 
already intimated to you my conclusion, that the sire has more to do witli 
the foal than the dam. And my conclusion is identical with the universal 
opinion of the Arabs. They say. El hdr ilebal elfahal — 'The foal follows 
the sire.' " 

In corrolloration of this opinion, he describes the Arab horses as dis- 
tinguished under the following heads : — " El Horr, El HaJjim, El Mehieref, 
and El Berdoune. El Horr is that in which sire and dam are both of 
noble race ; that takes the lead. El Iladjim is that in which the sire is 
noble and the dam of common race ; it is considered less than El Horr, 
its name Hadjim, 'defective,' being derived from the word ' Hurdjiss,' 



24 THE HORSE. 

wliich signifies faulty. El Mekueref is that in winch the dam is high 
bred and the sire is half bred ; although this approaches the Hadjim, it 
is of much less value. The name of this class is derived from ' haraf,' 
mixed. El Hadjim is superior in quahty on the same principle that a 
man whose father is wliite and whose mother is a negress is superior to 
him whose mother is white and whose father is a negro. El Berdoune is 
that class in which both sire and dam are badly bred. This animal is a 
stranger to our country. The value of a horse is in its breeding." 

THE PEESIAlf HOESE. 

Sir John Malcolm and Sir Robert Ker Porter, both of whom resided 
many years in Persia, are the chief authorities on this subject. The former 
says : — " A variety of horses are produced in Persia. The inhabitants of 
the districts which border on the Gidf still preserve here those races of 
animals which their ancestors brought from the opposite shore of Arabia. 
In Ears and Irak they have a mixed breed from the Arabian, which 
though stronger is still a small horse compared with either the Toorkoman 
or Khorassan breed, which are most prized by the soldiers of Persia. 
Both these latter races have also a great proportion of Arabian blood," 
Sir Eobert thus alludes to them : — " The Persian horses never exceed 
fourteen or fourteen and a half hands high ; yet certainly on the whole 
they are taller than Arabs. Those of the Desert and country about 
Hillah seem very small, but are full of bone, and of good speed. 
General custom feeds and waters them only at sunrise and sunset, when 
they are cleaned. Their usual provender is barley and chopped straw, 
which, if the animals are picketed, is put into a nosebag and hung from 
their heads ; but if stabled, it is thrown into a lozenge-shaped hole, left 
in the thickness of the mud wall for that purpose, but much higher up 
than the line of oui* mangers, and then the animal eats at his leisure. 
Hay is a kind of food not known here. The bedding of the horse consists 
of his dung. After being exposed to the drying influence of the sun 
during the day, it becomes pulverized, and in that state is nightly spread 
under him. Little of it touches his body, that being covered by his 
clothing, a large nummud from the head to the tail, and bound firmly 
round his body by a very long surcingle. But this apparel is only for 
cold weather ; in the warmer season the night-clothes are of a lighter 
substance, and during the heat of the day the animal is kept entirely 
under shade. At night he is tied in the court-yard. Tlie horses' heads 
are attached to the place of security by double ropes from their halters, 
and the heels of their hinder legs are confijied by cords of twisted hair, 
fastened to iron rings and pegs driven into the earth. The sanie custom 
prevailed in the time of Xenophon, and for the same reason, to secure 
them from being able to attack and maim each other, the whole stud 
generally consisting of stallions. Their keepers, however, always sleep in 
their rugs amongst them to prevent accidents, and sometimes notwith- 
standing all their care they manage to break loose, and then the combat 
ensues. A general neighing, screaming, kicking, and snorting soon raise 
the groom, and the scene for a while is terrible. Indeed no one can 
conceive the sudden uproar of such a moment who has not been in 
Eastern countries to hear it, and then all who have must bear me witness 
that the nei^e is tremendous. They seize, bite, and kick each other with 
the most determined fury, and frequently cannot be separated before their 
heads and liaunches stream with blood." 



THE TURKISH HORSE. 25 



THE TUEKISH HORSE. 

This variety seems to be merely the Arab developed by higher food 
into a larger size and more massive proportions. The horses of Constanti- 
nople are often sixteen hands in height, with very elegant proportions 
and a crupper more highly developed than that of the Arab. They are 
said to be extremely docile, and the two specimens which I have seen 
imported into this country" certainly bore out this character, both of them, 
though stallions, being as quiet as any English geldings. They had very 
high crests and arched necks ; and this is said to be one of the charac- 
teristics of the breed. In the records of the turf in this country, many 
of the most celebrated sires are mentioned as Turks ; but though imported 
from Turkey, it is very probable that some of these were genuine Arabs. 

OTHER ASIATIC HORSES. 

The Horses op Toorkistan are described by Sir E. K. Porter as 
scanty in barrel, long in the leg, with ewe necks and large heads. When 
crossed with those of Persia, they, however, are said by him to produce a 
most magnificent animal, all elegance and elasticity, and of a stronger 
form and somewhat larger size than the best Arabians. Sir Alexander 
Burns attributes to them, on the other hand, a very high crest, and large 
and bony though somewhat long bodies. He says, also, that in Bokhara 
there is a breed of Kuzzak horses, sturdy and small, with shaggy coats and 
very long manes and tails, much and deservedly admired. 

The Tartar Horses are small and narrow, with long necks, weak 
legs, large heads, and light middles. Nevertheless they are described as 
fast and unthing, and of the most hardy nature, so that they can support 
themselves on a quantity and quality of food upon which even our donkeys 
would starve. 

In various parts op Tartary horses are found in a Avild state, and 
present a rough inelegant form not unlike that of our New Forest 
ponies. In them the characteristics of the domesticated Tartar horse 
already described are exhibited in a marked manner, and there is every 
reason to beheve that the two breeds are identical, and that the ranks of 
the latter are recruited from the enormous herds of wild horses wliich are 
found in countless thousands on the edges of the vast deserts of the 
country. They are generally of a red colour, with a black stripe along the 
back, and manes and tails of the latter colour, but almost always reddish 
at the roots of the dock and edges of the mane. The Tartars eat the flesh 
both of the wild and domesticated horse, and are said to cook the meat 
under their saddles. They also manufacture a drink called koumiss from 
the milk obtained from the mare, which is fermented and distilled into 
an intoxicating beverage. 

In so vast a country as India, it might be expected that numerous 
breeds of horses Avould be found, varying almost as much as the climates 
and soils of Bengal and Cabool. In the immediate neighbourhood of the 
three presidencies imported and country-bred Arab, as well as Persian and 
Turkooman horses are common enough, as also are importations from the 
Cape of Good Hope, Australia, and Van Diomen's Land. English horses 
are not nearly so numerous, the expense and risk of the, voyage deterring 
most people from the sj)eculation, the doubtful nature of which may be 
estimated from the fact that the insurance is twenty-four to twenty-five 



26 THE nORSE. 

per cent., and this only ensures the landing of the animal alive ; for if it 
is so wasted and worn as to die an hour afterwards, the policy is of no 
value to the insured. "Williamson, in his Wild Sports of the East, describes 
the native Bengal breeds in the following terms : — " They have generally 
Eoman noses.and sharp narrow foreheads, much white in their eyes, ill- 
shaped ears, square heads, thin necks, narrow chests, shallow girths, lanlc 
bellies, cat hams, goose rumps, and switch tails ! Some occasionally may 
be found in every respect well shaped. They are hardy and fleet, but in- 
capable of carrying great weights. Their vice is proverbial ; yet until they 
arrive at four or five years they are often very docile and gentle; after 
that period they, for the most part, are given to rearing, kicking, biting, 
and a thousand equally disagreeable habits." Other wiiters have defined 
the several breeds found throughout the southern parts of India, and 
named them also, as Toorhj, Cozakee, Tazsee, &c. ; but I understand from 
good aitthority that there are really no such breeds in existence now, and 
probably they were only called into being by the active imaginations of 
inventive writers. Large breeding studs were kept by some of the native 
princes, but these were mainly dependent i;pon imported Arabs and 
Persians, and could claim no peculiar strain as their own. The same 
mixture of blood prevails in the present day, with the exception of the 
horses in the northern provinces. 

The Birmax Horse is very small, being seldom higher than thirteen 
hands, and it is said that some specimens are less than eleven. The same 
remark applies also to those of China, Siam, and Java. 

THE AUSTEALIAIT HOESE. 

The Irishman's fifth quarter of the world is now abundantly sup- 
plied with horses of the first class, in size, speed, and stoutness, though 
little more than half a century ago the animal was altogether unknown 
there. At first, from the proximity of India and the Cape of Good Hope, 
the horses of these colonies, and those of inferior value only, were 
imported into the new settlement ; but about the year 1835 great efforts 
were made by several enterprising settlers, both in the Island of Van 
Diemen and also on the continent of Australia, and several horses of 
good breeding Avere imported from this country, especially by Mr. Wil- 
more in the former island. It was soon found that the climate is 
admirably suited to this animal, and there are uoav colonial-bred horses, 
adapted for the turf and the road, as well as for agricultural purposes, 
superior in soundness and probably in stoutness, even if they are defi- 
cient in face, as compared with the British thoroughbred. As far as 
I know, no Australian horse has been imported into England, so that 
we have no means of comparing the two on terms advantageous to the 
mother country ; nor possibly can we altogether depend upon the glowing 
accounts Avhich are furnished us of the appearance and performances of 
our Antipodean rivals. Still I am inclined to believe that as the soil and 
climate are admitted to improve the appearance of the imported horses, 
as indeed they do all our domestic animals, and as disease of all kinds is 
extremely rare, so it will be found that in all good qualities the Australian 
horse is at least on a par with our own. Their breeders are so spirited 
and determined that neither money nor trouble is spared in procuring 
the best blood, an evidence of which is aff'orded by the fact that at the 
recent sale of Lord Londesborough's stud, the large sum of 3,120 guineas 
was invested for Australia. This, probably, is the heaviest price yet paid at 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN HORSE. 27 

one sale hj any colonial lareeder, but mimerons smaller speculations 
have been going on for the last twenty years. Hence, whatever posi- 
tion is attained by our friends over the water, they will entirely owe 
to the parent country ; and I strongly suspect that before long we shall 
have to go to them to procure sound horses of high breeding for our 
own studs. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE HORSES OP THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE. 

THE SOUTn AMERICAN HORSE — THE MUSTANG — THE INDIAN PONT— THE CANADIAN 
HORSE — THE MORGAN HORSE — THE AMERICAN TROTTER — THE NARRAGANSET PACER 

— THE AMERICAN THOROUGHBRED THE VERMONT CART-HORSE — THE C®NESTOGA 

DRAUGHT-HORSE. 

THE SOUTH AMERICAN" HORSE. 

For some time after the discovery of America, at the conclusion of 
the fifteenth century, the horse was entirely unknown in that hemisphere, 
but according to Azara a few specimens were introduced there by the 
Spaniards in the year 1535, and in the. year 1537 several were shipped to 
Paraguay. From these have been bred the countless herds which have 
since spread over the whole southern part of the western world, and 
passing the Isthmus of Panama have wandered into !N"orth America, In 
both these divisions the horse runs wild, wherever there are plains suitable 
to him, and not yet brought under cultivation ; but it is in the south that 
the wild horse is to be found in the greatest numbers, on the extensive 
plains which stretch ahnost unbrolcen from the shores of La Plata to 
Patagonia, Here herds numbering some thousands in each are to be met 
with, each under the guidance of a master stallion, who enforces entiro 
submission to his will as long as he has the power to do so. Here the 
native Gaucho has only to throw his lasso, and he can at any time supply 
himself with a horse Avhich will carry him for miles at a hand gallop, 
when he changes him for another, and is thus always mounted at a cheap 
and easy rate. In this way Captain Head rode all across the continent from 
one shore to the other, nearly using up one horse in the course of fifty or 
sixty miles, and then looking out for another before the first was so spent 
as to be unable to assist him in making the exchange. These wild horses 
greatly resemble their Spanish ancestors in make and shape. They are 
said to be possessed of a fair amount of speed, but not above the average 
of foreign breeds. They are, however, from their roving habits, in excellent 
wind, and it is said that a Gaucho has been known to ride one fresh 
caught nearly a'hundred miles 'without drawing bit. 

THE MUSTAl^G, OR WILD HORSE OF :N'0RTH AMERICA. 

Like the wild horses of South America, those of Mexico and Cali- 
fornia are in all probability descended from Spanish blood, and indeed it 
is impossible now to discover, -ndth anything like certainty, the source of 
the Indian Ponies, large herds of which run wild in the northern and 
north-western parts of this extensive continent. So little do the Americans 
now know or care about these wild horses, that the late Mr. Herbert, who 
has treated of the American Horse in two vols, quarto, omits all mention 



28 THE HORSE. 

of them, excepting the most cursory allusion to the Mustang as the origin 
of the Indian pony, in common with the Canadian horse. I shall, there- 
fore, not weary my readers with extracts from IVIr. Catlin's somewhat 
fanciful writings, but at once proceed to allude to the modern domesti- 
cated breeds of horses met with in the United States and Canada. 

According to Mr. Herbert, who seems to have taken great pains to 
arrive at the truth, " with the one solitary exception of the ISTorman horse 
in Canada, no special breeds have ever taken root as such, or been bred, 
or even attempted to be bred, in their purity, in any part of America. In 
Canada East the ISTorman horse, imported by the early settlers, was bred 
for many generations entirely unmixed ; and, as the general agricultural 
horse of the province, exists, yet so stunted in size by the cold 
climate and the rough usage to Avhich he has been subjected for centuries, 
but in nowise degenerated, for he possesses all the honesty, courage, 
endurance, hardihood, soundness of constitution, and characteristic excel- 
lence of feet and legs of his progenitor." Besides this native Canadian 
there are also, among the more active kinds, the Morgan horse, the 
American trotter, the ISriirraganset pacer, and the thorouglibred descended 
from English imported horses, with scarcely any admixture of native 
blood ; and of the agricidtural varieties, the Vermont and Conestoga 
draught-horses, in addition to several others not so easily made out. 

THE INDIAN PONY. 

The Indian Pony, wliich seldom or never exceeds thirteen hands in 
height, is remarkable for activity and strength, as compared ^vith its size, 
appearing, like its Scotch congener, to be almost overwhelmed with its 
rider, whose feet nearly touch the ground, yet moving under its load 
with freedom. It has a high crest, and a iioAving mane and tail, with a 
proud carriage of the head of a very pleasing character. The body is 
strongly built, and the legs and feet are made of the most lasting materials. 
Large herds of these ponies ran wild in the prairies of the north-west, 
and many are brought into Canada for the use of the inhabitants. 

THE CANADIAN" HOESE. 

The Canadian Horse is generally about fourteen to fifteen hands high, 
and is a remarkably hardy animal, capable of travelling very long distances, 
but in his pure condition not above the average in speed. When crossed, 
however, Avith a thoroughbred horse, he combines the speed of the latter 
with his own endurance and iron constitution and legs, and in this way 
a great many of the best American trotters are bred. Mr. Herbert says, 
" His crest is lofty, and his demeanour proud and courageous ; his breast 
is full and broad ; his shoulder strong, though somewhat straight, and a 
little inclined to be heavy ; his back broad, and his croup round, fleshy, 
and muscular ; his ribs are not, however, so much arched, nor are they 
so well closed up, as .his general shape and build would lead one to expect ; 
his legs and feet are admirable — the bone large and flat, and the sinews 
big and nervous as steel springs ; his feet seem almost unconscious of 
disease ; his fetlocks are shaggy ; his mane voluminous and massive, not 
seldom, if untrained, falling on both sides of his neck, and his tail 
abundant, both having a peculiar crimpled wave, if I may so express 
myself, the like of which I never saw in anv horse which had not some 



TUE MORGAi^ HOKSE. 



29 



strain of his blood." I append a sketch of one of these horses, showing 
the shape and action peculiar to them. It is said by good judges to be 
an excellent likeness. 




CANADIAN UORdE. 



THE MOEGAN HOESE. 

The Morgan Horse has recently been paraded in America as a distinct 
strain, kept pure in its own district for more than half a century, and 
descended from a single horse, in the possession of JVIr. Justin Morgan, a 
schoolmaster in Vermont. In the present day the "Morgans" are so 
much sought after that in the year 1856 the Agricultural Society of 
Vermont offered a prize for the best essay on the subject, wliich was 
awarded to Mr. Lindsey, an inhabitant of the same state. According to 
this authority, the founder of the family, or strain, was got by a horse 
called " True Briton," which was said to have been stolen, and whose 
pedigree is therefore doubtful. Mr. Lindsey endeavours to prove, how- 
ever, that he was a son of the English thoroughbred horse Traveller, 
which he assumes to be identical with the son of Partner, known as 
More ton's Old Traveller, giving as his authority a pedigree inserted in 
the Albany "Cultivator" of 1846. The same authority is also adduced 
to prove that the dam of True Briton and also of Justin Morgan's horse 
were of nearly pure English blood, and that the latter was descended 
from the famous " Cub " mare ; but the facts adduced seem of the most 
doubtful nature, and I believe that the Morgan horse would. ia this 
country be considered as undoubtedly half-bred. 

Mr. Lindsey describes the founder of the Morgan strain in the following 
terms: — He "was about fourteen hands high, and weighed about nine 



29 THE HORSE. 

hundred and fifty pounds. His colour was dark bay, with, black legs, 
inane, and tail. He had no white hair upon him. His mane and tail 
were coarse and heavy, but not so massive as has been sometimes 
described ; the hair of both Avas straight, and not inclined to curl. His 
head was good, not extremely small, but lean and bony, the face straight, 
forehead broad, ears small, and very fine, but set rather wide apart. His 
<_'yes were medium size, very dark, and prominent, and showed no white 
lound the edge of the lid " (Qy. iris 1). " His nostrils were very large, the 
muzzle small, and the lips close and firm. His back and legs were perhaps 
his most noticeable points. The former was very short, the shoulder-blades 
and thigh-bones bemg very long and oblique, and the loins exceedingly 
broad and muscular. His body was rather long, round, and deep, close 
libbed up ; chest deep and wide, with the breast-bone projecting a good 
ileal in front. His legs were short, close jointed, thin, but very wide, 
hard and free from meat, with .muscles that were remarkably large for a 
horse of his size, and this superabundance of muscle manifested itself at 
every step. His hau' was short, and at almost all seasons soft and glossy. 
He had a little long hair about the fetlocks, and for two or three inches 
above the fetlock on the back side of the legs ; the rest of his limbs were 
entirely free from it. His feet were small, but well shaped, and he was 
in every respect perfectly sound and free from blemish. He was a very 
fast walker. In trotting his gait was slow and smooth, and his step short 
and nervous ; he was not what in these daya would be called fast, and 
we think it doubtful whether he coidd trot a mile much, if any, within 
four minutes, though it is claimed by many that he could trot it in three. 
Although he raised his feet but little, he never stumbled. His proud, 
bold, and fearless style of movement, and his vigorous untiring action, 
have perhaps never been surpassed." 

He describes him as being fast for short distances, by which he explains 
that he means a quarter of a mile, which he says was the usual distance 
run in those days. From this celebrated horse are descended, more or 
less remotely, "Black Hawk," "Ethan Allen," "American Eagle," and a 
liost of horses celebrated for gameness, and many of them for fast-trotting 
jiowers. But those who dispute the claims of INIr. Justin Morgan's horse 
to be considered the founder of the family, assert that before his time a 
similar horse prevailed in this district, which was made up of crosses 
between the Canadian horse and the English thoroughbred. I shall, 
however, leave this much-vexed question for the Americans to settle 
among themselves, contenting myself wdth a description of the modem 
IMorgan horse as he is recognised throughout the states of America. He 
is generally, though not universally, admitted to be very stout and 
enduring, with good action, especially in the trot, and great hardness of 
constitution. He shows very little evidence of pure blood indeed it may 
be said that the reverse is the case, as he invariably possesses a thick and 
long mane and tad, with a considerable curl in both, signs which may be 
truly said are fatal to his claims. In height he seldom exceeds fifteen 
hands. His frame is corky, but not remarkably well put together, there 
being generally a deficiency in the coupling of the back and loins. The 
forehead is very light, and carried high, somewhat in the fashion of 
the Canadians, but not so heavy in the crest and junction of the neck 
to the shoulder, though the setting of the head is equally thick. On the 
whole, the Morgan horse may be described as extremely useful, but defi- 
cient in what we call " quality," in proportion to the absence of thorough 
blood. 



TUE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE. 31 



THE AMEEICA^ TEOTTEE. 

The true modern trotting horse is a most remarkable instance of 
what may be done by keeping an animal to one land of work for genera- 
tions, and selecting the specimens best fitted for it to breed from. In this 
coimtry a thoroughbred horse, or even one of nearly pure blood, could 
not be found at any price to trot a mile in three minutes, yet in America 
there are plenty, of blood almost entirely derived from the English turf 
horse, which will perform the distance in two minutes and forty seconds, 
and some in considerably less time. In America private and public 
trotting matches in harness have been for many years the chief amuse- 
ment of the town population, and, ixntil very recently, when flat racing or 
running, as it is called there, has been more developed, a fast trotter 
fetched a higher price than any other description of horse. Trotting 
matches are, in fact, the national sport, just as racing is that of oui* own 
country. Latterly, however, the amusement has been somewhat on the 
decline, the aristocratic classes holding themselves aloof, and patronising 
the turf in preference. Still there is no diminution in the pace of their 
trotters, and, on the contrary, the celebrated Flora Temple has recently 
made the best time on record, having, on the 15th of October, 1859, when 
fourteen years old, done a thii'd mile heat in two minutes, nineteen and 
three-quarter seconds, and having, in June of the j^resent year, per- 
formed three separate mile heats in the Avonderfully short time of seven 
minutes, six and a half seconds. The most extraordinary performances of 
these trotters, as recorded in the American Racing Calendar, are as 
follows : — 

FASTEST TROTTING ON RECORD. 

MILE HEATS. 

niin. sec. 
Flora Temple, b. m. in harness . Kalamazoo, Mich. . . Oct. 15, 1859. 2 19f 

Ditto ditto Ciucianati Oct. 7, 1859 . 2 21i 

Ditto ditto Eclipse Course, L. I. . Au<;. 9, 1859 . 2 2l| 

Tsicony and Mack in 1853, Lancet in lS5i5,aud Patcben in 1859, each in harness. 2 25| 
EthanAll«u,staUion, 1051b. wa^'gou Union Course, L. I. . Oct. 28, 1858 . 2 28 

TWO MILE HEATS. 

Flora Temple in harness . . . . L. I An.cr. 16, 1859. 4 50| 

Ditto towiiggon. . . . L. I Jidy 6, 1859 . 5 7' 

Lady Franklin, ro. m. to waggon . L. I July 30, 1853. 5 11 

THREE MILE HEATS. 

Dutchman, b. g. under saddle . . Beacon Course, N. J. . August 1839. 7 32^ 
Ditto in harness . . Beacon Course, N. J. July 1839 . . 7 42" 

FOUR MILES. 

Trustee, ch. g. in harness . . . L. I June 13,1849. 11 6 

Sally Green, br. m. 2501b. waggon. L. I Jlay 6, 1850 . 13 5t3 

FIVE MILES. 

Mary^Yarren,b m. to road waggon L.I July 5, 1854 . 14 42 

Lady Agues, gr. m. in harness . . L. I Nov. 25, 1850. 15 13 

TEN MILES. 

Prince, ch. g. in harness, driver to ) ^ t ^ . ^„ 

weigh lellbs. . ...... i^-I ■ Oct. 20, 1849. 28 S| 



32 THE HORSE. 

TWENTY MILES. 

luui. sec. 
Trustee, ch. g. to ord. trotting ) 

sulky, weighing ISOlbs, driver > L. I Nov. 11, 1853. 59 35^ 

1451bs ) 

Lady Fulton, b. m. in harness . .L.I July 12, 1855. 59 55 



FIFTY MILES. 



hs. min. sec. 



Ariel, b. m. in harness, driver 1 Bull's Head Course, Al- ) ,, r ^oao o cr jm 
weighing 601bs \ bauy, N. Y. . . . i ^^y> ^' ^^^^- ^ ^^ ^^^ 

Spangle, sp.g waggon and driver K. I Oct. 15, 1855. 3 59 4 

weighing 4001b3 ) 

ONE HUNDRED MILES. 

Conquei'or, b. g. in harness . . . L. I Nov. 12,1853. 8 56 1 

Fanny Jenks, in harness, (feather | Bull's Head Course, Al- ) .|i, ^ I84'i Q 49 ^i? 
weight) j bany, N. Y. ... J ^ ' 

Pacing is considerably faster than trotting, as will be shown in the 
following recorded feats : — 



MILE HEATS. 



Pocahonta.s, oh m. in waggon K . I June 21,1855. T 1^ 

weighing 2651bs. with driver .) ' ^ 

Pot, r. g. in harness L. I Sept. 9, 1852 . 2 18i 

Hero, g. g. in harness L.I May 17,1853. 4 66§ 

Young America, b. g. waggon . . S.Francisco .... Jan. 10, 1859. 4 58| 

The extent to Avliich match-trotting is carried on in America may be 
guessed from the fact that Lady Suffolk won, at various times, 35,311 
dollars, or more than 7,000Z. The exact value of the stakes which have 
fallen to the lot of the owner of Flora Temple I do not know, but three 
years ago it amounted to 46,850 dollars. Mr. Herbert in his quarto work 
on " The Horse of America " clearly shows the reason why our transatlantic 
cousins excel us in their trotters, and why they take to this species of 
amusement in preference to others. After enumerating several which do 
not appear to us quite so cogent as to him, he more pertinently says, 
" Another reason, inferior in practical truth to the others adduced, but 
physically superior, is this, — that before American trotters could be gene- 
rally used in Great Britain, the whole system of British road-making 
must be altered, which is not likely to occur. On an ordinary English 
macadamized turnpike, -which is exactly the same as the hardest central 
part of the New York Third Avenue, Avithout any soft track alongside of 
it, an American trotter would pound his shoes off in an hour's trot, and 
Ms feet off in a week's driving; and tliis is doubtless, whatever may 
be said of the objections heretofore offered, one which must operate 
for ever against the general use of trotters after the American fashion, 
unless they be trained and kept exclusively for sporting purposes. This, 
liowever, is no more, but even less lilvcly to occur than the total alteration 
of the whole system of English road-making, and the entire change of the 
tastes and habits of the English people : since the point which renders 
the trotting horse so popular here would then be wanting, namely, his 
equal adaptability to ordinary road driving and purposes of general utility, 
and to occasional matching and turf amusements of a peculiar though 
inferior description." This is the true cause of the " decline and fall " of 
trotting horses in England, for in the early part of the nineteenth centuiy 
there were ten good performers on the trot for one now. The pace is not 
a natural one, and in its highest perfection, espeipially, it must be developed 
by constant practice. But this is forbidden on our modern roads, which, 



THE AMERICAN TROTTER. 3.< 

as ]\rr. Herbert truly remarks, would ruin tlie legs and feet of any horse 
ridden or di-iven at such a pace as to do a mile in two minutes and thirty 
seconds. I fully believe that the horses of America have sounder legs and 
feet than those of our own country, partly from being kept cooler in their 
stables, partly from their being less stimulated by inordinate quantities of 
oats and beans, but chiefly from their ancestors having been less injured 
by hard roads than those of our own. If this is the case we must have 
in every succeeding generation more and more difficulty in getting sound 
roadsters, and such, I beheve, is really the fact. 

By many people it is supposed that the American trotter is a dis- 
tinct breed or strain of horses, and that we can in this country easily 
obtain plenty of hoi-ses able to do their mile " within the thirties," by 
importing individuals and breeding from them. This hypothesis, however, 
appears to be unfounded according to the evidence of Mr. Herbert, as 
recorded in his " magnum opus," and that of other writers in the itew 
York sporting press. The former gentleman, who is " weU up " on this 
subject, says : — " And first we shall find that the time trotter in America 
is neither an original animal of a peculiar and distinct breed, nor even an 
animal of very long existence since his first creation. Secondly, we shall 
find that in an almost incredibly short space of time, owing to the great 
demand for and universal popularity of the animal, united to a perfectly 
devised, and now ubiquitously understood, system of breaking, training, 
and driving him so as to develop aU his qualities to the utmost, the 
trotting horse of high speed, good endurance, showy style of going, and 
fine figure, has become from a rarity a creature of every-day occurrence, 
to be met "with by dozens in the eastern and middle states, and scarcely 
any lor.ger regarded as a trotter, unless he can do his mile in somewhere 
about two minutes and a half. Thirdly, it will appear that the trotting 
horse is, in no possible sense, a distinct race, breed, or family of the horse ; 
and that his quahties as a trotter cannot be ascribed or traced to his origin 
from, or connexion with, any one blood more than another. It is true, 
and it is to be regretted, that of trotting horses the pedigrees have been so 
little alluded to, and probably from the nature of circumstances are so 
seldom attainable, that few, indeed, can be directly traced to any distance 
in blood. Enough is known, however, to show that some horses of first- 
rate powers have come from the Canadian or I^orman-French stock ; some 
from the ordinary undistinguished country horse of the southernmost of the 
midland states; some from the Vermont family; some from the Indian 
pony; and lastly, some mainly, if not entirely, from the thoroughbred. 
To no one of these families can any superiority be attributed as pro- 
ducing trotters of great speed. All have shown their specimens by 
means of which to claim their share in the production. Only it may be 
affirmed, generally, that while some very famous trotting horses have 
been nearly, if not entirely, thoroughbred, the low, lazy, lounging, 
daisy-cutting gait and action of the fuU-blooded horse of Oriental blood 
is not generally compatible Avith great trotting action or speed. Still 
it is true that the best time-trotters have not the round, high-stepped 
action which is prized in carriage-horses, or parade-horses for show, and 
which probably originated and existed to ' the greatest extent in the 
Flemish or the Hanoverian horse of the coldest of all imaginable strains 
of blood ; and that they have in a great measure the long reaching 
stride, the quick gather, and the c omparatively low step of the thorough- 
bred." 

In order to estimate the truth of this statement it is only necessary 

D 



84 THE HORSE. 

to investigate tlie pedigrees of the cliief public performers in trotting and 
pacing of late years. Foremost among these stands 

FLOEA TEMPLE. 

This celebrated mabe was got by a horse of doubtful pedigree, called 
" One-eyed Kentucky Hunter," out of a clever and fast-trotting mare, 
Madame Temple, who was said to be by a spotted Arabian sire. She was 
foaled in 1845, at Langerford, Oneida County, New York, and was sold by 
ner breeder to Messrs. Eichardson and Kellog, of Eaton, Madison County, 
New York, who used her for livery purposes for nearly two years, when 




FLORA TEMPLE. 

ehe was re-sold to a Mr. Velie, and finally to Mr. G. E. Perrin, of New 
York City, who speedily developed her extraordinary powers by constat 
trials agaiiist the trotters of the various gentlemen of that city. In 
September, 1850, she won her first public match over the Union course 
Sfce which, with the exception of the year 1851 when she wa. amed 
by an accident, she has had an almost uninterrupted series of victories 
^^dnding up with her defeat of Geo. M. Patchen, in J^e, 1860 She is a 
rich blood bay, with black points, and no white. In height, fourteen 
hands two inches, with great power and wn-mess of frame Her l/^ad, 
as ^^all be seen by reference to her portrait, is as ight as that of an Arab, 
and has, indeed, all the characteristics of that blood Her shoulders are 
veiT long and sloping, and, though standing over a deal of ground, she is 
very short in the back. Indeed, her shape is faultless m aU essentials, 
and her action is remarkably long, yet as ter pace teUs you it must bo 
particularly quick. She is now fifteen years old, but is evidently quite m 
her prime. 



AMERICAN TROTTING HORSES. 35 

POCAHOI^TAS. 

Though pacing is somewliat different from trotting, yet, witli the 
exception of tlie extinct ITarraganset pacer, there is no difference in the 
breeds of the several horses adopting each pace, and, indeed, it cannot bo 
predicted beforehand whether a young horse shall be classed under either 
of these heads. I therefore include this extraordinary animal in the list. 
She is a rich chestnut, fifteen hands three inches high, with beautiful 
proportions throughout her entire frame. Her sire was a horse called 
Cadmus, thoroughbred, being by American Eclipse, dam, Di Vernon, by 
riorizel, g. d. by Ogle's Oscar, gt. g. d. by Hero. Her dam was a fine 
natural trotter, by imported Shakspeare, wlao was by Smolensko, Charming 
Molly, &c. The grandam of Pocahontas was an excellent roadster, but 
of unknown pedigree, and therefore it can only be made out that she was 
three parts of pure blood. 

LADY SUFFOLK. 

Second only to Flora Temple in general estimation in America, is the 
grey mare known by the above name, though now, if alive, she would be 
twenty -seven years old, haviug being foaled in 1833, and died ia 1858. She 
was by Engiueer, a thoroughbred son of Engineer by imported Messenger. 
Her dam was by Plato, also a son of imported Messenger, grandam by 
Kainbow, out of a road mare of unlcnown pedigree. She is, therefore, ai. 
least seven-eighths of pure blood, the only stain appearing in the great 
grandam of the maternal side. She was much inbred, her sire and 
maternal grandsire beiug both by the same horse. She was about fifteen 
and a half hands, of a grey colour, with a full white tail, a neat head, 
long muscular shoulders and great substance, united with length. Her 
iction was peculiarly long and elastic. 

ETHAN ALLEN". 

Among the celebrities of the annals of trotting is the Morgan horse 
Ethan Allen, though never reaching beyond two minutes, thirty-four and 
a half seconds, in his mile performance ; but this was considered extremely 
good for a stalhon. He is a yellow bay, with a full and curly tail supposed 
to characterise the breed. He was got by Morgan Black Hawk, by 
Sherman Morgan, out of the Howard mare, by a son of Hambletonian. 
His dam is said to be of Messenger blood, but evidently his pedigree 
does not entitle him to be considered more than half of pure blood. 

YOUNG BLACK HAWK. 

Another well known trotting stallion of this name has done his mile 
in two minutes, twenty-seven and a half seconds, and may therefore be 
included in the list. He is by Hill's Black Hawk, dam by Old Kentucky 
Wliip, grandam the Shakspeare mare, celebrated as a trotter. Hill's 
Black Hawk was by Sherman, son of Justin Morgan, out of a half-bred 
English mare. 

TEUSTEE. 

Two HORSES only are proved to have trotted twenty mUes within the 
hour, — namely, Trustee and Lady Fulton. The former was by imported 
Trustee, out of the trotting mare, Fanny Pullen, three parts bred. The 
latter's pedigree I do not know. 

d2 



36 THE HORSE. 



THE E^AEEAGANSET PACEE. 



It is supposed that this beautiful variety of the American horse, 
which is now nearly or quite extinct, is descended from the Spanish 
horse. There are several traditions afloat in support of this and other 
theories, hut by general consent it is admitted that the above theory as 
to his origin is the true one. According to this, he was introduced into New 
England by Governor Eobmson, from Andalusia, and for many years the 
breed was kept up for the supply of Cuba, the voyage bemg much shorter 
than that from the mother coimtry, Spain. These horses were of good size 
and natiiral pacers, the action being on alternate sides, but remarkably easj^, 
which is more than can always be said of the modern rackers or pacers. As 
the roads improved, however, hi the West India island, carriages were 
introduced, and then, the demand ceasing almost entirely, the breed was 
neglected, and is now unknown in its pure form. 

THE AMEEICAN THOEOTJGHBEED. 

Until the English Thoroughbred Horse is described, it is scarcely 
possible to enter fully into the pedigree of the American, descended as 
the latter is from stock imported from the mother country. But, taking 
the fact for granted, I may proceed to allude to the progress which has 
been made in the United States, from the date of the iirst importation. 
It appears that shortly prior to the year 1750, a Mr. Ogle, the Governor of 
Maryland, was in possession of Spark, presented to him by Lord Balti- 
more. About the same time he also imported Queen Mab, by IMusgrove's 
grey Arab ; and, soon afterwards. Colonel Tasker obtained Selinia, daughter 
of the Godolphin Ai'abian ; while Colonel Colville's Miss Cohdlle, known 
in the English Stud Book as Wilkes' Old Hautboy mare. Colonel Taylor's 
Jenny Cameron, and Eouth's Crab, were severally introduced into the 
colony. In 1747, Monkey, by the Lonsdale bay Arab, though in his 
twenty-seoond year, crossed the Atlantic, and got some good stock, 
foUowed during the next year by Jolly Eoger, by Eoundhead, out 
of a Partner mare. About 1764, Fearnought, a son of Eegulus and 
Silvertail, and therefore of the very highest English blood, went to 
America, and within a few years of that date Morton's Traveller, by 
Partner, out of a mare by the Bloody Buttocks Arabian, which completes 
the list of the importations prior to the War of Independence. It must 
be observed, that, before the year 1829, no Turf Eegister existed in 
America, and hence there is not the same guarantee for the fidelity of a 
pedigree as in England, where there are authentic records wliich reach to 
a much earher period. Moreover, the war upset the homes of so many 
families, that multitudes of documents were lost ; but, nevertheless, I 
believe sufficient has been preserved to prove the authenticity of the pedi- 
grees belongmg to the horses which I have enumerated, and whose progeny 
can be traced down to the present day, their blood bemg mingled with 
that of numerous importations of a more recent date. The love of racing 
was very soon implanted in the colonists of Maryland and Vii-ginia, from, 
whom it spread to North and South Carolina, and in these southern states 
the sport has been kept up to the present day with great spirit. Tennessee 
was inociilated with the virus of the racing mania soon after its first settle- 
ment, as also may be said of Kentucky, both states ha\TLng possessed 
some very celebrated horses at various times. New York joiucd in at a 



THE AMERICAN THOROUGHBRED. 37 

niiicli later period than the southern states, no organized racing-cluh exist- 
ing there until after the commencement of the present century ; although 
there were small racecourses at Newmarket and Jamaica before the Eevo- 
lution. But the energy of the true Yankee sent the New Yorkites ahead, 
and they soon became worthy rivals of the southern statesmen. From 1815 
to 18-15, the great stables of the North and South were carried on under 
a most honourable rivalry ; but at the second of these dates, it so hap- 
pened that a vast number of the most energetic supporters of the turf in 
the northern states withdrew from the arena, and, as they disappeared, 
none filled the gaps, except a few professed trainers and jockeys, who carried 
racing on entirely as a business, and regardless of that honourable spirit 
which had previously distinguished it. Trotting also came into fashion, 
and the fanatics preached a crusade against both, which took double effect 
upon the sport, already tottering to its fall. It may indeed be said, 
that from 1845 to 1855, racing in America was confined entirely to the 
south ; but about 1855 or 1856 a new jockey-club was established in New 
York, and its members laid out a new racecourse on Long Island; but still 
the second effort was not equal to the first, and New Orleans has taken 
the wind altogether out of the Long Island sails, by the spirited attempt 
which has been made by Mr. Ten Broeck to match his stud against the 
first English horses on their own ground. That he has failed in carrying 
off the Derby with Umpire is no proof of the general inferiority of 
American horses to those of England, any more than his other great 
successes are enough to ensure a conviction of the opposite condition in 
any unprejudiced mind. Umpire might have been an exceptional horse, 
and granting to him the high form which he was last year (1859) assured 
to possess, it would prove nothing quoad the general form of the horses 
of his country. Still it cannot be denied that they are much nearer to 
our own than was believed to be the case before Mr. Ten Broeck came 
among us ; but hoAV near they are is yet a vexed question, which, will 
take some time to settle. 

In order to show how largely the Americans are indebted to English 
blood, I insert here the following list of horses imported by them from 
this country, for wMch I am indebted to Mr. Herbert : — 

Abjer, 1817, by Old Truffle — Briseis by Beninborough. 

Actseon, 1837, by Comus or Blacklock — Panthe;!. 

Admiral, 1799, by Florizel— Spectator mare. 

Admiral Nels6n, 1795, by John Bull — Olivia. 

Ainderby, 1832, by Velociped — Kate. 

Aldermau, 1778, by PotSos — Lady Bolingbroke. 

Alexander, by Alexander, son of Eclipse ; dam's pedigree unknown. 

Alexander, 1791, by Champion — Countess. 

All Fours, 1772, by All Fours — Blank mare. 

Ambassador, by Emilius — Trapes by Tramp. 

Americus, 1755, by Babraham-^Creeping Molly. 

Amurath, 1832, by Langar — Armida. 

Apparition, 1827, by Spectre— Young Cranberry 

Archduke, 1796, by Sir Peter Teazle— Horatia. 

Archer, 17^0, by Faggergill — Eclipse mare. 

Archibald, 1801, by Walnut — Bay Javelin. 

Arrakooker, 1789, by Drone— Camilla. 

Autocrat, 1822, by Grand Duke — Olivetta. 

Bachelor, 1753, by Blaze— Smiling Tom mare. 

Barefoot, 1820, by Tramp — Rosamond. 

Baronet, 1782, by Vertumnus — Penultima. 

Bay Richmond, 1769, by Feather — Matron. 

Bedford, 1752. by Dungannon — Fairy. 

Belshazzar, 1830, by Blacklock — Manuella. 



THE HORSE. 

Bergamot, 1788, Higbflyer — Orange Girl. 

Berner's Comus, 1827, by Comus— Rotterdam. 

Black Prince, 1760, by Babraham — Riot. 

Blossom, 1795, by Bordeaux — Highflyer mare. 

Boaster, 1795, by Dungannon — Justice mare. 

Bolton, 1752, by Shark— Partner mare. 

Brilliant, 1691, by Phenomenon — Faith. 

Bryan O'Lynn, 1756, by Aston — Le Sang mare. 

Brutus, 1748, by Regulus — Miss Lay ton. 

BufFcoat, 1742,. by Godolphin Arab — Silverlocks, 

Buzzard, 1787, by Woodpecker — Misfortune. 

Camel, 1822, by Whalebone— Selim mare. 

Cannon, 1789, by Dungannon— Miss Spiadleshanks. 

Cardinal Puff, 1803, by Cardinal— Luna. 

Celer, 1774, by Old Janus— Brandon. 

Ceutiuel, 1758, by Blank— Naylor, by Cade. 

Cetus, 1827, by Whalebone — Lamia. 

Chance, 1787, by Lurcker — Recovery. 

Chariot, 1789, by Highflyer— Potosi, by Eclipse. 

Chateaux Margeaux, 1822, by Whalebone — Wasp. 

Citizen, 1785, by Pacolet — Princess. 

Claret, 1850, by Chateaux Margeaux — Partizan mare. 

Clifden, 1797, by Alfred— Florizel mare. 

Clifton, 1797, by Abb^ ThuUe— Eustatia, by HigLflyej. 

Clockfast, 1774, by Gimcrack — Miss Ingram. 

Clown, 1785, by Bordeaux — Eclipse mare. 

CcEur de Lion, 1789, by Highflyer— Dido. 

Commodore, 1820, by Caleb Quot'em — Mary Bro\ru 

Consol, 1828, by Lottery — Cerberus mare. 

Consternation, 1841, by Confederate — Curiosity. 

Content, 1823, by Catton— Helen. 

Cormorant, 1787, by Woodpecker — Nettle. 

Coi'onet, 1828, by Catton — Paynator mare. 

Crab, 1736, by Crab — Councillor mare. 

Crawler, 1792, by Highflyer — Harriet. ' 

Creeper, 1786, by Tandem — Crawler's dam. 

Cub, 1739, by Old Fox— Warlock Galloway. 

Cynthius, 1799, by Acacia — Yarico. 

Dancingmaster, 1787, by Woodpecker — Madcap. 

Dare Devil, 1787, by Magnet — Hebe. 

David, 1756, by Gower Stallion — Fox Cub mare. 

De Bash, 1792, by King Fergus — Highflyer mare 

Denizen, 1836, by Act?eon — Design. 

Derby, 1831, by Peter Lely— Urguuda. 

Diomed, 1777, by Florizel — Spectator mare. 

Dion, 1795, by S'padille— Faith. 

Don caster, 1834, by Longwaist — Muley mare. 

Don John, 1835, by Tramp or Waverley— Sharpset's dam, 

Don Quixote, 1784, by Eclipse — Grecian Princess. 

Dormouse, 1753, by Dormouse — Diana, by Whitefoot. 

Dragon, 1787, by Woodpecker — Juno. 

Driver, 1784, Driver — Dorimont mai-e. 

Drone, 1778, by Herod — Lily. 

Druid, 1790, by Pot8os— Maid of the Oaks. 

Dungannon, 1793, by Dungannon — Miss Spindleshanks^ 

Eagle, 1756, by Volunteer— Highflyer mare. 

Eastham, 1818, by Sir Oliver — Cowslip. 

Eclipse, 1778, by Eclipse — Phoebe. 

Emancipation, by 1827, by Whisker — Ardrossan mare 

Emilius Colt, 1836, by Bourbon — Fleur de Lis. 

Emu, 1832, by Picton — Cuirass. 

Englishman, 1812, by Eagle — PotSos mare. 

Envoy, 1827, by Comus — Aline. 

Escape, 1758, by Precipitate— WoodpecKer mare. 

Espersykes, 1837, by Belshazzar — Capsicum mare, 

Eugeuius, 1770, by Chrysolite — Mixbury, 

Expedition, 1755, by Pegasus — Active. 



LIST OF IMPORTED HORSES. 39 

Express, 1785, by Postmaster — Syphon mare. 

Exton, 1785, by Highflyer— lo. 

Fairfax Roan, 1764, by Adolphus — Tartar mare. 

Fearnought, 1755, by Regulus — Silvertail. 

Fallower, 1761, by Blank —Partner mare. 

Fellow, 1755, by Cade — Goliah mare. 

Felt, 1826, Langar— Steam. 

Figaro, 1830, by Figaro — Catton mare. 

Figure, 1747, by Standard — Beaufort Arabian mare. 

Firebrand, 1802, by Braggart — Fanny. 

Firetail, 1755, by Phenomenon — Columbine. 

Flatterer, 1830, by Muley— Clare. 

Flexible, 1822, by Whalebone— Themis. 

Flimnap, 1765, by South — Cygnet mare. 

Florizel, by Florizel — Alfred mare. 

Fop, 1832, by Stumps — Fitzjames mare. 

Frederick, 1810, by Selim— Englishman's dam. 

Friar, 1759, by South— Sister to Lowther Babraham, by Babraham. 

Fylde, 1824, by Antonio — Fadladinada. 

Gabriel, 1790, by Dorimant — Highflyer mare. 

Genius, 1753, by Babraham — Aura. 

Gift, 1768, by Cadormus— Old Cub mare. 

Glencoe, 1831, by Sultan — Trampoline, by Ti-amp. 

Gouty, 1796, by Sir Peter Teazle — Tandem mai'e. 

Grauby, 1759, by Blank — Old Crab mare. 

Grecian, 1821, (Brother to Alasco,) by Clavaliuo — Pioneer mare. 

Grey Highlander, 1787, by Bordeaux — Teetotum mare. 

Greyhound, 1796, by Sweetbriar — Miss Green, by Highflyer. 

Hambleton, 1791, by Dungannon — Snap mare. 

Hamilton, 1793, by son of Highflyer — Eclipse mare. 

Hector, 1745, by Lath — Childers mare. 

Hedgeford, 1826, by Filho-da-Puta— Miss Craigie. 

Hark Forward, 1840, (brother to Harkaway.) by Economist — Naboclishmare 

Hibiscus, 1834, by Sultan — Duchess of York. 

Highflyer, 1782, by Highflyer — Angelica. 

Honest John, 1794, by Sir Peter Teazle — Magnet. 

Hugh Lupus, 1836, by Priam — Her Highness. 

Humphrey Clinker, 1822, by Coraus — Clinkerina. 

Invalid, 1822, by Whisker^Hamilton mare. 

Jack Andrews, 1794, by Joe Andrews — Highflyer mare. 

Jack the Bachelor, 1753, by Blaze— Gallant mare. 

James, 1746, by Old James — Little Hartley mare. 

John Bull, 1799, by Fortitude— Xantippe. 

John Bull, 1833, by Chateaux Margeaux — Woful mare. 

Jolly Roger, 1741, by Roundhead — Partner mare. 

Jonah, 1795, by Escape — Lavender mare. 

Jordan, 1833, by Langar — Matilda. 

Julius Caesar, 1757, by Young Cade — Snip mare. 

Juniper, 1782, by Babraham— Anna. 

Junius, 1752, by Starling Crab — Monkey mare. 

Justice, 1782, by Justice — Curiosity. 

Justice, 1759, by Blank — Anna, by Stamford Turk. 

King William, 1777, by Herod — Madcap. 

King William, 1781, by Florizel — Milliner. 

Knowsley, 1795, by Sir Peter Teazle — Cupella, by Herod. 

Kooli Khan, 1772, by The Vernon Arab — Rosemary. 

Langar colt, by Langar — Malvina. 

Langford, 1853, by Starch — Peri. 

Lapdog, 1823, by Whalebone — Canopus mai'e. 

Lath, 1763, by Shepherd's Crab — Lath mare. 

Leopard, by Liverpool — Sneaker, by Camel. 

Leviathan, 1823, by Muley— Windle mare. 

Lofty, 1753, by Godolphin Arab — Croft's Partner mare. 

Ludford, 1832, by Wamba— Idalia. 

Lurcher, 1832, by Greyleg — Harpalice, by Gohanna. 

Luzborough, 1820, by Williamson's Luzborough — Dick Andrews' mare. 

Lyeurgus, 1767, by Blank — Snip mare. 



40 THE HORSE. 

Magic, 1794, by Volunteer — Marcella. 

Magnum Bonum, 1774, by Matchem— Snip mare. 

Manfred, 1796, by Woodpecker — Mercury mare. 

Mark Antony, 1767, by Spectator— Rachel. 

Margrave, 1829, by Muley — Election. 

Marmion, by Whiskey — Young Noisette. 

Marplot, by Highflyer — Omar mare. 

Master Robert, 1793, by Star — Young Marske mare. 

Matchem, 1773, by Matchem— Lady. 

Matchless, 1754, by Godolphin Arab — Soreheels. 

Medley, 1766, by Gimcrack— Arminda, by Snap. 

Mendoza, 1778, by Javelin — Pomona. 

Merman, 1835, by Whalebone — Orville mare. 

Merryfield, 1808, by Cockfighter— Star mare. 

Messenger, 1778, by Mambrino — Turf mare, 

Meux, 1816, by Chorus — Diana. 

Mexican, 1775, by Snap — Matchem mare. 

Molock, by Muley Molock — Sister to Puss. 

Monarch, 1334, by Priam — Delpini mai-e. 

Monkey, 1725, by Lonsdale bay Arab — Curwen's Bay Barb mare. 

Mordecai, 1833, by Lottery — Miss Thomasina. 

Moro, by Starling — Brown Slipby. 

Morven, 1836, by Rowton — Naneen, by Selim. 

Moscow, 1746, by Cullen Arab — Croft's Starling mare. 

Mousetrap, 1772, by Careless — Regulus mare. 

Mufti, 1783, by Fitzherod— Infant mare. 

Nicholas, 1833, by St. Nicholas — Moss Rose, 

Nonplus, 1824, by Catton— Miss Garforth, by Walton. 

North Star, 1768, by Matchem — Lass of the Mill, 

Northumberland, by Old Bustard — Old Crab mars. 

Onus, 1835, by Camel — The Etching, by Rubens. 

Oroonoko, 1745, by Old Crab— Miss Slamerkin, 

Oscar, 1795, by Saltram — Highflyer mai-e, 

Othello, 1743, by Crab— Miss Slamerkin, - 

Pam, 1757, by Regulus — Cade mare. 

Pantaloon, 1778, by Herod — Nutcracker, 

Partner, 1760, by Partner — Camilla. 

Partner, by Duke of Hamilton's Figure — Old Figure mare. 

Passenger, 1836, by Langar — My Lady, 

Passaic, 1836, by Reveller — Rachel. 

Paul, 1807, by Saltram— Virago. 

Phenomenon, 1780, by Herod — Frenzy. 

Pharaoh, 1753, by Moses— Godolphin mare, 

Phil Brown, by Glaucus — Bustle. 

Phoenix, 1798, by Old Dragon— Portia, 

Pilgrim, 1762, by Samson— Regulus mare. 

Play or Pay, 1791, by Ulysses — Herod mare. 

Plenipo, 1837, by Plenipotentiary — Polly Hopkins. 

Portland, 1834, by Recovery — Caifacaratudaddera, 

Post Captain, 1835, by The Colonel— Posthuma. 

Precipitate, 1787, by Mercury— Herod mare, 

Priam, 1827, by Emilius — Cressida. 

Priam, 1834, by Priam — Soothsayer mare. 

Prince, 1773, by Herod — Helen. 

Prince Ferdinand, by Herod — Matchem mare. 

Punch, by Herod— Marske mare. 

Regulus, 1747 by Regulus — Partner mare. 

Restless, 1788, by Phenomenon — Duchess, 

Reveller colt, 1836, by Reveller— Kachel. 

Rutland, 1810, by Stamford— Worthy mare, 

Riddlesworth, 1828, by Emilius— Filagree. 

Roan colt, 1802, by Sir Peter Teazle— Mercuiy mare. 

Robin Redbreast, 1796, by Sir Peter Teazle— Wren, 

Roman, 1815, by Camillus — Leon Forte, 

Rotherham, 1838, by Grey Conqueror — Camilla mara, 

Eosaiio, 1836, by Vanish — Rose Leaf. 

Kowton, 1826, by Oiseau— Catherina. 



LIST OF IMPORTED HORSES. 41 

Rowton Colt, 1836, by Rowton — Nannie. 

Royalist, 1790, by Salti-am — Herod mare. 

Ruby, 18.36, by Emilius— Eliza. 

St. George, 1789, by Highflyer — Sister to Soldier. 

St. Giles, 1829, by Tramp— Arcot Lass. 

St. Paul, 1789, by Salti-am— Purity. 

Saltram, 1780, by Eclipse — Virago. 

Scout, 1836, by St. Nicholas — Blacklock mare. 

Scythian, 1851, by Orlando — Scythia, 

Selim, 1780, by Bajazet— Miss Thigh. 

Scrub. 1821, by Phantom — Jessie. 

Shadow, 1759, by Babraham — Bolton Starling mare. 

Shakspeare, 1823, by Smolensko — Charming Molly. 

Shamrock, 1827, by St. Patrick— Fairy. 

Shark, 1771, by Marske — Snap mare. 

Stork, by Stork — Partner mare. 

Stork, 1729, by Jig — Snake mare. 

Silver, by Mercury — Herod mare. 

Silver Eye, by Cullen Arab — Curwen's Bay Barb. 

Sir Harry, 1794, by Sir Peter Teazle — Matron. 

Sir Peter Teazle, 1802, by Sir Peter Teazle — Mercury mare. 

Su- Robert, 1833, by Bobadil— Fidalma, by Waxy Pope. 

Skylark, 1826, by Waxy Pope— Skylark. 

Slender, 1779, by King Herod — Rachel. 

Slim, 17G8, by Wildman's Babraham — Babraham mare. 

Sloven, 1756, by Cub — Bolton Starling mare. 

Slouch, 1745, by Cade — Little Hartley mare. 

Sorrow, 1836, by Defence — Tears. 

Sour Crout, 1786, by Highflyer — Jewel. 

Sovereign, 1836, by Emilius— Flenr de Lis. 

Spadille, 1784, by Highflyer — Flora. 

Spark, by Honeycomb Punch — Miss Colville. 

Speciilator, 1795, by Dragon — Herod mure. 

Spread Eagle, 1792, by Volunteer — Higlj flyer mare. 

Stafford, 1833, by Memnon — Sarsaparilla. 

Star, 1786, by Highflyer — Snap mare. 

Starling, 1800, by Sir Peter Teazle — Magnet. 

Stirling, 1797, by Volunteer — Harriet. 

Strap, 1800, by Beuiuborough — Highflyer mare. 

Stratford, 1834, by Shakspeare — Pheasant. 

Swiss, 1821, by Whisker — Shuttle mare. 

Tarquin, 1720, by Hampton Ct. Arab — Leeds mare. 

Telegraph, 1795, by Guildford — Fame. 

Tickle Toby, 1786, by Alfred— Cfelia, by Herod. 

Tom Crib, by Gladiator — Jemima. 

Tom Jones, 1745, by Partner — True Blue mare. 

Tranby, 1826, by Blacklock — Orville mare. 

True Blue, 1797, by Walnut — King Fergus mare. 

Truffle, 1825, by Truffle— Helen. 

Trustee, 1829, by Catton — Emma. 

Tup, 1756, by Javelin — Flavia. 

Valentine, 1823, by Magistrate — Miss Forester. 

Valparaiso, 1831, by Velocipede — Juliana. 

Vampire, 1757, by Regulus — Steady mare. 

Vanish, 1834, by Vanish — Elephant's dam. 

Victor, 1838, by Defence— Vivid. 

Volney, 183-3, by Velocipede — Voltaire's dam. 

Volunteer, by Volunteer — Whipcord mare. 

Whale, 1830, by Whalebone— Rectory. 

Whip, 1794, by Saltram — Herod mare. 

Wildair, 1753, by Cade — Steady mare. 

William the Fourth, 1895, by Blacklock — Juniper mare 

Wonder, 1785, by Florizel — Saccharissa. 

Wonder, 17'Ji, by Phenomenon — Brown Fanny. 

Wrangler, 1794, by Diomed — Fleacatcher. 

Yorkshire, 1834, by St. Nicholas — Miss Rose. 

Zinganee, 1825, by Tramp — Folly. 

Zingaaee Colt, 1840, by Zmganee — Miss Andrews. 



42 THE HORSE. 

The list op imported marks is most probably still more rmmerous, 
but they are not so easily ascertained, as, prior to the establishment of the 
American Turf Register, there was no record of them, whereas most of 
the stallions are mentioned in our English Stud Book as having been sent 
out. Mr. Herbert, it is true, gives a long list of them, but many of 
these he himself rejects as apocryphal ; and there are some of those 
accepted by him as correct which I have reason to believe have never left 
this country. So also in his list of stallions, even such a well-known 
English covering stallion as Launcelot (brother to Touchstone) is included 
as having been imported into America ; but stiU, on the whole, I believe 
that his list of mares is not far from the truth. 

The American thoroughbred horse is said to be much stouter than 
the modern EngUsh strains ; and without doubt Mr. Ten Broeck's Prioress 
can stay better than most English horses, though she is not considered by 
the Americans themselves to be quite up to the best staying form which 
they possess. This subject, however, will be better considered after the 
performances of the English horse are carefully examined. It must be 
remembered that, with the exception of the horses recently brought over 
to th-is country, we have no means of comparison beyond the time test, 
which is not a reliable one ; firstly, because Ave have no time-races here ; 
and, secondly, because none of our long distances are run from end to end. 
As far as I have had an opportunity of seeing, and with the single excep- 
tion of Charleston, all Mr. Ten Broeck's horses have been extremely 
narrow, the crack Umpire in particular being "like two deal boards 
nailed together," as the "men of stable mind" say here. His hips are 
the narrowest I ever saw in a horse supposed to be of first class, and 
tbose of Prioress are not much more developed. The celebrated horse, 
Lexington, who is out of the same mare as 'Umpire, is also reported to 
have been very narrow in the hips, so that probably this peculiarity runs 
throughout that strain of blood, but whether derived from Alice Carneal 
or from Boston (who got both Lexington and Lecompte, the latter the 
sire of Umpire) I cannot say. N'evertheless, unless the time-test is 
utterly fallacious, both Lexington and Lecompte must have been stout, 
for they have each done four miles, under seven stone two, in seven 
minutes twenty-six seconds, with a start similar to that adopted in 
England. Lexington, with the same kind of start, has performed the 
same task in seven minutes twenty-three and a half seconds, and with a 
running start against time, in the extraordinarily short time of seven 
minutes nineteen and three-quarter seconds. I shall now dismiss this 
subject until I can carefully compare the horses of the two countries 
together. 

THE VERMONT CART-HORSE. 

A distinct breed of draught-horses under this name is described by 
Mr. Herbert as existing in Vermont and the adjacent country, though 
now, he says, less marked than it was prior to the introduction of rail- 
roads. I cannot, however, find any other authority for it, nor do I quite 
agree with the above Avriter in thinking the breed, if he rightly describes 
it, as identical with the Cleveland Bay. He says, " These are the very 
models of what draught^horses should be ; combining immense power 
with great quickness, a very respectable turn of speed, fine show, and 
good action. These animals have almost invariably lofty crests, thin 
withers, and well sea on heads ; and although they are emphatically draught- 
horses, they have none of that shagginess of mano, tail, and fetlocks 



THE CONESTOGA DRAUGHT-HORSE. 



43 



which indicates a descent from the black horse of Lincolnshire, and none 
of that peculiar curliaess or waviness which marks the existence of 
Canadian or JNorman blood for many generations, and which is discover- 
able in the manes and tails of very many of the horses which claim to be 
pure Morgans. The peculiar characteristic, however, of these horses is 
the shortness of their backs, the roundness of their barrels, and the 
closeness of their ribbing up. One would say that they are ponies until 
he comes to stand beside them, when he is astonished to find that they are 
oftener over than under sixteen hands in height." Now these are just the 
peculiar points of the Clydesdale cart-horse, as we shall find in examining 
into that breed, when I come to treat of the English horse, and as may at 
once be seen by an inspection of the engraving accompanying the descrip- 
tion of him. 

THE CONESTOGA DEATJGHT-HOESE, 

The last on the list of American horses is that known under the above 
name, which was given to it from being produced in the valley of Cones- 
toga, within the state of Pennsylvania. It is a very large muscular horse, 
often reaching to seventeen hands and upwards, and closely resembling 
the heaviest breeds of German and Flemish cart-horses. The early 




CONESTOGA DnATJGHT-HOUSK. 



settlers of this part of the United States were mostly Germans, and they 
either brought over with them some of; the horses of their country, or 
else they have since selected from those within their reach the animals most 
vesembling in appearance their old favourites when in their fatherland- 
There is, however, no record of the origin of the breed, and all that cao 
be done is to describe it as it now exists. 



M THE HORSE. 

The ACCOMPAXTixa sketcli embodie.s the general appearance of these 
horses, and by comparing it with the London dray-horse, it will be seen 
that it differs only slightly, having the same heavy outline of form, 
united with similar comparatively light limbs, but not burdened Arith the 
mountains of flesh and heavy crests which have been produced in England 
for purposes of show. In Pennsylvania, these horses are chiefly used for 
waggons, and some few of them, when of inferior shape, for the canal 
traffic. They are good honest workers, and are quicker and lighter in 
their action than might be expected from their weight. Indeed, some of 
them are still used for heavy carriages ; but even in Pennsylvania, for 
quick work, they are generally replaced by the Vermont horse, or some 
nondescript of mixed blood, with which America is completely overrun. 

In colour they foUow the Flemish horses, except that black is rare 
among them, but like the Flemish they are free from chestnut, and the 
larger proportion of them are bay, bro's^Ti, or iron greys. 



CHAPTER V. 

EUROPEAN COXTIJTE^fTAL HORSES. 

BPASISII ASD POBTUGUESE HORSES — THE ITALIAS HOBSE THE GERMAN HOBSB — THB 

FEESCH HORSE — THE FLEMISH HORSE — THE HAKOVEEIAS HOBSE — THE BDSSIAn 
HOBSE — THE KOBWEGIAS AND SWEDISH HORSES. 

SPANISH AXD PORTUGUESE HORSES. 

Throughout Spain and Portugal there formerly existed a hardy and 
useful breed of horses, of difierent degrees of lightness and activity, 
according to the use for which they were designed. But in both coun- 
tries they have greatly degenerated from their former excellence, and in 
Portugal they have dwindled doAvn in size and appearance until they can 
scarcely now be recognised as belonging to the same class of animal 
The old breeds were greatly improved by the Moors during their 
occupation of Spain, by importing the Barbs of their own country, 
and hence those provinces which were most overrun by that people 
possessed the best breeds of horses. The Sjjanish Jennet has always been 
celebrated for easy paces and gentle t<;mper, and these have been the 
characteristics of all the breeds of the Peninsula, unit<id in most of them 
with a high courage which would induce them to face either the dangers 
of war or of a bull-fight without flinching. One chief peculiarity of the 
Spanish horse is the fulness and width of the bosom, ^^'hich has always 
made them slow in the gallop, but extremely ea.sy, while their powerful 
shoulders have rendered their action good and safe. In the present day 
the Spanish horse is seldom seen out of his o'^vn country. 

THE ITALIAN HORSE. 

Like those of Spiain the Italian horse is supposed to be descended 
from the Barb, but in the last two or tliree centuries the breed has greatly 
degenerated irom the original type. The horses used for the saddle are 
light and active, and at Rome as well as at Ilorence public races take 
place between them without riders. These are managed by goading them 



THE GERJIAN HORSE. 45 

in the only direction "wliich they can take by siispending balls covered 
■with sharp points from a surcingle passed round the body, in such a 
\\-ay that at every stride they rebound against the sides of the aninial and 
prick him severely. A street is chosen for the piu'pose, and in one end 
of this they are confined by a rope drawn across it till the moment of 
starting, when it is dropped, and the whole lot getting away gallop to the 
other end, where again they are stopped by an impassable barrier. The 
horees employed for this jiurpose are called Berberi, though none of them 
in the present day are pure Earbs, but they retain the appellation as 
indicative of their Oriental origin. The Italian horse seldom attains the 
height of fifteen hands, the average probably being little moi-e than 
fourteen. He is thick in the shoulder and wide in the bosom, but has a 
tolerably light forehand, good legs and feet, and short drooping hind 
quarters. 

THE GEEMAX HOESK 

In Austria Proper, Hungary and Prussia, horses are bred in exten- 
sive studs for military pxuposes, and of late years the rulers of those 
countries have been largely indebted to English blood for the improve- 
ment which has been made in the horses of the respective coiintries. 
The Emperore of Austria have also caused races to be established at 
Vienna, Pesth, Buda, Breslau, ^l-c. Some idea may be formed of the 
extent to wliioh the sport is carried on at these meetings, when it is stated 
that at the meetmg at Vienna, in ^lay, 1S60, nine races Avere run, the 
value of the stakes being more than 2,000 sovereigns, while at Pesth they 
amounted to £3,320. Even the latter of these is a poor sum when con- 
trasted with our own Epsom, Xowmarket, and Doncaster meetings, where 
five times the amount are won by the hoi-ses engaged m them ; but as 
compared with foreign races of an older date, it is a magnificent one, and 
the spirit which has been displayed shows that the pivsent state of things 
is doubtless a foi-erunner of still greater successes in t\irf proceedings. 
The plan of breedmg stallions for the supply of the provinces, adopted by 
the Austrian goA'ernment, is excellent, and I should mxtch like to see a 
similar one introduced into this coimtry. From 100 to 200 stiUlions 
are annually bred for this ptu-pose, and sold for about 100 gtimeas apiece, 
which price is qttite sufficient to cover all expenses, and leave a slight 
siu'plus to the imperial treasury toAvards lowering the cost of the cavalry 
horses, bred at the same studs. 

There is a considerable variety in the native breeds of the three 
countries mentioned, but they ai"e all usetul in their sovenil waj^s. In 
speed and stoutness they cannot compete A\-ith our thorotighbrcds, nor 
with oui" "haK-bred" hunters, many of which have at least seven-eighths 
of piue blood. Thej' are generally light in the middle-piece, with drooping 
quarters, and somcAvhat long in the leg — qu;dities Avhich are all opposed 
to stoutness at a high pace. But they are A'ery hardy, and can live on 
food Avhich would stiirve an English horse, so that in a campaign they are 
not by any means to be desi>ised. The German cart-horses ai'S thick, 
strong, and useful, of great size, but somcAvhat sIoav in their moA'ements, 
and llat in their feet. 

THE FREXCH HOESE 

The Norman Charger or Destrier has been celebrated for ages as 
the type of horse for the purposes of shoAv and utility combined. AVith 
a line upstanding forehand he unites a frame of the most massive propor- 



46 THE HORSE. 

tions, and this is moulded in a form as elegant aa is consistent witli his 
enormous power. Even the diligence horses of many parts of France are 
of very handsome frames, and their legs and feet are so soimd that they 
are able to trot 'over the paved roads at a pace which, slow as it is, would 
speedily lame our English horses of similar size and strength. Their 
tempers, also, are so good that the stallions may be used together with 
mares in all kinds of work, and though vice in its various forms is not 
altogether unknown, yet it is comparatively rare. Their countrywoman, 
Eosa Bonheur, has made this variety of horse familiar to most of my 
readers, and I need not, therefore, trouble myself to describe them 
minutely. The Limousia is cliiefly used for the saddle, and is supposed 
to be descended from some one of the Eastern horses introduced by the 
Crusaders. He was not, however, in high request until the invention of 
gunpowder caused heavy cannon to go out of use, when a lighter horse 
was required, and the old heavy animal bred between the Flemish and 
Norman cart-horse went entirely out of fashion. The true Norman horse 
is large, powerful, sufficiently active, and very hardy. He has, however, 
the disadvantages of a heavy head and long cannon bones. The Valley of 
the Meuse is supplied with a small, active horse, generally of a roan 
colour, with strong limbs, clothed with an abundance of hair, and a large 
heavy head. The Lingone horse, in the valley of the Marne, is still 
smaller, with lop-ears, drooping quarters, and cat-hams, which latter 
qualities enable him to display the activity and surefootedness of the goat 
in scrambling over the rough mountain passes bounding the district. 
Lastly, the Barrois variety, in the valley of the Arne, is a mere pony, but 
makes up for his want of size by his agility, hardiness, and good temper. 

As in Austria and Prussia, so in France, the Government has done its 
utmost to encourage the breeding of horses for -cavalry purposes, and 
numerous " haras " have been established throughout France. For a long 
time purchases have annually been made of first-rate English blood stock, 
chosen, Hke those selected by the Americans, chiefly for their stoutness 
and soundness of constitution. Still there are so many drawbacks in the 
shape of bad hay, hard training ground, &c. in the way of the breeder and 
trainer, that though their horses run us hard, we are still enabled to give 
them a lump of weight. Throughout nearly the whole of France there is 
no upland grass in the summer months, and neither meadow grass nor 
meadow hay is suited to the horse intended for fast work. We may, 
therefore, hope still to be able to maintain our supremacy in horses 
intended for the racecourse or the hunting field; but, as far as I can 
learn, the French cavalry are gradually obtaining a class of animal bred 
out of their lightest and stoutest Norman mares crossed with thorough- 
bred horses of pure English blood, some imported direct, and others bred 
with great Care in France. The produce are of good size, very hardy, and 
possessed of excellent legs and feet, indeed in every way calculated for 
troop-horses, and should our cavalry ever come in contact with them, and 
any advantage is to be gained, it must be through superior horsemanship 
alone. 

The following list of Stallions at the various haras in France 
during the year 1858 will show the extent to which English blood is 
used in that country. Many of them are bred in France, but a very large 
proportion, as will be evident, are of English descent, and as thorough- 
bred as any in our stud-book. The importance of carefully examining 
this list will be apparent to all those who know the value of this breed aa 
a cross for low-bred mares. 



LIST OF FRENCH STALLIONS IN 1858. 47 



LIST OF GOVERNMENT STALLIONS IN FRANCE, 1858. 

AT ABBEVILLE. 

Auckland, by Touchstone out of Maid of Honour. 
Bedford, by California, dam by The Colonel. 
Maryland, by Royal Oak out of Pecra. 
Mulatto, by Royal Oak out of Egl^. 
R^munerateur, by The Baron out of Marguerita. 

AT ANGERS. 

Aquila, by Gladiator out of Cassandra. 
Badpay, by Caravan out of Miss Rainbow. 
Caravan, by Camel out of Wings. 
Fontaine, by Mr. Waggs out of Lanterne. 
Geometrician, by Theon out of Jew Girl. 
Grog, by Nautilus out of Discr6te. 
Hernandez, by Pantaloon out of Black Bess, 
lago, by Don John out of Scandal. 
Jules, by Pickpocket out of Amazone. 
Lucullus, by Harlequin out of Crochet. 
Madrigal, by Napier oiit of Celeste. 
Shylock, by Simoom out of The Queen. 
Spai-tacus, by Gladiator out of Discrdte. 
Strongbow, by Touchstone out of Miss Bowe. 
The Prime Warden, by Cadland out of Zarina. 
Tivioli, by Hscmus out of Follette. 



Fortunatus, by Piccaroon out of Lucia. 
Gringalet, by Mr. Waggs out of Marcella. 
Sophiste, by Tarrare out of Miss Sophia. 

AT AURILLAC. 

Arion, by Royal Oak out of Agar. 
Exile, by Brandyface out of Phenice. 
Marengo, by Alteruter out of Young Urganda. 
Minotaui-e, by General Mina out of Pulchra. 
Nuncio, by Plenipotentiary out of Folly. 
Orphelin, by Napier out of Mademoiselle Duparo. 

AT BESANCON. 

Petrarque, by Caravan out of Lauretta. 
Wanton, by Napoleon or Jeroboam out of Danae. 



Attorney, by Brocardo out of Mazzia. 
Bind, by Prince Caradoc out of Molina. 
Buckthorn, by Venison out of Lelia. 
Constellation, by Lanercost out of Moonbeam. 
Minotaur, by Taurus out of Lyrnessa. 
Ronald, by Polecat out of Regatta. 
Samt Germain, by Attila out of Currency, . 
Velox, by Velocipede, dam by Whisker. 

AT BRAISNE. 

Bataclan, by Lanercost out of Basinoire. 
Delegate, by Nuncio out of Loisa. 
Elthiron, by Pantaloon out of Phryne. 
Fagus, by Elthiron out of Discretion. 
Faust, by Loutherbourg, dam by Rambler 
Firstborn, bj' Nuncio out of Bienseance. 

AT CHARLEVILLE. 

Napier, by Polecat out of Bella. 
Rabelais, by Royal Oak out of Emelina. 



4s THE HORSE 

AT CLUNY. 

Fitz Touchstone, by Touchstone out of Rose of Sharon- 
Lutino, by Nuncio out of Discretion. 
Marlborough, by Tragedian oxit of Urania. 
Profil, by Nelson out of Silhouette. 
Tragedian, by Sir Isaac out of Fanny Kemble. 
Valbruant, by Nuncio out of Wii-thschaft. 
Young Lanercost, by Lanercost out of lo. 
Zephyr, by Young Emilias out of Miss Tandem. 

AT LAMBALLK. 

Avron, by Nuncio out of Coquette. 
Craven, by Giraffe out of Mab. 
Duguesclin, by Caravan out of Midsummer. 
Electrique, by Young Emilius out of Kermesse. 
Geranium, by Tiie Emperor out of Anemone. 
Horace, by Mameluke out of Bellone. 
Nautilus, by Cadland oxit of Vittoi'ia. 
Punch, by Paradox out of Marionette. 
Ulyssd, by Elis out of Deception. 

AT LANGONNET. 

Antithdse, by Napoleon out of Delphine. 
Artenay, by Polecat out of Camelia. 
Cassique, by Young Emilius out of Cassica. 
Croque-en-Bouche, by Lottery out of Margarita. 
Diamaut, by Prince Caradoc out of Opale. 
Lieutenant, by Royal Oak out of Lydia. 
Mars, by General Mina or Dangerous out of Folia. 
Prince, by Napoleon out of Moselle. 
Yricix, by Prospero out of Iris. 

AT LIBOURNE. 

Artisan, by Lanercost out of Skilful. ^ 

Black Brown, by Niinnykirk, out of Tanais. 

Brocard, by Brocardo out of Lac Dye. 

Cataract, by Hornsea out of Oxygen. 

Felix, by Accident, dam by Mameluke. 

Gogo, by Terror out* of Kate Nickleby. 

Lugarto, by Ci'ispin out of Venus. 

Mora-aux-deuts, by Napier out of Curl. 

Saucebox, by St. Lawrence out of Priscilla Tomboy. 

Tdldrao.que, by Ali Baba out of Calypso. 

Yorick, by Commodore Napier out of Katinka. 

Yves, by Prospero out of Dulcinde. 

Zadig, by Commodore Napier out of Jocaste. 

AT MONTIER-EN-DER. 

Buzzard, by Napier out of Teresina. 
Croissant, by Caravan out of Discrete. 
Eremos, by young Emilius out of Agar. 
Saint Leger, by Attila out of Cassandra. 
Sword, by Gladiator out of Defy. 
Wagram, by Napoleon out of Bellona. 

AT NAPOLEON VENDEE. 

Arc-en-Ciel, by Brocardo out of Iris. 

Bretiguolles, by Caravan out of Margaret. 

Dash, by Polecat out of Aline. 

Florist, by Fancy Boy out of Malay. 

Frohsdorff, by Copper Captain out of Alm^e. 

Johann, by Young Emilius or Garry Owen out of Miss Jtucy. 

Monsieur de Saint Jean, by Commodore Napier out of Jocaste. 

Schamyl, by Redshank out of Currency. 

Sir Benjamin, by Lanercost out of Queen of Beauty. 

The Rou(5, by Claret out of Roulette 

Tippler, by Tipple Cider out of Emelina. 



LIST OF FKENOH STALLIONS IN 1858. 45 



The Baron, by Birdcatcher out of Echidna. 
Cossack, by Hetman Platoff out of Joannina. 
Ion, by Cain out of Margaret. 
Priasse, by Terror out of Miss Scheueitz-Hoeffer. 
Womersley, by Birdcatcher out of Cinizelli, 



Ali Baba, by Holbein, out of Cloton. 

Astre, by Ali Baba out of Stella. 

Baladin, by Commodore Napier out of Nymphsea. 

Caen, by Mr. Waggs out of Destiny. 

Capharnaum, by Touchstone out of Sweetlips. 

Fitz-Carolus, by Charles XII. out of Revival. 

G^los, by Ali Baba out of Celina. 

Gibbon, by Skirmisher out of Mademoiselle de Brie. 

Iron, by Sting out of Margaret. 

Jumeau, by Terror or Eylau out of Lily. 

Make Haste, by Ionian out of Mademoiselle Rejart. 

Marc Antoine, by Mameluke out of Cleopatre. 

Memory, by Nuncio out of Pamela. 

M^t^ore, by Jocke out of Jessica. 

Napier, by Gladiator out of Marion. 

Nelson, by Garry Owen out of Zamira. 

Op^ra, by Terror, dam by Waverley. 

Pasha, by Ibrahim II. out of Melissa. 

Papillon, by Gladiator out of EiBe Deans. 

Prince Eugene, by Young Emilius out of Adamantine. 

Sampson, by Young Emilius out of Belladonna. 

Tibi, by Eylau out of Silvie. 

Tic Tac, by Caravan out of Miss Rainbow. 

AT LB PIN. 

Bolero, by Y. Emilius out of Doria. 

Brocardo, by Touchstone out of Brocade. 

Dirk Hatteraick, by Van Tromp out of Blue Bonnet. 

Eperon, by Sting out of Maid of Fez. 

Faiigh-a-Ballagh, by Sir Hercules out of Guiccioli. 

Fitz Pantaloon, <by Pantaloon out of Rebuff. 

Lanercost, by Liverpool out of Otis. 

Lully, by Tipple Cider out of Pecora. 

Mastrillo, by Sylvio out of Miss Anna. 

Prince Colibri, by Sylvio out of Fraga. 

Ramsay, by Sjdvio out of Emelina. 

Schamyl, by Rough Robin out of Kate Kearney. 

Stoker, by Steamer out of Motley. 

Tipple Cider, by Defence out of Deposit. 

AT POMPADOUR. 

Alpha, by Caravan out of Emerande. 
Baba, by Commodore Napier out of Mercdd^s. 
Brocard, by Brocardo out of Maltzia. 
Commodore Napier, by Royal Oak out of Flighty^ 
Garry Ov^en, by Saint Patrick out of Excitement. 
Ionian, by Ion out of Malibran. 
Mokanna, by Gladiator out of Zenobia. 
Malton, by Sheet Anchor out of Fair Helen. 
Nunnykirk, by Touchstone out of Beeswing. 
Point-et-Virgule, by Brandyface out of Sylvandire. 
Quaker, by Napoleon out of Follette. 
Uriel, by Nunnykirk out of Opale. 
Victor, by Mr. Waggs out of Destiny. 
Yedo, by Commodore Napier out of Venezia. 
E 



CO THE HORSE, 

AT RODEZ. 

Brandyface, by Inheritor out of Tiffany. 

Lodin, by Terror out of Eugenia. 

Moka, by Frivole out of Medina. 

Pbilosopher, by Voltaire out of Mina. 

Sledmere, by Sleight of Hand out of Hamptonia, 

William the Conqueror, by Charles XII. out of Emerald. 

AT ROSIERES. 

Backgammon, by Prince Caradoc out of Poulette. 

Chesterfield Junior, by Chesterfield, dam by Glaucus, 

Hasard, by Chance out of Filagree. 

Mytheme, by Caravan out of Miss Rainbow. 

Peu-d'Espoir, by Sting, the Baron, or the Emperor out of Belvidere. 

Tender, by Strongbow out of Miss Tarrare. 

Yatagan, by Ionian out of Jocaste. 

Young Caravan, by Caravan out of Olinga. 

AT SAINTES. 

Accroche Coeur, by Malton out of Jocaste. 
Alerte, by Brocardo out of Belle Poule. 
Babiega, by Atila out of Essler. 
Emilien, by Royal Oak out of Corysandre. 
Meriad^e, by Prince Caradoc out of Fretillon, 
Nathaniel, by Mr. Waggs out of Nativa. 
Pi^destal, by Commodore Napier out of Sylvina. 
Ronconi, by Sting out of Lydia. 
Scarborough, by Ratan, dam by Muley Moloch. 
Sir Charles, by Sleight of Hand, dam by Macbeth. 
Soulouque, by Beggarman out of Molokine. 
Topinamboor, by Ionian out of Eugenie. 
Ulric, by Terror out of Lima. 

AT SAINT LO. 

Adolphus, by Royal Oak out of Anna, 

Assault, by Touchstone out of Ghuznee. 

Ballinkeele, by Birdcatcher out of Perdita. 

Bravo, by Sylvio out of Belle de Nuit. 

Debardeur, by Young Emilius out of Donar Pilar. 

Don Quichotte, by Sylvio out of Moinar. • 

Eylau, by Napoleon out of Delphine. 

Guignolet, by Gladiator or Sting out of Discrete. 

Isolier, by Nunnykirk or The Baron out of Deceptioo. 

Jocko, by Harlequin out of Priestess. 

Marengo, by Napoleon out of Cloris. 

Omar Pasha, by Brocardo out of Cochlea. 

Penkam, by Caravan out of 'Mariquita. 

Royal Quand-meme, by Gigfes out of Eusebia. 

Sharavogue, by Freney, dam by Skylark. 

Tais-toi, by The Emperor out of S^r^uade. 

The Caster, by Emilius out of Castaside. 

AT SAINT MAIXENT. 

Alcide, by Nunnykirk out of Tanais. 
Arnac, by Brocardo out of Didon. 
Clubstick, by Royal Oak out of Vesper. 
Incertain, by Tipple Cider out of Emerald. 
Saint Simon, by Gladiator out of Sweetlips. 
Sans Faf on, by Morok — Symmetry. 

AT STRASBOURO. 

Bon Voyage, by Malton out of Fringanto. 
Clovis, by Tipple Cider out of Danaide. 



THE FLEMISH HORSE. 61 

Coustranville, by Gladiator out of Beeswing 
Cupidon, by Nelson out of Vesper. 
Landry, by Young Enailius out of Miss King. 
Lizard, by Caravan out of Polyxene. 
Quadrilatfere, by Manaeluke out of No^mi. 
Young Talisman, by Garry Owen out of Skirmish, 

AT TARBES. 

Assassin, by Taurus out of Sneaker. 

Beaucens, by Sting out of Eccola. 

Canton, by Cain, dam by Bustard. 

Collinwood, by Sheet Anchor out of Kalmia. 

Corazon, by Swinton out of Duet. 

Coucron, by Caravan out of Penance. 

Ethel wolf, by Faugh-a Ballagh out of Espoir. 

Farfadet, by Saint Francis out of Samphire. 

Flight Away, by Gladiator out of Flighty. 

Fragile, by Young Emilius out of Eloa. 

Fulger, by Young Emilius out of Candida. 

Saint Bernard, by Napoleon out of Midsummer. 

Grey Tommy, by Slight of Hand, dam by Comas. 

Kremlin, by Napoleon out of Danae. 

Lindor, by the Emperor out of Suavita. 

Mardain, by Slane out of Mis^re. 

Marly, by Attila out of Maria. 

Morok, by Beggarman out of Vanda. 

Moustique, by Sting out of Essler. 

Premier Aoiit, by Physician out of Princess Edwis. 

Prospectus, by Camel out of Jenny Vertpr^. 

Slane, by Eoyal Oak out of Naiad. 

Sting, by Slane out of Echo. 

The Ban, by Don John out of Young Defiance. 

Toisou d'Or, by Prince Caradoc out of Honeymoon. 

Vendredi, by Cain out of Naiad. 

Zoile, by M d'Ecoville. 

AT VILLENEUVE. i" 

Aramis, by Royal Oak out of Chim&re. 

Clown, by Commodore Napier out of Hoema. 

Epervier, by Caravan out of Emilia. 

Lilliput, by Sting out of Miss Lot. 

Lamartine, by Epirus out of Grace Darling. 

Philip Shah, by the Sbah out of Philip's dam. 

Sir Roland de Bois, by Touchstone out of Falernia. 



THE FLEMISH HOESE. 

The ^Netherlands have a great advantage over most of the countries 
into which the continent of Europe is divided, in the possession of exten- 
sive meadows which are not flooded, and in which the fine clovers, so 
requisite to the development of the horse, are produced in tolerable 
abundance. Eor this reason chiefly, I believe, the Flemish horses have 
long enjoyed a high reputation, second only to oiir own, and to them we 
owe many useful crosses among our dray and heavy agricultural draught- 
horses. Both their Hght and hea-vy breeds are remarkable for high crests, 
small heads, somewhat narrow across the eyes, heavy shoulders, and round, 
powerful, but very drooping quarters. Their hocks are comparatively 
small but clean, and their legs light and free from hair. Their worst 
point lies in the feet, which almost always have flat and thin soles, 
imfitting them for fast work on hard roads. Just prior to the introduction 
of railroads the English system of coaching was introduced into Belgium, 

e2 



52 THE HORSE. 

and I have sat behind several teams of mares drawing a heavy diligence 
more than ten miles within the hour. We now possess a class of animals 
in our heavy omnibuses, a pair of which will draw the enormous weight 
of four tons at the rate of six or eight miles per hour ; but they do not run 
more than six miles in one stage, nor, as far as I am aware, does any 
omnibus travel nearly as fast as the crack Belgian diligences which, were 
running between 1830 and 1840. Indeed, I hardly think any horses 
could have been found in this country at a price suited to coaching work, 
which would have done the work of these Flemish mares. Almost all 
were bay with black points, and their legs were nearly as clean and free 
from hair as those of our thoroughbreds. They were extraordinarily good- 
tempered, and suffered their attendants to " put them to " altogether, being 
all attached to a splinter-bar, which was turned over the quarters of the 
wheelers. In this way the change was effected even in less time tban by 
our crack coaches, when one and a half minute was considered the out- 
side time to be allowed. All that was necessary was to puIL up nearly 
close behind the four horses standing ready for the change, then unhooking 
the bar of those just come in it was turned over their quarters, and they 
were taken forwards till they cleared the pole, when they were in a body 
turned on one side. The four fresh horses were ihen quickly backed to 
their places, a wheeler passing on each side the pole, the bar was dropped 
to its place and hooked, the reins in the meantime being taken out of 
the territs by th.e coachman, and the change was effected in less than a 
minute. 

THE HAITOYERIAK HOESES. 

Every one who has seen Her Majesty's black jcarriage-horses must 
be familiar with this breed. Some are also brought over to this country 
for the use of the undertaker, but they are more costly than the Flemisb 
and Holstein horses, and are only used by the most fashionable houses in 
that trade. They are remarkable for the length and beauty of their manes 
and tails, and for their brilliant black colour. This is specially developed 
in the entii'e horses, which are therefore used for purposes of show. They 
have neat heads and well arched necks, but have very light middle pieces 
badly ribbed up. Their shoulders are somewhat upright, and their arms 
and thighs are lighter than in any other European breed of the same size 
and beauty. The action of these horses both on the walk and trot is high 
and proud, yet tolerably fast, and I believe in their native country they 
make useful troopers and light harness horses. Here the hard macadamized 
roads forbid their being employed for any purposes but those to which I 
have alluded. 

THE EUSSIAIT HOESE. 

The native Eussian horse is a small, active, and hardy animal, 
capable of undergoing great fatigues and privations, but not possessed of 
much speed in any of its paces. Of late years great progress has been 
made in improving them by crossing the blood with that of English and 
Ajab thoroughbreds, and also by mixing with these the best Flemish and 
French light harness horses. Throughout the vast grassy plains of the 
interior of Eussia there are the finest opportunities afforded for the 
breeding of horses, and I believe that prior to the late Eussian war these had 
been taken advantage of to produce a cavalry horse equal in size to any in 
Europe but that of our own Life Guards. But the loss of these animals was 
so great in the march to Sebastopol that a considerable change for tlie worse 



HISTORY OP THE ENGLISH THOROUGHBRED. 53 

has been experienced, which it will take some years to recover. The 
Cossack horses are mere ponies or galloways, and would have no chance 
in a^ charge of cavalry, being reserved for lighter duties, which they are 
admirably fitted to perform. 

NOEWEGIAIT A^D SWEDISH HOESES. 

In Norway the horses are almost aU of a colour, midway between 
cream and dun, with black manes and tails, and a black stripe along the 
back. Several stalhons of this breed were introduced into Wales about 
forty or fifty years ago, and these peculiar markings are still prevalent 
there, _ They are of good shape, very safe, and possessed of clean but not 
very high action. 

The Swedish horses are smaller than those of l^orway, and of all 
colours. They are chiefly used in harness, being driven in a carriole with 
very long shafts, so that the body is suspended midway between the horse 
and the wheels. This gives it a very uneasy motion, which requires some 
time to accustom the rider to it. When larger carriages are required, four 
of these little creatures are put to them, and they wiU gallop a ten mile 
stage within the hour. 



CHAPTEE VL 

THE ENGLISH THOROUGHBRED HORSE. 

GENERAL HISTORY — THE ENGLISH THOROUGHBRED HORSE OP 1750 — HIS ORIGIN — THE 
MODERN THOROUGHBRED — INCREASE OP SIZE AND SYMMETRY— COMPARATIVE STOUT- 
NESS EARLY MATURITY — OBJECT OF ENCOURAGING THE BREED — ESSENTIALS IN 

THE THOROUGHBRED — PURITY OF BLOOD — EXTERNAL PORMATION — HEIGHT — COLOUR 
— COAT, MANE, AND TAIL — THE THOROUGHBRED HUNTER AND STEEPLECHASER. 

GENEEAL HISTOEY. 

We have no record of the existence of the horse in England until the 
time of the Eoman invasion of the island, when we know that large 
numbers were found here ready to oppose the landing, and used both in 
chariots and as cavalry. But this country never became remarkable for 
her breed of horses until after the time of the Stuarts, who paid great 
attention to this animal, and caused numbers of Arab stallions and 
mares to be imported. In the time of Henry the Eighth, the want of 
good horses was so much felt, that an Act was passed, forbidding any 
entire horse of a greater age than two years, and less than fifteen hands 
high, to be turned out in any common or waste land in the counties of 
Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Buckingham, Huntingdon, Essex, Kent, 
Hampshire, Wiltshire, Oxford, Berkshire, Worcester, Gloucester, Somer- 
set, Bedfordshuie, Warkwickshire, Northampton, Yorkshire, Cheshire, Staf- 
fordshire, Lancashire, Salop, Leicester, Hereford, Lincoln, and North or 
South Wales. In other counties the limit was put at fourteen hands, but 
for what reason I am not aware. Small weedy mares and foals were also 
ordered to be destroyed ; and the owners of horses infected with a con- 
tagious disease, who turned them out, were fined ten shillings. Still, the 
deficiency was so great, that in the time of tbe threatened invasion by 
the Spanish Armada, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, only three thousand 



54 THE HORSE. 

horses could be collected for the cavalry ; and, to procure these, a serious 
interruption was produced in the internal traffic of the kingdom, which 
was then carried on by means of pack-horses. It appears, however, that 
on board the Spanish ships there were a great number of the Andalusian 
horses, which were then considered the best iu Europe ; and these being 
taken possession of by the victorious Admiral for his mistress, were of 
great service in improving the breed. In her reign coaches were in- 
vented, and this was another reason for encouraging the size and strength 
of the horse ; the depth of the ruts and the steej) hills on aU the roads of 
the country demanding much greater power than at present, and six 
horses being the smallest team in use. For the purpose of carrying the 
mail-clad men-at-arms, a powerful horse of great size had long been 
wanted, but not of quite the same colossal proportions as was required for 
the use of the heavy lumbering coaches which were now introduced. In 
course of time, however, after gunpowder was invented, armour became 
useless, and then a lighter horse was in request. Eacing had long been 
established in a few small meetings every year ; but no sooner was a Hght 
cavalry demanded than a double impetus was given to the amusement, and 
Arabs, Barbs, and Turks were imported in large numbers, for the purpose 
of breeding animals suited either to the turf or the saddle. This Avas in 
the middle of the seventeenth century, during which time a number of 
books on the management of the horse were published in France and 
England, showing the interest wliich was generally taken in the subject. 
Of these, the most celebrated is the magnificently illustrated work of the 
Duke if ITewcastle, who occupied himseK in writing it at Antwerp, during 
his banishment in the time of the Commonwealth, between 1650 and 
1660. He describes the horses of his time as follows: — "The Turkish 
horse stands high, though of unequal shape, being remarkably beautiful 
and active, with plenty of power, and excellent vnnd, but rarely possesses 
a good moutli. Much praise is given to the grandeur of carriage of the 
I^eapolitan horse ; and, in truth, they are fine horses, those I have seen 
being both large, strong, and full of spirit. I have not only seen several 
Spanish horses, but several have been in my possession. They are ex- 
tremely beautiful, and the most eligible of any, either to form subjects for 
the artist, or to carry a monarch, when, surrounded by the pomp and 
dignity of majesty, he would show himself to his people ; for they are 
neither so intemperate as the Barbs, nor so large as the [NTeapolitans, but 
the perfection of both. The Baxb possesses a superb and high action, 
is an excellent trotter and galloper, and very active when in motion. 
Although generally not so strong as other breeds, when well chosen I do 
not know a more noble horse ; and I have read strange accounts of their 
courage — for example, when so badly wounded that their entrails have 
protruded, they have carried their riders safe and sound out of danger, 
with the same spirit with which they entered it, and then dropped dead." 
From the engravings in this book, the war-horse of that period closely 
resembled the Flemish or Hanoverian blacks which we now have, but of 
greater substance, the man in armour weighing betwe'en twenty and 
twenty -five stone. But even supposing this to be the horse of the country 
in the time of the second Charles, a very few crosses of Arab blood would 
iine it down, till in appearance it would not be distinguishable from its 
Eastern progenitor. One-eighth of cold blood is not very perceptible, and 
this proportion would exist in the third cross, and would therefore occupy 
only ten or a dozen years to produce it. Gradually a breed of horses was 
established, which has been celebrated throughout the world for the last 



THE THOROUGHBRED HORSE OE 1750. 65 

centtuy, for sjDeed, stoutness, and beauty ; in all which quahties the 
present stock excels their parents on both sides. Much of this excellence 
is doubtless due to the climate and soil of the country, which encourage 
the growth of those fine grasses that exactly suit the dehcate stomach of 
this animal. But without care and judgment in the selection and breeding 
of the horse, our ancestors never could have arrived at such extraordinary 
success j and whether this depended upon chance or preconceived theory, 
nearly equal merit is due, for there is as much credit in seizing hold of 
facts which upset a prejudice, as in acting upon those that support it. 
For a century and a half we have carefully preserved the pedigrees of our 
pure bred horses, and for more than a third of that time they have been 
recorded in the Stud-book by the Messrs. Weatherby. Besides these, we 
Lave breeds suited to the various purposes for which horses can be 
required — namely, hunting, hacking, light and heavy harness- work on the 
road, and agricultural operations. Each of these varieties must, therefore, 
be considered separately ; and, as the grand piece de resistance, I shall 
begin with 

THE EN"GLISH THOEOUGHBEED HOESE OF 1750. 

In our historical records there are sundry notices of the importation 
of Spanish and Flemish horses to serve as chargers, but there is no clear 
account of any Eastern horse being brought into the country until the 
reign of James the First, when Mr. Markham, a merchant of London, 
sent for an Arabian from Constantinople, and sold hijn to the King for 
500^., an enormous siim in those days. A great deal was expected from 
this horse, but both the individual and his stock were found to be too 
slow to race, and no other effort was made by either James I. or 
Charles I. in the same direction. A Mr. Place, who was stud groom 
to Oliver Cromwell, obtained possession of an Eastern horse, which 
appears in the Stud-book as " Place's "VNTiite Turk," but of his history 
nothing is known. Fairfax's Morocco Barb, and the Helmsly Turk, the 
property of the Duke of Buckingham, were used to cross the blood of 
the four Barb mares imported by Charles the Second from Tangiers, and 
known in the Stud-book aa the "Eoyal Mares;" and for many years, that 
is, nearly to the end of the seventeenth century, no other Eastern blood 
was employed in the English breeding studs, with the exception of the 
three Hamburg mares which were taken at the siege of Vienna, and 
brought over in 1684. These are generally considered to be the foundation 
of the breed of our English thoroughbred. It is quite clear, however, 
that prior to this time we were in possession of a strain of racehorses which 
were possessed of fair speed, for it is absurd to suppose that the Arabs of 
these days are faster than they were two hundred years ago, and yet, 
those imported then specially to run at Newmarket, were beaten with ease. 
It is also highly probable that the imported horses and mares were not 
bred from, exclusively of the native or Spanish horses already in the 
country, for we find in almost all the old pedigrees a break-down somewhere 
or other. Thus, in the pedigree of Eclipse there are two blanks, which, it 
is true, may have been filled by mares of Eastern blood, but the omission 
of the name looks extremely like a desire to hide what has since been 
considered a blot in the escutcheon. My own beli-ef is that the racehorse 
of that day was imported from Spain, and bred from a cross of the Anda- 
lusian mare with the Barb introduced by the Moors. A fresh infusion of 
Eastern blood therefore was likely to " hit," as we know it did } and by 



66 THE HORSE. 

caie, and taking aavantage of our climate and other natural advantages, 
the fine breed was produced which we now possess. The Dulce of New- 
castle in his advice to breeders, after describing the sort of mare suitable 
to breed racehorses, says :— " Your stallion by any means must be a Barb, 
and somewhat of the shape that I have described the mare to be of. For a 
Barb that is a jade will get a better running horse than the best running 
horse in England : as Sir John Fenwick told me, who had more experience 
in running horses than any man in England. For he had more rare 
running horses than any man in all England beside, and the most part of 
all the famous rumiing horses in England that ran one against another 
were of his race and breed. Some commend the Turk very much for a 
stalhon to breed running horses, but they are so scarce and rare that I can 
give no judgment of them, and therefore I advise you to the Barb, which 
I believe is much the better horse to breed runniug horses." 

In this passage it, is clearly established that the mare used for breeding 
racehorses in the times I am alluding to was not necessarily of Eastern 
blood, for he says ■ your stalHon must be a Barb ; but though minutely 
describing the make and shape of the mare, and that as well as the most 
skilful breeder of the present day, he does not place any limitation on her 
breeding. Indeed, I believe that the use of the Spanish, mixed, perhaps, 
with native English blood iu the mare, was the real cause of the success 
which attended the cross with the Barb ; the mare being of greater size 
and stride than the horse, and giving those qualities to the produce, 
while the horse brought out the original strain of Eastern blood, which 
possessed the wind and endurance so peculiar to it. We may, therefore, 
conclude that the origin of the thoroughbred horse of the present day is 
to be laid in the following strains. 

OEIGIN OF THE THOROUGHBRED HORSE. 

1. Native ma/res used for racing, and bred from Spanish and English strains, the 

former most probably descended from the Barbs of Morocco. 

2. MarJcham's Arabian, imported iu the time of James the First, but proved to be 

good for nothing, and most probably there is now not the slightest strain of his 
blood extant. 

3. Place's White Turh, extensively used, and to him most of our best horses can be 

traced, through Matchem. 

4. The Three Turks brought over from the siege of Vienna in 1684. 

6. The Royal Mares, imported by Charles the Second, who sent his Master of the 
Horse to the Levant specially to procure them. These also are mentioned in all 
the best pedigrees. 

Vakious other horses and mares are mentioned in the early pedigrees 
between the times of Charles 11. and James II., when the Byerley Turk 
makes his appearance. Of these we have no exact record, either as to the 
date of their importation or the country from which they came, so that 
all that can be done is to enumerate them. They are Alcock's Arab, the 
Morocco Barb, D'Arc/s Yellow Turk, the White D'Arcy Turk, Leedes 
Arab, the Brownlow Arab, Harper's Arab, Pullen's Chestnut Arab, Honey- 
wood's "V\niite Arab, the old Bald Peg Aj-ab, and the Arab sire of Make- 
less. Most of these occur in our best pedigrees, but the two D'Arcy 
Turks, as we shall hereafter find, are particularly conspicuous there. 

The next era in breeding is the introduction of the By?.rley Turk 
and Lister's, or the Stradling Turk. The former was used in the Irish 
wars between James II. and William and Mary, as Captain Byerley'a 
charg/)r, about the year 1 689 ; and being afterwards put to the stud, was 



ORIGIN OF THE THOROUGHBRED HORSE. 57 

the sire of the Duke of Kingston's Sprite, Lord Bristol's Grasshopper, Sir 
Roger Moyston's Jigg (sire of Partner, and Basto), from whom, throngli 
his daughter (the sister to Soreheels), were descended Crah, the Bald Gal- 
loway, and the celebrated Match' em. The Lister Turk was brought over 
from the siege of Buda during the reign of James the Second, by the Duke 
of Berwick. He was sire of Snake, and therefore great-grandsire of Squirt, 
from whom was descended the celebrated Eclipse. 

The Darley Arabian marks another step, and must have been imported 
somewhere between the years 1700 and 1715, his son Childers being 
foaled in the latter. He belonged to Mr. Darley, of Buttercramb, near 
York, who obtained him through his brother, a merchant of Aleppo. He 
is said to have been a native of Palmyra, but this is only traditional, and 
there is really nothing certain known of his blood. He was the sire of 
the Devonshhe Childers, and his brother, Bartlett's Childers ; the former 
not being now represented by any horse through the male line, but being 
the maternal great-grandfather to Herod, while the latter is well known 
to all horse-breeders as the great-grandsire of Eclipse. He also was the 
sire of Almanzor, a good racehorse, Cupid, Brisk, and Dasdalus, all fast, 
and of a host of inferior runners, though he had few mares put to him. The 
Devonshire Childers is supposed to have been the fastest horse of his day, 
and it is recorded that he ran the round course at Newmarket (three miles 
six fuiiongs and ninety-three yards) in six minutes forty seconds. Bartlett's 
Childers was not tramed. In addition to the Darley Arabian, there were 
also imported, between the years 1700 and 1724, when the Godolphin Barb 
appeared, Curwen's Bay Barb, the Thoulouse Barb, the Belgrade Turk, 
the Lonsdale Bay Arab, Compton's Barb, afterwards named the Sedley 
Grey Arab, the CuUen Arabian, the Leedes Arabian, and St. Victor's Barb. 
The Curwen Bay Barb was grandsire on the maternal side of Partner, and 
with the Thoulouse Barb was presented to Louis XLV. by the King of 
Morocco. They were purchased from the natural son of Louis by Mr. 
Curwen, of Workington, Cumberland, and brought over to England. The 
Belgrade Turk was taken at the siege of Belgrade. Nothing is known of 
the antecedents of the Lonsdale Bay Arab, but he was sii-e of a great 
many good horses ; yet he is not now represented by any descended 
through the male line. Of the others we have no record beyond theii 
names in the various pedigrees. 

The Godolphin Arabian is very commonly supposed to have been the 
last Eastern horse of any note used in the stud, with the exception of the 
Wellesley Grey Arab, in the early part of the present century. This, 
however, is not true ; for whereas he was foaled about the year 1724, 
there are the following names to be seen in the best pedigrees, all of later 
date; viz. the Damascus Arab, 1754; the Newcombe Bay Ai'ab, 1756; 
the Coombe Arab, 1760; and Bell's Grey Arab, 1765. The Godolphin 
Arabian, or Barb as he is very commonly supposed to have been, was 
about fifteen hands high, and of a rich brown bay colour. The tradition 
is that he was sent to Prance from Barbary, as a present to Louis XFV. 
by the Emperor of Morocco ; but, like the Curwen Bay and Thoulouse 
Barbs, he was not valued as he deserved, but being turned out of the stud, 
was employed to draw a water-cart in Paris. From this ignoble occupation 
he was rescued by Mr. Coke, but when brought to England he was at first 
no better off, for he was used as teazer to Hobgoblin, and was only 
allowed to cover Eoxana on the refusal of that celebrated horse to do his 
duty. The produce was Lath, the most celebrated racehorse of his day, 
and reputed to be only second to Childers. Tlais success immediately 



68 THE HORSE. 

procured him plenty of mares, chiefly, however, helonging to the Earl of 
Oodolphin ; and it is not a little remarkable that before Lath could have 
heen tried, in fact, when he was only a yearling, his dam, Roxana, was 
put to the Godolphin Arabian again, producing Cade, the sire of Matchem, 
who though less famous in liis own day, is now much better known 
from his greater success as a staUion. He also got Eegulus, the maternal 
grandsire of Eclipse, Blank, and Babraham, both represented in our best 
pedigrees. The shape of the Godolphin Arabian was very remarkable, as 
may be seen on examining the engraving of him given at page 16. 

The Damascus Arab, imported in 1 7 60, was said to be of pure Arab blood, 
having been presented by the Sheik of Acria to the Pasha of Damascus, 
who gave him to a merchant at Aleppo, and he again sold him to an 
EngHshman who was then on his travels. He is not now represented in 
the stud, though of some celebrity in his day as a stallion. The New- 
combe Bay Arabian was of considerable size and substance, resembling in 
these respects the Godolphin Arabian more than the ordinary run of 
Eastern horses. He, however, had very few mares. Bell's Grey Arabian 
was the last of the importations made during the eighteenth century, 
being extensively used in the stud between the years 1765 and 1772, 
when he died. He was sire of a great many good runners in his day, but 
his blood is now entirely extinct. 

During the first half of the eighteenth century, besides the two 
Childers which have been already mentioned under the head of the 
Darley Arabian, the following celebrated horses and mares were foaled : — 

Basto, 1703 ; who was considered to be one of the best horses of his year. 

Makeiess, a son of the Oglethorp Arabian. , 

Bay Bolton, 1705; a great winner. 

Brocklesby Betty, 1711 ; who was thought to be superior to any horse of her 

time, and was not trained till after she had produced a foal. 
Brocklesby, 1728. 
Benny Black, 1715. 
Buckhunter, 1715; better known as the Carlisle Gelding, being obliged to be 

castrated on account of vice. 
Fox, 1714. 
Squirrel, 1719. 
Miss Neasham, 1720; dam of Miss Patty, and through her granddam of 

Captain Macheath, who travelled and raced more than 500 miles by road 

in seven weeks. 
Old Cartouche, and Bald Charlotte. 
€rab, 1722. 

Hobgoblin, 1724 ; by Aleppo, son of the Darley Arabian. 
Fearnought, 1725. 
Starling, 1727. 
Partner, 1731. 
Little Partner, 1731. 
Miss Lay ton, 1736. 

Lath, 1732 ; the cause of the Godolphin Barb coming into use. 
Second, 1732. 
Volunteer, 1735. 
Mooreork, 1740. 

Babrah-im, 1740 ; sou of the Godolphin Arabian, out of the large Hartley mure. 
Little Driver, 1743. 
Silver Leg, 1743. 

Othello, afterwards called Black and all Black. 1743. 
Sampson, 1745. 
Brilliant, 1750. 
Forrester, 1750. 
Marske, 1750; sire of Eclipse. 
Snap, 1750. 
Syphon, 1750. 



ORIGIN OF THE THOROUGHBRED HORSE. B9 

In the tear 1750, there came off at Newmarket the celebrated match 
made hy the Duke of Queensbury (then Earl of March), to get four horses 
to draw a carriage with four wheels, and a person on it, nineteen miles 
within the hour. The feat was performed in fifty-three minutes twenty- 
seven seconds ; and the four horses engaged, which were each ridden, 
were Mr. GreviUe's Tawney, Mr. Hammond's Eoderick Eandom, the 
Duke of Hamilton's Chance, and Mr. Thompson's Little Dan. The 
horses ran away for the first four miles, which were accomplished in nine 
minutes. 

Between the tears 1748 and 1764, the repeated use of Arab, 
Turkish, and Barb blood had produced the happiest effect upon our race- 
horses, and dui'ing this period three celebrated horses were foaled, M^hich 
respectively carry on the blood of the Byerley Turk, the Darley Arabian, 
and the Godolphin Barb through the male lines. These tliree are Herod, 
or as he was then called Kiug Herod, foaled in 1758 ; Eclipse, foaled in 
17G4; and Matchem, in 1748. Mr. Goodwin, Veterinary Sm-geon, of 
Hampton Court, has published a table in which he traces all our good 
thoroughbred horses of the present day to one or other of the three Eastern 
roots above mentioned ; but he seems to have forgotten that in each case, even 
prior to the time of Herod, Matchem, and Eclipse, there had been a mixture 
with one of the other two, and since then in almost every case with the 
third. It is, therefore, scarcely fair to attribute the excellence of Melbourne, 
for instance, to the Godolphin Arabian, from whom he is descended in the 
male line through Matchem, for the latter horse was also closely allied to 
the Byerley Turk tlu-ough his dam, and had moreover a second more remote 
strain of the same blood. The same may be said of Melbourne's great 
rival. Touchstone, who is set down by Mr. Goodwin as a proof of the 
value of the Darley Arabian, to whom he can readily be traced through a 
series of sires numbering Eclipse among them, Now a glance at the pedigree 
of this latter horse will show that though he was a great-great-grandson 
of the Darley Arabian through Bartlett's Childers, he was a great-grandson 
of the Godolphin Barb on the side of his dam, and therefore one remove 
nearer to the latter. Again, Bay Middleton, the cotemporary of Touchstone 
and Melbourne and a representative of the Byerley Turk, according to 
]\Ir. Goodwin's table, is descended through Herod from the Darley Arabian 
on the dam's side, as well as from the Byerley Turk on that of his sire. 
To make this clear, however, I will give the pedigree tables of the three 
liorses above mentioned, which will also serve to illustrate another point 
which must be subsequently discussed. 



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PEDIGllEE OF MATCIIK^I 



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66 THE HORSE. 

I HAVE SAID that tliere is another point to be considered in examining 
into the claims of these three Eastern sires, and to be estimated above all 
others. Each pedigree, it wUl be seen, contains the names of other 
Eastern sires, besides a few mares of that blood ; and it has been argued 
that we are therefore as much indebted to the St. Victor's Barb, D'Arcy's 
Yellow Turk, Curwen's Bay Barb, the Acaster Turk, and Place's "White 
Turk, for the success of Matchem and his descendants, as to the Godolphin 
Barb. So also in the table which has Herod's name at the head, we find 
not only that he is descended from the Byerley Turk and Darley Arabian, 
but that he has the names of the following Eastern horses in his pedigree, 
viz. — the White D'Arcy Turk, the Leedes Arab, the Brownlow Turk, 
Harper's Arab, and Bethel's Arab. Again, in relation to Eclipse, he 
numbers the Lister Turk, the Leedes Arab, Hutton's Grey Barb, 
St. Victor's Barb, and D'Arcy's Yellow Turk among his ancestors ; and 
why should they not have the credit of his success as well as the Darley 
Arabian? l^OAV, some have replied to tliis question by asserting that 
though it is true that their names do thus occur, yet it is only as the 
progenitors of the various dams, as they are not represented in the male 
line. Another argument is founded upon the accumulative evidence 
which is afibrded by the three celebrated roots of our thoroughbred stock. 
Eor Avhereas we find the names of two out of the tliree in each of the 
pedigrees given, and as we descend, the whole of them almost invariably, 
yet, as is alleged, we have rarely more than one of the other Eastern sires 
occurring in any of the tables. This argument requires a little careful 
investigation, and I wUl therefore analyse the three tables with reference 
to each of the sires I have enumerated, which are — 1. The St. Victor's 
Barb ; 2. D'Arcy's Yellow Turk ; 3. Curwen's Bay Barb ;- 4. The Acaster 
Turk ; 5. Place's White Turk ; 6. The White D'Arcy's Turk. 7. The 
Leedes Arab ; 8, The Brownlow Tiu-k ; 9. Harper's Arab ; 10. Bethel's 
Arabj 11. The Lister Turk ; 12. Hutton's Grey Barb. 

1. The St. Victor's Bay Barh, as the sire of the Bald Galloway, is met with once in 

the pedigree of Matchem^ and also once in that of Eclipse. 

2. D'Arcy's Yelloio Turk occurs in Table 1, thrice as sire of Spanker; in Tahle 3, 

twice as sire of Spanker and Brimmer ; and in Table 2, as sire of Brimmei". 

3. Curiven's Bay Barb. Once in Table ], as sire of the Sister to Mixburj, which mare 

also occurs in Table 3 twice. 

4. TJie Acaster Turk. Once only in Table 3. 

5. Place's White Turk appears only once as the sire of the great-great-granddam of 

Matchem. 

6. The White D'Arcy Turk, as the sire of Hautboy, occurs seven times in Table 2, 

and twice in Table 1, also as the sire of that horse. 

7. Tlie Leedes Arab. Once in Table 1 ; twice in Table 2. 

8. The Broionlow Turk. Once only in Table 1. 

9. Harper's Ai-ab. Once in Table 1. 

10. Bethel's Arab. Once in Table 1. 

11. The Lister Turk. Thrice in Table 2. 

12. Hutton's Grey Barb. Once in Table 2. 

In comparing these, therefore, with the three "great roots," as they 
are called, we shall find that numerically several of them are equal, and 
Bome superior to the latter ; thus — 

1. The Byerley Turk occurs once in Table 1, and twice in Table 3. 

2. The Darley Arabian is met with twice in Table 1, and once in Table 2. 

3. The Godolphin Barb appears once in Table 2, and once in Table 3. 

1 F, TnEREFORE, the value of a particular strain descending through the 
female line is the same as that passmg through the male branches, the 



ORIGIN OF THE THOROUGHBRED HORSE. 67 

foregoing calculation would place the two D'Ai'cy Turks considerably 
ahead of all competitors. The Yellow D'Arcy Tui'k, for instance, 
appears in all three of these great j)edigrees (altogether six times), while 
the White D'Arcy Turk, through Hautboy, is met with nine times in 
two out of the three pedigrees. Mr. Hanckey Smith and other writers 
on the horse have drawn attention to this subject, and although I haA'c 
on former occasions disputed the correctness of his arguments, yet on a 
carefiil reconsideration I am bound to admit that there is perhaps some 
tenable ground for the hypothesis, even if we do not accept it. But 
though it is quite true that, as I before remarked, these horses occur more 
frequently than any other ui the three pedigrees, yet still the strains are 
mu.ch more remote ; and in the pedigree of Eclipse, for instance, the 
whole seven, when put together, only amount to yf -g- of that horse. Now 
this is only a trifle over -^g, while the Darley Arabian makes up exactly 
that proportion, and the Godolphin Barb tAvice as much, or ■!■. But 
when, in addition to these facts, it is considered that both the one and the 
other of the last-named horses are continually being renewed as we come 
nearer to our own times, while the re-appearance of the White D'Arcy 
Turk is much more rare, the argument is no longer felt to be tenable. 
Eclipse himself, I think, may very probably have owed his good qualities 
to the numerous lines of the White D'Arcy Turk ; but taking his son 
PotSos and his grandson Waxy, the probability is all the other way. 
Eor Eclipse, being composed of a little more than Jg- of the White 
D'Arcy, of y^- exactly of the Darley Arabian, and |- of the Godolphin 
Barb, is put to Sportsmistress, possessing a trace of the White D'Arcy 
Turk, but made up of ^ of the Godolphin Barb, and /^ each of the 
Darley Arab and Byerley Turk. The composition, therefore, of the pro- 
duce, PotSos, will be ^ Godolphin Barb, ^^^ Darley Arabian, -^-^ Byerley 
Turk, and j-^-g- of the White D'Arcy Turk. To make this calculation 
intelligible, it is necessary to study the subject of breeding, to the chapter 
on which my reader is referred for its explanation. Proceeding, however, 
to the next step, we see PotSos put to Maria, who is composed of ^\- 
D'Arcy White Turk, but then -J of her blood is that of the Godolpliin 
Barb, -fy of the Darley Arab, and y^ Byerley Turk. Her composition 
therefore becomes f of Godolphin Barb, -^ of the "VNHiite D'Arcy Turk 
(or a little more than |-), i^ of Darley Ai-ab blood (or about i), and 
JJg- Byerley Turk (or about -^^), proving, on this method of calculation, 
the superior claims of the Godolphin Barb and Darley Arabian to those 
of the White D'Arcy Turk, in estimating the value of the several 
elements of which Waxy" is composed. 

This arithmetical method of calculation is not to be entirely depended 
on, for we shall find, in discussing the theory and practice of breeding, 
that where a domestic animal (a) composed of eight several strains is put 
to another (b) composed also of eight strains of blood, but one of them 
bemg similar to one in (a), the produce shall be more than ^ (a) in appear- 
ance and qualities, and this goes on increasing in proportion to the 
number of times that the experiment is repeated. Eclipse, then, having ' 
nine distinct lines of the White D'Arcy Turk, might be expected, on this 
hypothesis, to be really composed of much more than the exact propor- 
tionals of that horse which I have assigned to him ; and it is on these 
grounds only that Mr. Hanckey Smith's theory can be supported, unless 
the preponderance of the male is admitted to be less than it is very gene- 
rally supposed to be. The subject is one not merely historically curious, but 
of the deepest interest to the breeder of any of our domestic animals, and 

f2 



68 The horse. 

I shall again return to it hereafter. I merely mention it in this place to 
show there are tAVO sides to the question, and that on the value of the 
paternal in comparison with the maternal blood depends, not only the 
relative importance of the Byerley Turk, the Darley Arabian, and the 
Godolphin Barb, in reference to each other, but to the earlier Eastern 
strains, and more especially the tivo TJ Arcy Turhs. 

Having given the Pedigrees of these three celebrated horses, I shall 
now allude to their characteristics and performances, as well as those of 
one or two of their contemporaries, as detailed in the chronicles of the 
day, which, however, I am afraid are not strictly to be dei)ended on. 

The Flying or Devonshire Childers was a chestnut horse, with a 
white nose, and four white legs. He was bred by jMr. Childers, near 
Doncaster, and sold by him to the Duke of Devonshire. He is pictorially 
handed down to us as possessing the shape and action of a light show}'' 
carriage-horse, but I am afraid that the animal painters of those days are 
not much to be trusted. Fortunately two-year-old races were not then 
thought of, and Childers did not appear on the turf till April 1721, when 
he won a four-mile match for 500 guineas at ]S"ewmarket, beating the 
Duke of Bolton's Speedwell, who also forfeited the stake to hun in a 
return match made for the following October. His races were, as Avas the 
custom of those days, either for four or six miles, and the weights from 
8 stone 7 to 10 stone, under which he is said to have performed the 
foUoAving wonderful feats ; but the timing was made Avith ordinary 
watches, and mistakes must undoubtedly have occurred : — About the year 
1721, he is said to have run a trial with Almanzor and the Duke of 
Rutland's BroAvn Betty, carrying 9 stone 2 pounds, over the round 
course (3 miles, 4 furlongs, 93 yards), at j^ewmarket, in 6 minutes and 
41 seconds ; and soon afterwards he ran the Beacon course (4 miles, 
1 furlong, 138 yards), under 9 stone 2 pounds, in 7 minutes and 30 seconds, 
which is about the rate of speed of our modern horses, over our shorter 
courses, and under 8 stone 7 pounds. J!t is therefore very doubtful 
whether the speed has not been exaggerated, and especially as we shall 
presently find a still higher rate is accorded to Matchem. He Avas never 
beaten. His brother Bartlett's Childers Avas neA'er trained, owing to a 
bleeding from the nostrils to Avhich he was subject, but was at once put to 
the stud, and was the sire of numerous AA'inners. 

IMatchem Avas bred by Mr. John Holon of Carlisle in the year 1748, 
but Avas sold as a foal to Mr. Fenwick, of Bywell, Korthtimberland. He, 
like Childers, did not appear till he was five years old, when he won a 
subscription purse at York, and had a long series of successes at !New- 
market, Avinning on one occasion, as it is said, a 50^. plate, over the B. o. 
8 stone 7 pounds, in 7 minutes and 20 seconds ; but this being a greater 
performance than that of Childers, may be considered still more doubtful. 
He Avas subsequently beaten over the same course for the Jockey Club 
Plate, in three heats, the first being timed at 7 minutes 52| seconds ; the 
second, in 7 minutes 40 seconds ; and the third, in 8 minutes 5 seconds ; 
which still further upsets the probability of his haAong performed the 
Avonderful feat above mentioned. In 1759, he Avon a bOl. plate at Scar- 
borough, after which he was put to the stud, his price being at first 5 
guineas, but the success of his stock caused this to be doubled in 1765 ; 
and again, in 1770, Avhenit was raised to 20 guineas ; the lapse of another 
fi.ve years inducmg his OAvner to limit him to 25 mares at 50 guineas 
each. He is supposed in this way to have earned 17,000Z., and in tAV^enty- 
thiee years his stoci won upwards of 150,000^. 



MEASUREMENT OF ECLIPSE. 69 

Heeod, foaled iii 1758, was a rich Lay, and of very fine symmetry and 
size. He was bred by the Duke of Cumberland, and sold to Sir John 
Moore at his death. After a long series of successes at Newmarket, he 
burst a bloodvessel in running for a subscription-purse at York, in 1766, 
after which he was never quite in his previous form, and was put to the 
stud, commencing with 10 guineas, in 1768, and ending with 25 guineas, 
from 1774 to his death, which occurred in 1780. His stock won upwards 
of 201,000^. besides many hogsheads of claret, whips, cups, &c. 

Eclipse (so named from being foaled in the year 1764, when there was 
an eclipse of the sun) was a chestnut horse, like Herod bred by the Duke 
of Cumberland, and at his decease sold to Mr. Henry Wildman, a Smith- 
field salesman, Avho kept racehorses at Mickleham, near Epsom. Piior to 
the sale he must have had some private intelligence of the merits of the 
horse, for we are told that when he arrived there in ample tim.e, according 
to the terms of the advertisement, the sale had been effected, but, claiming 
that the lots already knocked down should be resold, the result was that 
he purchased Eclipse for 75 guineas. In a short time he sold a moiety to 
Colonel O'Kelly for 650 guineas, and in the following year the other 
moiety for 1,100 guineas. In May, 1769, when five years old. Eclipse won 
50^. at Epsom, and it was on the second heat of this unimportant race that 
Colonel O'Kelly is said to have won a very large sum of money, by laying 
that he placed all the five horses engaged in it. Such a feat is so impro- 
bable according to the laws of chance, that his offer was immediately taken 
at much less than the legitimate odds, and on being called on to declare, 
he comphed with the demand by placing " Eclipse first and the rest no- 
where," winning his bet by the great speed of his horse. During the two 
seasons which he was on the turf he won an immense number of 
stakes for Colonel O'Kelly, but at last his extraordinary powers were so 
generally admitted that no owner would enter a horse against him, and he 
was obliged to retire, never having been beaten or paid forfeit. Among 
his victories are eleven King'splates, the weights for all but one of which 
were twelve stone, which now-a-days would be considered a crusher, even 
for a mile or a mile and a half He covered at Clay Hill, near Epsom, 
his price being at first fixed at fifty guineas, but in 1772 it was reduced 
to the more reasonable sum of twenty-five guineas, fluctuating between 
which and thirty guineas he continued at the service of the public till 
1789, when he died. He was so lame in liis feet, that on being removed 
from Epsom to Cannons in Middlesex, he was obliged to be placed in a 
caravan on four wheels, and this was the first instance in which a van was 
used for this purpose, though now so commonly employed. The pro- 
portions of Eclipse have been minutely described by St. Bel, the 
founder of the school which afterwards became the College of Veterinary 
Surgeons, London. He took the admeasurements during life, but verified 
them after death, and they are, therefore, as reliable as any such can 
possibly be, but it must be remembered that they were taken when he was 
twenty-four years old. • 

ST. BEL'S MEASUREMENT OF ECLIPSE. 

The length of the head of the horse is supposed to be divided into twenty-two equal 
parts, ■which are the common measure for every part of the body. 

Three heads and thirteen parts -will give the height of the horse from the foretop to 
the ground. 

Three heads from the withers to the.ground. 

Three heads from the rump to the ground. 

Three heads and three parts, the whole length of the body, from the most prominent 
part of the chest to the extremity of the buttocks. C 



70 THE HORSE. 

Two heads aud twenty parts, the height of the body, thi-ough the middle of the 

centre of gravity. 
Two heads and seven parts, the height of the highest part of the chest from the 

ground. 
Two heads and five parts, the height of the perpendicular line which falls fi'om the 

articulation of the arm with the shoulder, directly to the hoof. 
One head and twenty parts, the height of the perpendicular line which falla from tho 

top of the fore leg, dividing equally all its parts to the fetlock. 
One head and nineteen parts, the height of the perpendicular line from the elbow to 

the ground. 
One head and nineteen parts, the distance from the top of the withers to the stifle. 

The same measure also gives the distance from the top of the rump to the 

elbow. 
One and a half head, the length of the neck from the withers to the top of the head. 

The same measure also gives the length of the neck from the top of the head to 

its insertion into the chest. 
One head, the width of the neck at its imion with the chest. 
Twelve parts of a head, the width of the neck in its narrowest part. 
The same measure gives the breadth of the head taken below the eyes. 
One head and four parts, the thickness of the body from the middle of the back to 

the middle of the belly. 
The same measure gives the breadth of the body. 
Also the rump from its summit to the esti'emity of the buttocks. 
Also the distance from the root of the tail to the stifle. 
Also the length from the stifle to the hock. 
Also the height from the extremity of the hoof to the hock. 

Twenty parts of a liead, the distance from the extremity of the buttocks to the stifle 
Also the breadth of the rump or croup. 
Ten parts of a head, the breadth of the fore legs from their anterior part to the 

elbow. 
Ten parts of a head, the breadth of one of the hind legs taken beneath the fold of tha 

buttocks. 
Eight parts of a head, the breadth of the ham taken from the bend. 
Also the breadth of the head above the nostrils. 

Seven jDarts of a head, the distance of the eyes from one great angle to the other. 
Also the distance between the fore legs. 
Five parts of a head, the thickness of the knees. 
Also the breadth of the fore legs above the knees. 
Also the thickness of the hams. 

Four parts of a head, the breadth of the pastern, or fetlock joint. 
Also the thickness of the coronet. 

Four and a half parts of the head, the breadth of the coi'onet. 
Three parts of a head, the thickness of the legs at their narrowest part. 
Also the breadth of the hinder legs or shanks. 

Two aud three-quarter parts of a head, the thickness of the hind pasterns. 
Also the breadth of the shanks of the fore legs. 

Two and a quarter parts of a head, the thickness of the fore pasterns, 
Also the breadth of the hind pasterns. 
One and three-quarter parts of a head, the thickness of the fore and hind shanks. 

Prom these proportions it appears that the horse was generally long and 
low, and that he had a remarkahly low forehand as compared with his 
hips, which were considerably higher than his withers. I have already 
gone into this subject, hoAvever, and must refer my readers to page 13 
for the particulars of it. The stock of Eclipse won 158,047^., being little 
more than three-foui'ths of that which fell to the share of that of Herod, 
and I believe the same proportion would be found to exist in the next 
remove from each horse. 

As AN INSTANCE of the stoutness of the horses of this period, I shall 
insert a record of the match agamst time won by Mr. Shafto, on the 27th 
Jmie, 1759. The conditions were that he should ride fifty miles, on an 
unlimited number of horses, in two successive hours, and he accomplished 
the task in one hour, forty-niae minutes, and seventeen seconds, with the 
ten folloAving horses, using four of them twice. 



THE MODERN THOROUGHBRED. 71 

Milet. 

1. Merry Bachelor, by Tartar, which he I'Ofle 4 

2. Wildair, by Cade, dam by Steady 4 

3. Juggler, by Rib, dam Sister to liegulus . , 4 

4. Forrester, by Croft's Forrester, dam by Surly 3 

5. Rover, by Brother to Boltou 4 

6. Jack o'Newbury, by Babraham, dam by Justice 4 

7. Adolphu?, by Regulus, out of Miss Layton 3 

8. Jessamy, by Spot, out of Bay Eroklesly 8 

9. Prince T'Quassaw, by Snap, out of Dairymaid 3 

Merry Bachelor (second time) 3 

Wildair (ditto) 3 

Juggler (ditto) 3 

Rover (ditto) 3 

10. Hambleton, lay Swiss , . . . • 3 

Adolphus (second time) 3^ 



Allowing the odd minutes and seconds for the fifteen changes, this- 
makes the rate exactly two minutes per mile, Avhich was the fastest rate 
made by Mr. Osbaldeston in any of his four-mile stages when doing his 
200 mile match, and then only by one horse, Tranby. And thus wo 
get some definite idea of the performance of the horses of those days, 
which we can by and by compare with those of our own. 

THE MODERIT THOEOUGHBEED. 

To DEFINE the thoroughbred horse of the nineteenth century is easy 
enough, because it is only necessary to adduce the law that he must 
appear in "The Stud-Book." Without this testamentary evidence no 
other will be received, nor even theoretically can any other be adduced. 
By some it is supposed that he is a horse descended from shes and dams 
of Eastern blood, that is, either Turks, Barbs, or Arabs ; but tliis has 
long been known to be a fallacy, for we find numerous gaps in almost all 
the old pedigrees, which there is every reason to believe ought to be 
occupied with the names of native or Spanish mares. But though " The 
Stud-Book " is thus received as the existing authority on this matter, it 
is open to a question whether it may not be desirable to amend it by 
introducing into its pages horses and mares which can be proved to be 
stainless for a certain number of generations. The subject is a difficult 
one, for while it is comparatively easy to keep a record year by year of 
the foals as they are dropped, it is extremely difficult to obtain satisfactory 
proof of similar facts which occiu-red six generations back, and this would 
be the earliest period at which it could be supposed that the stain of 
impure blood could be Avashed out. Eor instance, supposing a thorough- 
bred horse is put to a common mare in 1859, and the produce is a 
filly in 1860 ; this filly might again breed a fiUy in 1864, and have a 
grand-daughter in 1868, and a great grand-daughter in 1872, and so on 
to the year 1870, when the produce would stU} be composed of one sixty- 
fourth part common blood and the rest thoroughbred. But twenty years 
would elapse without any public record of the facts, and we all know how 
difficult it is to disprove any statement made under such circumstances. 
The safest plan, I believe, is to adopt the course now pursued, unless it 
can be shown that it is expedient to cross the blood of otu: thoroughbred 
stock with some other strain for the sake of improviug it. An Eastern 
horse is at once admitted as being supposed to be of pure blood, and 
there is therefore no difficulty in his case, nor would there be any in the 
other to which I have alluded if a public declaration were made before- 



72 THE HORSE, 

hand, "but for this there is now no provision. There is no doubt that 
Avhen half-bred races were in fashion numerous exchanges of foals took 
place, by which thoroughbreds were made to appear as half-bred and vice 
versd. But though the pseudo half-bred may be able to compete with the 
winner of the Derby or St. Leger, and though his appearance may be 
almost proof positive of the purity of his blood, yet he is excluded from 
the " Stud-Book " for ever. In tliis way some of our half-bred stallions 
are known to be of pure blood, and their stock is of great value in the 
hunting-field, but no one would breed from a mare of this kind because 
he would Imow that Mr. Weatherb/s pages are shut against him, and he 
could not claim that her produce should receive the seal of purity afibrcled 
by that gentleman's pen. 

INCEEASE OF SIZE AITD SYMMETEY. 

The size and shape of the racehorse of our own days are superior to 
those of the early part of the last century, as far as we can judge of the 
latter by a comparison with the portraits painted by Stubbs and his 
cotemporaries. In point of height there can be no question, for we have 
numerous records of the number of hands which may be ascribed to the 
celebrities of the age of Charles II. and his immediate successors. 

Out of 130 winners in the middle of the last century, only eighteen 
were fifteen hands and upwards, whereas noAV, a wimier below that height 
is a very great rarity indeed, even among the mares. This increase of 
size is doubtless mainly due to the influence of the Godolphin Barb, who 
was himself larger than most of the Eastern sires, and got stock of a 
still greater height. His son, Babraham, was fifteen hands high, then 
considered an extraordinary development ; and of the eighteen winners 
mentioned above as being fifteen hands and upwards, eleven were by the 
Godolphin Barb or his sons. The average at present may be fixed at fifteen 
hands three inches, as I have already shoAvn at page 12. As far as shape 
is concerned, the modern horse has profited by the long-continued and 
careful selection which has been made of sires and dams. Every 
breeder has considered good blood a sine qud non, but to this he has 
added a frame as well adapted as possible to the requirements of the turf. 
The improvement has chiefly been in the length and slope of the 
shoulders, and in the length of the arms and thighs, the head also being 
a good deal attended to, but perhaps as often improperly chosen. No 
doubt the muzzle can hardly be too fine, but with a small one are often 
coupled a narrow forehead, and a contracted jaw, two defects of the 
greatest pos~;ible importance ; the one interfering Avith the amount of 
nervous eneigy, and the other with good wind. There is no disputing 
the perfection of shape of the modern Enghsh racehorse, and I believe 
that, perhaps with the single exception of the greyhound, he is the most 
beautiful animal in creation. Indeed, under certain conditions, he is 
superior to his canine rival ; because he can be so excited as to induce 
him to display his shapes better than the greyhound, and his superficial 
veins, being more readily seen when distended, add greatly to his fiery 
and spirited appearance. I am very doubtful whether the choice of 
shape has always been correct, and especially in selecting shoulders and 
quarters. Many breeders have had a fancy for the high croup which is 
BO constantly seen among the Arabs, but which I cannot help fancying 
to be a defect. A very sloping quarter is almost equally bad, but of the 
two extremes I much prefer it. Our modern trainers are quite aware of 



COMPARATIVE STOUTNESS. 73 

this, and a " pcacocky " horse, that is, with his tail set on high, is their 
aversion. The true shape is that which is given in the portrait of 
SauQterer, in Avhich horse there is a fine amount of fall, without going 
into either extreme. 

COMPAEATIVE STOUTNESS. 

But are our modern horses as stout as those of the last century ? 
Such is the question which has been very differently answered by Lord 
Eedesdale and Admii'al Eous, in their correspondence on the alteration of 
the weights proposed by the former, who contends that while their speed 
for short distances has been developed to a great extent, their stoutness, 
or the power of staying over a distance of ground, has greatly diminished. 
The arguments pro and con which each has adduced would occupy too 
much space for me to go into them at length, especially as they have been 
mixed up with others which bear upon the degeneracy of man rather than 
of his slave the horse. I may however quote one extract from an article 
in Baily's Magazine of Sports, by the Admiral, which supports his position 
in an exceedingly clear manner. He says : — 

" A very ridiculous notion exists that because our ancestors were fond 
of matching their horses four, six, and eight miles, and their great prizes 
were never less than four miles for aged horses, that the English race- 
horses of 1700 had more powers of endurance, and were better adapted to 
run long distances under heavy weights, than the horses of the present 
day ; and there is another por'ular notion that our horses cannot now stay 
four miles. 

"From 1600 to 1740 most of the matches at KoTVTnarket were above 
four miles. The six-mile post in my time stood about 200 yards from the 
present railroad station, six-mile bottom, and the eight-mile post Avas due 
south from the station on the rising ground ; but the cruelty of the dis- 
tance, and interest of the horse-owners, shortened the course in corre- 
sponding ratio with the civilisation of the country. Two jades may run 
as fine a race for eight miles as for half a mile — it is no proof of endurance. 
You may match any animals for what distance you please, but it is no 
proof of great capacity. We have no reason to suppose that the pure 
Arabian of the desert has degenerated ; his pedigree is as well kept, his 
admirers in the East are as numerous, and his value in that market has 
not been depreciated. In 1700 the first cross from these horses were 
the heroes of the turf Look at the portraits of Flying Childers, Lath, 
Eegulus, and other celebrated horses, including the Godolphin Arabian. 
If the artists were correct in their delineations, they had no appearance of 
racehorses ; they of course were good enough to gallop away from the 
miserable English garrans of that era, as a good Arab or a Barbary horse, 
like Yengeance, would ran away from a common hackney in the present 
day. Amongst the blind, a one-eyed man is a king. 

" My belief is, that the present English racehorse is as much superior 
to the racehorse of 1750, as he excelled the fii-st cross from Arabs and 
Barbs with English mares, and, again, as they sui-passed the old English 
racing hack of 1650. 

" The form of Flying Childers might win now a 30^. plate, winner to 
be sold for 40^. ; Highflyer and Eclipse might puU thjough in a 50Z. 
plate, winner to be sold for 200?. This may be a strong opinion ; it is 
founded on the fact that whereas, 150 years ago, the Eastern horses and 
their first cross were the best and fastest in England, at this day a 



74 THE HORSE. 

second-class racehorse can give five stone to the best Arabian or Barb 
and beat him, from one to twenty miles. I jDresume, therefore, that the 
superiority of the English horse has improved in that ratio above the 
origmal stock." 

Granting, as demanded by the Adndral, the premises he assumes, 
namely, that the Arab of the present day and that of 1750 are identical 
in speed and stoutness, the argument is closed, because it is proved that 
with the exception of Markliam's Arabian, who Avas a failure, the imported 
Arabs, Turks, &c. of the former period, and more especially their imme- 
diate stock, were able to beat the native horses of that day, whereas now 
an imported Arab is wholly unable to cope with ours. But what right 
have we to assume that the Arab of 1700 or 1750 is identical Avith his 
descendant of 1850 1 Certainly there is no proof to the contrary, but we 
must remember that during the intervening period Great Britain, France, 
Germany, Eussia, Hungary, America, India, the Cape of Good Hope, and 
Australia, have all been draining the East, and vieing with one another 
in theii" endeavours to procure specimens of her best breeds. 

It is asserted that the Arab cannot be induced to part with liis best 
mares, and can seldom be tempted to sell his most highly prized 
horses ; but when money and the pressure of political influence are both 
brought to bear, we much question his powers of resistance. Besides, 
even sujDposing that he retained his best mares, if he sold his most valuable 
stallions the breed would still be more likely to degenerate than if he 
kept both, as he had always previously done. IsTo one can contend that 
we are C|uite as Avell off in this country without Glencoe, Ion, the Baron, 
Priam, The Emperor, and other valuable stallions Avhich have been ex- 
ported to other countries ; and if this is admitted, then by a parity of 
reasoning, the Arab has suffered in the same Avay. I cannot, therefore, 
quite see the force of the argument adduced by Admiral Eous, -which 
depends upon the admission of the identity of the Arab of 1700-1750 
Avith his descendant in the present day. I^or do I thinlc much of that 
which is grounded upon the unracing-like appearance of " the portraits of 
Elyiug Clulders, Lath, Eegidus, and other celebrated horses " (of that date), 
" includmg the Godolphin Arabian." Most of those noAV extant are mere 
daubs, and of the better executed productions of Stubbs I confess that 
I have no great opinion as correct portraits. They are aU deficient in 
that kind of aninute fidelity which alone gives unmistakeable evidence of 
a trutliful imitation of nature ; and if we Avere left to this evidence alone, 
I shoidd certainly be unable to make up my mind on the subject. But 
there is one point in corroboration of Admiral Eous's opinion, though not, 
I think, warranting him in setting doAvn Highflyer and Eclipse as common 
platers. I have aheady alluded to the time in Avhich Clulders is said to 
have run the B. C. at ISTeAvniarket, and Matcheni four miles at York ; but 
it may be as AveU. to recapitulate here the best recorded times of four miles 
run near the middle of the last century, and contrast them with those of 
the English and American horses of our OAvn day. I must, hoAvever, first 
shoAV that the latter should be included in the same boat Avith our OAvn, 
and I confess that I should be reluctant to do so but that it is impossible 
to find on our turf any recent examples of foiu'-mile races r\m from end 
to end. Moreover, we have no reason to suppose that they are stouter 
than their English relations, though, as is admitted by Adniia-al Eous, 
Prioress Avas, in 1859, "the best four-mile mare in England." To avoid 
any chance of misrepresentation, I Avili extract the passage entire. 

"Our American friends have improved their racehorses in an equal 



COMPARATIVE STOUTNESS. 75 

degree to our own, by sticking to the same blood. Tliey have had the 
"ood sense and discrimination to buy the cream of our best stallions, — ■ 
Precipitate, Diomed, Priam, Trustee, Glencoe. They adhere to the prin- 
ciples -which our fathers adopted, of breeding only by stallions Avhich 
could stay a distance ; and very naturally, when all their great prizes and 
matches vary from two to four miles. "We played the same game until 
the conmiencement of this century ; but Avhen great stakes were made for 
shorter distances, it was soon ascertamed that the sons of the stout old 
stallions could not win a 2,000 guineas stake against the blood of Eubens, 
Castrel, and Selim. For the last fifty years Ave have been breeding from 
our stoutest horses, bu.t principally from large poAverful horses vntli extra- 
ordinary speed. The Americans have bred for stoutness ; both parties 
have succeeded. I cannot shut my eyes to the fact that the American 
Prioress was last year the besb four-niile mare in England, and that one 
half of the American horses brought over in the last two years to do a 
(jood thing cannot last over three-quarters of a mile. Such is the lottery 
of breeding racehorses. Venison, the best four-mile horse of his year 
(excepting Slane), was got by a speedy jade. Partisan, out of PaAvn, which 
could not race 500 yards ; and Plenipotentiary's dam had great difficulty 
to run beyond five furlongs. The comparative stoutness of ' the American 
and English racehorse is not yet decided. The odds in our favour ought 
to be three to one, estimating our niimerical superiority : if we beat them 
Ave shall have no pretensions to crow." 

Smce the time at which the above remarks Avere published, Mr. Ten 
Broeck's Umpire, who was then first favourite for the Derby, in rumiing 
that race shoAved a deficiency in the quality Avhich we are now discussing, 
and his case, therefore, tends to support the Admiral's opinion. The 
Americans themselves admit that, as far as the performances of theu- horses 
in 1857 and 1858 can be considered a criterion, they " had not proved the 
racehorse of America to be the equal of the racehorse of the EngKsh turf;" 
my authority being the article on " The American Horses in England," 
published in the American Racing Calendar for 1859. These conclusions 
have been arriA'ed at after the experience of four seasons, durmg Avhich 
jMr. Ten Broeck has spared neither money, industry, nor talent, the last 
being proved by the amount of money Avhich he has won in stakes and 
bets during the time. About tAventy horses have been in training, and 
among these he has had the luck to have one extraordinarily stout mare, 
and a first-class tAvo-year-old in Umpire ; but aU the rest have been below 
mediocrity, and have only "paid their Avay" in matches and handicaps, 
when they certainly have not been so Aveighted as to lead one to suppose 
that they are of a superior class to our OAvn horses. I shall, hoAvever, 
separate the performances of the tliree, so that the reader may not only 
contrast the old Avith the modern horse, but also the English with the 
American. 

TIMES MADE BY THE HORSES OF THE MIDDLE OP THE LAST 
CENTURY. 

Hs. Min. Sec. 

About 1721, ChiWers ran in a trial, carrying 9st. 21bs. the R. C, Newmarket 

(3 miles 4 fur. 53 yds.) in 6 40 

The same horse is also recorded to have run the Beacon Coui'se, New- 
market (4 railes 1 fur. 138 yds.) in '/ 30 

In 1745, Mr. Thornhill rode from Stilton to London, back, and again to 

London (213 miles) in 11 13 

In 1752, Skewball, by the Godolphia Barb, carrying 8st. 71b3., ran 4 miles 

over the Curragh in 7 51 



76 THE HORSE. 

Hs. Min. Sec. 

In 1753, at Newmarket, Matchem ran the Beacon Course (3 miles 4 fur. 

93 yds.) carrying 8st. 71bs. in 7 20 

In 1755, Bay Bolton, at York, ran 4 miles, which was considered extra- 
ordinary time, in 7 43 

In 1759, at York, Careless, carrying 9st., ran 4 miles in 8 8 

BEST MODERN ENGLISH TIMES. 

In 1831, Mr. Osbaldeston, list., rode 200 miles over the R.C. Newmarket, 

using 28 horses, including 1 hour 22 min. 56 sec. for stoppages, iu . 8 42 
In 1846, Sir Tatton Sykes i-an the St. Leger Course at Doncaster (1 mile 

6 fur. 132 yds.) in 3 16 

In 1847, Cossack and War Eagle ran for the Newmarket Stakes D. I. 7 

fur. 210 yds. in 1 44 

In 1848, Surplice and Cymba, in the Oaks and Derby, each ran 1 J mile 

over this severe course, 8st. 71b. and Sst. 31b., in 2 48 

In 1853, The Emperor's Plate at Ascot was won by Teddington, 5 years, 

9st. Stockwell, 4 years, Sst. 51bs. (2 miles 4 fur.) in 4 S3 

In 1854, at Ascot, West Australian and Kingston ran in the Cujd (2 miles 

4 fur.) in 4 27 

In 1857, for the Ascot Gold Cup, Skirmisher 3 years, German Di Vergy 3 

years, and Saunterer 3 years, 6st. 101b. each, with Polestar 5 years, 

9st., were all placed, the time being (2 miles 4 fur.) 4 29 

In 1857, Blink Bonny won the Derby (1 mile 4 fur.) in 2 45 

In 1859, Artless, 3 years, 5st. 21bs., and Gaspard, 3 years, 6st. 91bs., ran a 

dead heat for the Cajsarewitch (2 miles 2 fur. 28 yds.), beating Prioress, 

6 years, Sst. 51bs 3 58 

BEST AMERICAN TIME MADE IN AMERICA AND ENGLAND. 

In 1842, Fashion, 5 years, 7st. 131bs., ran 4 miles over the U. C. Long 

Island, in 7 32i 

In 1850, Hegira, 4 years, catch weight, ran 2 miles at New Orleans in . . 3 34| 

In 1855, Lexington, 4 years, 7st. 51bs., ran 4 miles {with a running start) at 

New Orleans in 7 i9| 

In 1855, the same horse and weight, beat Lecompte in the final heat of 

a regular match in 7 23| 

In 1855, Brown Dick, 3 years, 6st. 21bs., ran 3 miles at New Orleans in . 5 28 

In 1856, Prioress, 2 years, 5st. 131bs., ran a mile over the Metairie Course, 

New Orleans, in 1 45 

In 1857, Prioress, 4 years, 6st. 91bs., ran a dead heat for the Csesarewitch 
(2 miles 2 fur. 28 yds ) with El Hakim, 3 years, 6st. 91bs., and Queen 
Bess, 3 years, 4st. 101bs.,in 4 9 

In 1858, Nicholas, 5 years, 7st. 31bs., ran 4 miles — Fashion C — Long Island 7 35 

Here, then, we have data to found a calculation upon, but whether 
reliable or not is still a matter of dispute. Of course it is quite unfair to 
compare the speed in a short race with that displayed in a long one, but 
we shall find that between a mile and a half and tAvo miles and a half there 
is not much difference in the rate of going. The nature of the course alters 
the time very considerably, that run over in the Derby being very hiUy, 
and therefore unusually severe, while the Caesarewitch course is compara- 
tively level, though the I^ewmarket trainers complain, of the hill as if it 
was as steep as the roof of a house. Much also depends upon the way in 
which the running is made, for if the pace is very good at first, the dis- 
tance is not run in the same time as in a race run more slowly at the start. 
Thus Blink Bonny was scarcely extended in her race for the Derby, and, 
being able to run the first mile at a steady pace, she made the best time 
on record ; Avhile at Doncaster, where she was beaten, the time was much 
worse, being., three minutes twenty-five seconds, or nine seconds beliind 
the time of Sir Tatton Sykes. On examining the three lists, we find the 
performance of this last-named horse to be the fastest on record for his 



COMPARATIVE STOUTNESS. 77 

ao-e and weiglit, he liaving run at the rate of thirteen seconds and a half 
per furlong, nearly, while Blink Benny's Derhy time is, as near as may be, 
thirteen seconds and three-quarters per furlong. We have no reliable 
record of any horse having run anj'' distance over a mile at so fast a rate 
as this. Childers and Eclipse are said to have each run a mile in a minute, 
but this is manifestly absurd, and if the former could only run the Beacon 
Course, in a trial, at the rate of thu'teen seconds and three-quarters per 
furlong, and the Round Course, in an actual race, at a still slower pace, it 
is absurd to suppose that he could run a mile in sixty seconds, or at very 
nearly double this rate. It has been ascertained by experience that a 
horse loses his pace for moderately short distances if he is strained to the 
utmost for tlxree or four miles, and our trainers are therefore careful in trying 
the extreme length "vvhich their horses can get. Long courses have been 
given up almost entirely for this reason, among others, and because also, 
in particular, it has been found that the competing horses do not really 
race for more than half or a quarter of the distance ; consequently, we 
have no true test in England beyond two miles four furlongs, which have 
been run over the somewhat severe course of Ascot by West Australian 
and Kingston, at the rate of thirteen seconds and a quarter per furlong, 
the latter horse carrying nine stone. This feat will most triumphantly 
contrast with any performance of ancient or modern times, either in 
England or America, for it will be found on examination to be from three- 
quarters to half a second per furlong faster than the recorded rate of Childers, 
and half a second faster than Lexington, even with the advantage of a 
running start, and carrying seven stone five jiounds as a four-year-old, against 
Kingston, five-year-old, with nine stone. We may, therefore, assume that 
some, at all events, of our modern horses are capable of successfully contend- 
ing with the American horses at any reasonable distance, for the latter have 
never yet come up to the time made in this country, either here or in 
America, and without an allowance of at least a stone they have never yet 
had a chance, with the exception of Umpire in his two-year-old career. 
My belief is that early training for short distances interferes with the 
chance of any individual horse doing a long distance in the shortest 
possible time, but the power remains in the breed, and can at any time 
be developed in a sound horse of the stoutest blood we possess. Unfor- 
tunately, of late years, speed has been all in all, and we have too much 
neglected the stout old strains of Waxy and Tramp for that of tlie tlu-ee 
sons of Buzzard — Selim, Castrel, and Rubens. The Jockey Club, however, 
at the instigation of Lord Redesdale, have it in contemplation to prevent 
two-year-old races early in the year, and I trust that by this and other 
regulations a stop may be put to the course of events which certainly 
seem to have a tendency to produce the mischief which, however, is not 
yet finally accomplished. I am afraid that there would be some difficulty 
in now getting twenty-eight horses to repeat Mr. Osbaldeston's feat, which 
I have inserted as one proof of the stoutness of our modern breed ; but 
this would be entu'ely a matter of price, for there are plenty of thorough- 
bred hunters which are capable of effecting it, the value of such animals 
being about 300^. apiece, and few owners would therefore lend them. 
Lord Redesdale seems entirely to have overlooked the enormous increase 
of this class of horses within the last forty years. Prior to that time a 
thoroughbred hunter was only to be met with, as a rule, in the great grass 
countries, and " the provincials " were contented with half-breds, which 
were supposed to be, and really were, better able to get over the great 
sprawling fences and other difficult jumps which were to be found at every 



78 THE HORSE. 

tAvo or three hundred yards, rashiou, however, supported by the change in 
the agricultural management of the country, has brought the thoroughbred 
into general use ; and mtli a long list of more than a hundred packs of fox- 
hounds, each perhaps followed by, on the average, thirty reputed thorough- 
breds, more or less up to weight, we find 3,000 horses of this class to be 
sujDplied. Now the whole of the foals dropped in each year and recorded 
in the Stud-book do not altogether come up to one half of this number, 
and, deducting those horses which are unable to carry more than seven 
stone, the stallions and mares which are put to the stud here and abroad, 
and the unsound animals of both sexes, it is equally astonishing that the 
demand should be so well supplied as it is, and that there should be any 
horses able to stay a distance left. The owner of a horse will ahvays do 
with him what he considers most to his own advantage, and, whereas 
formerly he had no choice but either to sell an aged horse as a hack, or to 
keep him in. training, he now teaches him to get over a hurdle and a few 
fences, and he has a dozen customers ready for him at eight or ten times 
the old hack price. I do not for a moment contend that even the most 
valuable of these hunters are as sound on their legs as the average of race- 
horses fifty or a hundred years ago, but that they are as stout, I think, is 
quite clear, and the reason of their being more unsound is only that they 
are sooner used up. A railway locomotive Avill only travel a definite 
number of miles, varying in relation to the speed at which it is used, and 
if it is brought on to the rails before it is in perfect working order, it will 
very much sooner fail. So in the present day, from the facilities of 
travelling from place to place, and from the length of the racing season, 
our horses, when in training, have little or no rest, and thus, though 
their career is a short one, " the candle is bui-nt at both ends " while it is 
alight, and it is consumed in half the time. Look at the performances of 
Eataplan, Fisherman, and Thormanbj'', and compare them with the much- 
vaunted feats of the Carlisle Gelding in 1720 to 1731, and of Black 
Chance from 1736 to 1746. Even the still more celebrated Catherina, 
who ran 177 races in ten years, did not work half so hard on the race- 
course as Fisherman with his 120 races in five years. 



( 

Carlisle Gelding . . 


Age when 
first ran. 


Races won. 


Races lost. 


Total 
of Races. 


Years on 
the Turf. 


Left the 
Turf. 


5 


25 


9 


34 


13 


1731 


Arthur O'Bradly . . 


5 


15 


10 


25 


4 


1749 


Black Chance . . . 


5 


25 


5 


30 


10 


1746 


Euphrates .... 


3 


42 


57 


99 . 


10 


1828 


Independence . . . 


2 


40 


44 


84 


10 


1835 


Catherina .... 


2 


79 


98 


177 


10 


1841 


Rataplan .... 


2 


42 


29 


71 


4 


1855 


Fisherman .... 


2 


70 


50 


120 


5 


1859 


Thormauby . . . 


2 


9 


6 


15 


still running and 
very sound. 



EARLY MATURITY-. 79 

In spite howevee of all the elaborate calculations which others as well 
as myself have made, I caimot quite divest myself of the belief that Lord 
Eedesdale is correct iii his assumption that the thoroughbred Ixorse of the 
present day is on the average less stout than he was of yore. That tliere 
are some few which can race and also stay I firmly believe, and that many 
which cannot race but can stay, are early drafted into the hunting-stable, 
is also my opinion ; but that the majority are deficient in stoutness seems 
to me to be a patent fact. Wherever sjpeed is considered to be A 1, such 
horses as Sultan, Partizan, and Velocipede will be used in the stud, the 
breeder flattering himself that a cross of stout blood Avill put all right. 
And so it frequently does for one or two generations, and then the strain 
comes out, and the stock shows sometimes the speed Avithout the stoutness, 
and at others neither one quality nor the other. Thus, Venison was got 
by that speedy but flashy horse, Partizan ; but the stout Pofc8os, Sorcerer, 
and Gohanna strains enabled him, as well as his son Kingston, to perform 
the tasks of endurance for which they are each so celebrated. The latter 
horse, however, seems to go back to the Partizan failing, for his stock as 
yet have never got beyond three-quarters of a mile, though they have 
been running all over the country for tAvo seasons. It is also well known 
that Lord Winchelsea has great difficulty in finding three horses on the 
turf able to stay four miles, but this is explained by the facts to which I 
have already alluded, and therefore does not so much bear upon the argu- 
ment before us. It is a very difficult matter to prove, because the cir- 
cumstances of the two periods are so different ; but I am quite of opinion 
that, taking any number of racehorses at random in the year 1860, they 
will not on the average bear comparison, in point of stoutness, with. 
a similar number, either of the year 1800 or of the year 1760. It is, 
however, notorious that, during the last three or four years, there has been 
a remarkable deficiency of good horses on the turf (and these runs of good 
and bad animals are Avholly inexplicable, though they have been constantly 
happening), consequently it is hardly fair to select the present year as a 
test; but, taking any one of the last ten, the same result, though not 
in the same degree, would I think be manifested. Perhaps, if West 
Australian, Kingston, Rataplan, and Voltigeur could be throAA'n in to make 
the average as good as possible, we might have a chance ; but taking 
twenty horses at random from the list of runners in any season Avithin, 
the last ten years, we should find how few could race beyond a mile 
and a half under any weight. 

EAELY MATUEITY. 

It is an undeniable fact, as I believe, that j)reternaturally early 
maturity is incompatible with lasting qualities of any kind ; but, though 
the same rule generally holds good throughout nature, there are some 
exceptions. Thus, the oak is more lasting than the larch, and the elephant 
outlives the horse, but the goose and the duck, Avhich arrive at maturity 
in the same number of months, do not live through a corresponding series 
of years. The forcing process in gardening is ahvays productive of tender- 
ness, whether the produce be the cucumber or the sea-kale, and this 
tenderness is only another name for imperfect formation to resist decay. 
In the days of Eclipse and Childers they were permitted to attain their 
full growth Avithout forcing, and, not being Avanted till five years old, their 
ligaments, tendons, and bones had plenty of time to be consolidated before 
they Avere submitted to the strains and jerks of the extended gallop. 



80 THE HOUSE. 

There is also reason to beKeve that they were not nearly so much or so 
soon stimulated by large feeds of oats, as is now iavariably the custom, 
and that they were allowed to remain at grass, with the shelter of a hovel, 
during the first three or four years of their lives. All this is now changed ; 
the foal is filled Avith corn as soon as he will eat it, and at the end of the 
first year he is furnished as much as the old-fashioned tliree-y ear-old. 
One chief difiiculty of the trainer now is to keep his horse sound, and, 
unfortunately, as disease is in most cases hereditary, and too many unsoulld 
stallions are bred from, the difficulty is yearly on the increase. Without 
doubt roaring is far more common than it used to be, and the possession 
of enlarged joints, and back sinews, is the rule instead of the exception. 
During the last ten years, the Derby has five times been won by an un- 
sound animal, which the trainer Avas almost immediately afterwards obliged 
to put out of work, either from diseased feet or a break-doAvn, and yet few 
breeders think of refusing to use such horses as these. jSTevertheless, good 
legs and feet, and a hearty constitution, are no small recommendations, 
and Mr. Merry may thank them for Avinning him the great 2:>rize of the 
year 1860, with Thormanby, a son of that Avouderful mare Alice Haw- 
thorne. Thormanby, however, is not an instance of a colt having been 
reserved till he Avas arrived at his growth, for there are few horses Avhich 
have been more used, having run fourteen times as a tAvo-year-old; but his 
naturally excellent legs and feet, and the fine doAAii on Avhich lie is trained, 
have enabled him to pull through unscathed. JSToav the reliance wliich 
Avas placed by his backers on these good qualities, proves that he is an 
exception to the rule ; for if they Avere at all common, they would be of 
comparatively little advantage. The truth really is, that the average race- 
horse of modern times is of such forced growth, that he is unable to bear 
the wear and tear of training as he used to do, and hence a much larger 
per centage of unsound animals is to be met Avith. He is bred mainly 
for speed, superadded to Avhich is as much stoutness and soundness ot 
constitution as can be procured among the most speedy horses at the 
service of the breeder. By a perseverance in this method of selection, he j 
has undoubtedly become more speedy, and less lasting in proportion to his I 
speed, that is to say, he cannot be extended for as long a time as he used 
to bear Avitli impunity. Eut that he cannot cover as much ground in a 
given time as formerly is, I think, an error, — for there is eA^ery reason to 
belicA'C that any distance may noAV be run in as short a time at least, as 
either in the middle of the last century or the beginning of this. 

OBJECT OF ENCOUEAGma THE BREED OF HOESES. 

The great object of encouraging the breed of racehorses is, hoAvever, 
lost sight of, if suitable crosses for hunting, cavalry, and hack-mares cannot 
be obtained from their ranks. In these three kinds, soundness of the feet 
and legs is all important, together Avith a capacity to bear a continuation 
of severe work. These qualities are highly developed in the Arab, and 
until lately were met with in his descendants on the English turf. Even 
noAV a horse with a staiu in his pedigree w-ill not bear the amount of train- 
ing Avhich a throughbred will sustain, his health and spirits soon giving 
way if forced to go through the Avork which the racehorse requires to make 
him " fit." But the legs and feet of the latter are the draAvbacks to his 
use, and the trainer of the present day Avill generally be sadly taxed to 
make them last through a dry summer. Our modern roads are also much 
harder since the introduction of macadamization, and thus, in proportion to 



OBJECT OF ENCOURAGING THE BREED. 81 

oiu" greater demands, is the absence of the material to meet them. A hack 
that is not pretty well bred is now neglected, except for high weights, 
because his paces are not soft and pleasant, and he does not satisfy the eye. 
But how many of the fashionable sort will bear constant use on the road 
without becoming lame 1 And how many sound horses are there to be 
met with out of a hundred, taken at random from the ranks of any kind 
tolerably well bred ? Every horse proprietor Avill tell you, scarcely five 
per cent. ; and some AviU even go so far as to say, that a sound horse is 
utterly unknown. In considermg the principles and practice of breeding, 
I shall again refer to this subject ; but I wish now to impress upon my 
readers that while the race-horse of 1860 is as fast as ever, as stout as 
ever, and as good lookmg as ever, he is made of more perishable materials 
in proportion as he comes to maturity at an earlier period. Any of our 
modern two-year-olds would probably give two stone, and a beating to 
Eclipse at the same age, but if afterwards they were put to Jialf-bred mares 
for the purpose of getting hacks, chargers, or hunters, the stock of EcHpse 
or ChUders would be much more valuable than any which we have 
at present. We are sadly in Avant of sound and well bred stallions for 
general purposes, and if the government of the country does not soon 
interfere, and adopt some means of furnishing these islands with them, we 
shall be beaten on our own ground, and shall have to import sound useful 
horses from Belgium, Erance, Hungary, or Prussia, whichever country can 
best spare them. The old-fashioned and sound thoroughbred horse has been 
the means of improving the above three breeds ; and even now we possess 
horses which are perfect in every other respect but soundness, being ex- 
cellent hacks, hunters, and light c;irriage-horses, and often all in one. This 
last kind is the perfection of the horse ; and if many such cordd be produced 
it would be a great advantage, because most people would like a horse which 
could " make himself generally useful," if such an animal could be obtained. 
"Without high-breeding, however, this is impossible ; and yet with most 
of our purest strains, though it is attainable for a time, the condition in 
which it exists does not last long, in consequence of the effect of the hard 
road upon their soft legs or contracted feet. Consequently, as I have already 
remarked, there is a necessity for Government interference to produce 
such a breed of thorough-bred horses, by careful selection, as shall give us 
the above three kinds of horses useful in ci\Tl life, from v/hich may be 
culled a plentiful supply of cavalry horses, whenever wanted ; for the 
very same qualities are demanded in all, and what will suit the one will 
be equally advantageous to the other. 

But even though the thoroughbred horse is well fitted to compete with 
others in all cases where speed is the chief point of trial — as in flat-racing, 
steeple-chasing, hunting, &c, — yet he is not so well quaUfied for some 
kiuds of harness-work, or for road- work of any kind, as the horse expressly 
bred for these purposes. There is no doubt that thorough-bred horses might 
be selected and bred expressly for this kind of work, and would excel all 
others, because originally their limbs and constitutions were at least as 
sound as, or perhaps even sounder than, any other class of horses ; but 
while they are selected and bred solely for speed, without much reference 
to these other qualities, it is useless to expect much improvement ; 
but, on the contrary, they may be expected to become yearly more 
and more soft and yielding. For many purposes the Eastern horse is 
wholly unfit — as, for instance, for heavy and dead pulls ; here his high 
courage, light weight, and hasty temper are adverse to the performance of 
the task, and he is far excelled by the old English, or modern improved 

G 



82 THE HORSE. 

cart-horse. No tliorougli-bred horse would try again and again at a dead 
pull like many of our test breeds of cart-horses ; and therefore he is little 
calculated for work which requires this slow struggling kind of exertion. 
The puU of the Eastern horse, or his descendant, is a snatch ; and though 
it may to a certain extent be modified by use, yet it can never be brought 
up to the standard of the English cart-horse, even if the weight of carcase 
and size and strength of limb of the former could be sufficiently increased. 

ESSENTIALS IN THE THOEOUGHBEED. 

Such then are the general qualities of the thorough-bred horse 
and the purposes to which he can be beneficially appHed. It remains 
now to consider the formation and specific characteristics best adapted 
to the turf^ which is his chief arena; and also to the hunting-field, 
which now absorbs a very large number of his breed. Finally, it 
will be necessary to consider him as a means of improving other breeds, 
such as the cavalry-charger, hack and harness horse, but these subjects 
will fall under the respective heads here mentioned. 

PUEITY OF BLOOD. 

In the first place purity of blood must be considered as a sine qvA 
non, for without it a horse cannot be considered thoroughbred, and there- 
fore we have only to ascertain the exact meaning of the term "blood." 
It is not to be supposed that there is any real difference between the blood 
of the thoroughbred horse, and that of the half-bred animal ; no one 
could discriminate between the two by any knoAvn means ; the term 
" blood " is here synonymous with breed, and by purity of blot)d is meant 
purity in the breeding of the individual animal under consideration ; that 
is to say, that the horse which is entirely bred from one source is pure 
from any mixture with any other, and may be a pure Sufi'olk Punch, or a 
pure Clydesdale, or a pure thoroughbred horse. But all these terms are 
comparative, since there is no such animal as a perfectly purely bred horse 
of any breed, whether cart-horse, hack, or race-horse ; all have been pro- 
duced from an admixture with other kinds, and though now kept as pure 
as possible, yet they were originally compounded from varying elements ; 
and thus the race-horse of 1700, was obtained from a mixture of Turks, 
Arabs, and Barbs. Even the best and purest thoroughbreds are stained 
with some slight cross with the old EngHsh or Spanish horse, as I^have 
shown at page 54, and therefore it is only by comparison that the word 
pure is applicable to them or any others. But since the thoroughbred 
horse, as he is called, has long been bred for the race course, and selec- 
tions have been made with that view alone, it is reasonable to suppose 
that this breed is the best for that purpose, and that a stain of any other 
is a deviation from the clearest stream into one more muddy, and there- 
fore impure ; the consequence is, that the animal bred from the impure 
source fails in some of the essential characteristics of the pure breed, and 
is in so far useless for this particular object. Now, in practice this is 
found to be the case, for in every instance it has resulted that the horse 
bred with the slightest deviation from the sources indicated by the stud- 
book, is unable to compete in lasting power with those which are entirely 
of pure blood. Hence it is estabhshed as a rule, that for racing purposes 
every horse must be thorough-bred ; that is, as I have already explained, 
descended from a she and dam whose names are met with in the stud-book. 



EXTERNAL FORMATION. 



83 



EXTERNAL FOEMATIOK. 

Next comes the extebnal shape or conformation of the race-horse, 
which is a subject very much studied hy those who have the selection and 
management of them. Experienced trainers, and those who have watched 
the performances of the celebrities of the turf for successive years, will tell 
you that " the horse can run in all forms," and so no doubt he can as an 
exception, but the rule nevertheless is, that there is a standard which should 
be regarded as the best suited for the race-course, and this will vary some- 
what according to the perfoimance which is required of each individual. 
There is no doubt that the most skilful selection is not always attended 
with success, and the statistics of the turf do not lead us to believe that 
1,000^. invested under the advice of John Scott or John Day, in the pur- 
chase of a yearling, will always bring a remuneration. Indeed, the con- 
trary has so often been the case, that high-jDriced yearlings are generally 
regarded with suspicion when they make their first appearance on the 
course. The winner of the Derby of 1860 went a-begging, and was at last 
bought for a very moderate price. So also %vith Butterfly, the winner of 
the Oaks, no store was set upon her until she came to be tried ; and even 
on the morning of the race she was not generally thought good enough to 
win. The celebrated Blink Bonny was a mean looking mare, and would 
not have fetched 50Z. at Tattersall's, from her appearance alone, and that 




FISHERMAN, 



wonderful animal Fisherman was never liked till he proved his powers. 
Still, it cannot be denied that a good judge will select the ten best horses 

q2 



84 THE HORSE. 

out of twenty, or perhaps out of a hundred; but he Avill possibly leave the 
very best out of his list. The theoretical rule is simple enough, but it 
requires great experience, and a good eye to carry it oiit in practice. It is 
simply this, that, ccBteris paribus, the horse which is formed in the mould 
most like that of the greatest number of good race-horses, will run the best. 
Thus, supposing it is found that out of fifty good horses forty-nine have 
neat heads, light necks, deep chests, oblique shoulders, long racing hind- 
quarters, strong hocks, &c. the presumption will be that a horse resembling 
those forty-nine in shape, will also resemble them in speed and endurance. 
On the other hand, it is admitted on the turf, that high-breeding is of 
more consequence than external shape, and that of two horses, one perfect 
in shape, but of an inferior strain of blood, and the other of the most win- 
ning blood, bu.t not so well formed in shape, the latter will be the most 
likely to perform to the satisfaction of his owner on the race-course. On 
this principle the proverb has been framed and handed down to us, that 
"an ounce of blood is worth a pound of bone," and with the above ex- 
planation such is really the case. But in spite of all this recognised 
superiority of blood, it is indisputable that for the highest degree of suc- 
cess there must be not only high purity of blood, and that of the most 
winning strains, but there must also be a frame of the most useful character, 
if not always of the most elegant form. Many of our very best horses have 
been plain, and even coarse-looking — as, for instance, most of the Melbournes, 
and especially that very fast horse, Sir Tatton Sykes ; but in spite of their 
plainness, all their points are good and useful, and the deficiency is in ele- 
gance, not in real utility. On the other hand, there are some strains 
which unite elegance with utility, such as the fast and stout Venisons, 
which are remarkable for their beautiful frames and neat Arabian heads. 
But there must always be a distinction made between what is really useful 
and what is only agreeable to the eye. There are some characteristics 
which, over and above their mechanical advantages, indicate high-breed- 
ing, and as such are regarded with especial favour by purchasers. For 
these a term has of late years been invented, the meaning of which is well 
understood, but somewhat difficult to define. Thus, we hear it often re- 
marked, that a particixlar horse is deficient in " quality," or that he has it 
in perfection; and in proportion to the one or the other of these conditions 
is he meant to be praised or condemned. It is not simply a word synony- 
mous with " breeding," for a horse may show high breeding, and yet be 
deficient in " quality," but if with a look Avhich convinces you that he has 
a pure pedigree, he conjoins a perfect symmetry in all his parts, and in the 
shapes displayed by the thoroughbred, he then comes up to the description 
which stamps a horse in these days with the highest seal of approbation, 
for " he has plenty of quality." 

But what is the recognised form of the rate-horse 1 I must here ex- 
plain to the tyro that the Avord "form" is used with two different signi- 
fications by racing men, and like the word "box" is very puzzling to 
foreigners. In the common acceptation it is synonjTnous with " shape," 
and merely means the mechanical development of the individual. But in 
the language of the turf, when we say that a horse is " in form," we intend 
to convey to our hearers that he is in high condition and fit to run. So 
again, the word is used in still another sense, for we speak of a horse's 
" form " when we wish to allude to his powers on the turf, as compared 
with other well-known animals. Thus, if it is supposed that two three- 
year-olds, carrying the same weight, would run a mile-and-a-half, and come 
in abreast, it is said, that " the form " of the one is equal to that of the 



EXTERNAL FORMATION. 85 

other. It is necessary, therefore, in order to make a descrix)tion intcUi- 
gible, when using the term in its mechanical signification, to add tlie 
adjective, external, although, at first sight, it may appear to be an instance 
of tautolog}^ for it might be alleged that internal forms can only be ascer- 
tained by dissection. With this explanation, I must now proceed to dis- 
cuss what are generally considered to be the best shapes, for the purpose of 
combining speed with stoutness, remembering that we are examinmg the 
thoroughbred horse, and are not alluding to any other. As an iristance of a 
very op|iosite conf(jrmation to that of Fisherman at page S3, T insert here a 




i^y'J^A^x^' 



SAUNTEBEK. 



portrait of Saunterer, both after careful paintings by Mr. Earraud. These 
are generally admitted to have been the two best horses of their time, yet it 
is scarcely possible to imagine a greater difference to exist in first-class 
animals, than is displayed by them. Fisherman, short and strong, looks 
more like a hunter than a race-horse ; while Saunterer, long and elegant, 
appears incapable of carrying more than ten stone. The student will do 
well to study these animals carefully, but it must not be omitted that the 
portrait of Fisherman was taken after he was thrown out of training. 

The Body or trunk is the grand centre of all the muscidar pullies and 
bony levers, which are used to move the horse, and it must, therefore, 
first come under consideration, although, as a matter of convenience, the 
horseman generally commences with the head. It is quite true that it in 
turn receives its orders from the brain, as will be hereafter explained, in 
treating of the nervous system, but as a mere machine it may be regarded 
independently of that organ altogether. It must, however, be viewed in 
three different aspects, inasmuch as it has tlirce different ofiices to perform, 
These are, first, to carry its load, anil pr.)pel it by means of the kvera 



86 THE HORSE. 

connected with it. Secondly, to afford room for the heart and lungs to 
perform their functions in its " chest," without interfering with the play of 
the shoulders ; and, thirdly, to lodge an efficient apparatus of nutrition. 
The first of these divisions comprehends the back, loins, and croup ; 
the second is the chest ; and the third may he considered under the head 

of THE BACK-EIBS, FLANK, AND BET;LT. 

The Back, Loins, and Croup of the race-horse, as indeed of all horses 
but those used exclusively for draught, are generally described as neces- 
sarily moidded more or less in the form of an arch. Every architect is 
aware that this formation is best adapted to carry weight. A straight- 
backed greyhound is by some experienced coursers, preferred to one which 
has a sHght arch in that part ; but in this animal there is no weight to be 
carried beyond that of his own carcase, and, therefore, even granting the 
superiority in hun of a straight loin (which I do not), there is no analogy 
between the two animals. !N'or do I believe altogether ia the received 
theory which attaches importance to the arched loin, because of its greater 
capacity for hearing tueight from its mechanical form. Practically I con- 
cede, as an admitted fact, that a horse with this construction of frame 
will carry weight better than one which has a hollow loin ; but, on ex- 
amming the skeleton of each, it will be seen that in neither are the 
bodies of the vertebrae in this part of the spine arranged so as to form 
an arch, or if there is one, it has its concavity, not its convexity 
upwards, which certainly will not conduce to its weight-bearing powers. 
The fact really is, that in the arched loin the spinous processes are 
unusually long, and are raised into a crest like the high withers. By 
this development of bone an extra space is afforded, for both the lodg- 
ment and attachment of muscles, and herein is the secret of the extra 
power. Between the pelvis and the bodies of the vertebrae a true arch 
is formed, and according to the slope or fall of the quarters will it be 
useful in carrying weight ; but this is quite irrespective of the loin, 
which may be arched or flat in conjunction with either formation. It 
is, however, most common to find an arched loin united with an inclined 
pelvis, and when the two are found together, the horse possessing this 
formation may be considered so far as "up to weight." Sometimes 
we see the pelvis inclined, but the tail set on high, and the loin hollow, 
and then we may surely predicate that there will be a want of power in 
these parts, and that the seven stone of Lord Eedesdale wiU be quite suf- 
ficient for the animal to carry. With this objectionable shape, there is a 
hollow on each side of the croup, which is very characteristic of the defect, 
and which is carefully eschewed by the experienced horseman. If the 
spine between the two supports afforded by the fore and hind extremities 
were really an arch, length would but little affect it, for we know that an 
arch of ninety feet span, is no stronger than one of a hundred feet, if both 
are properly constructed ; but being nearly a straight line, with its com 
ponent parts kept in their proper places, by a series of levers and pullies, 
length tells most unfavourably ; and " a short back, with plenty of length 
below" is the height of the horseman's ambition to possess. Mr. Percivall 
has fallen into a strange error in estimating the advantages of a long back, 
as may be readily seen on an examination of the following passage : — 
" Eegarding the dorsal portion of the spine, with its superimposed burthen, 
as a pole or lever, supported in front by the fore limbs, and behind by the 
back limbs, after the manner of'a barrel of beer, or a sedan between its 
bearers ; it is manifest, that the greater its length, the greater must be the 
leverage, and consequent reduction of the weight of the burthen. On 



EXTERNAL FORMATION. 87 

ttis principle, the legs of the long-backed horse are actually sustaining less 
load than those of the short-backed horse, even though their riders or 
burthens may be of equivalent weights, from the circumstance of their 
operating at a greater distance from the load." The fallacy of this argu- 
ment is apparent to every person who has the slightest lmowledg<3 of 
mechanical powers ; but as my readers may not at all be in a position to 
estimate its value, I shall just make a few observations upon it, as I have 
heard it adduced on several occasions, to support the advantage of a long 
back. Kow we wiU. suppose a weight of 500 pounds on a plank, sup- 
ported upon four props, two being live feet from the other two, and the 
pairs one foot apart, resembling, in fact, the relative position of the feet of 
a horse. Let the whole be arranged on a weighing-machine, so that only 
the four legs touch its table and take the Aveight. Then remove the two 
pairs of legs to a distance of six feet, and again take the weight. Accord- 
ing to Mr. PercivaU. it ought to be less than before, but, tested by actual 
exj)eriment, there will not be the hundreth part of a grain variation, even 
if the instrument is sufficiently delicate to register that weight. A. and B. 
carry a weight between them, suspended to a pole, and they find it more 
convenient to have that pole tolerably long, because they can shift the 
weight from one to the other more easily than with a shorter one, but 
they carry the same weight in either case. A. can raise it by means of 
his long lever more easily than with a short one, but he only can effect 
this by making use of B's hand as a fulcrum, and for the moment throw- 
ing the weight off himself upon it, whUe B. returns the compliment in 
his turn, and both are relievec^. For the mere purpose of carrying weight, 
therefore, a short back is to be preferred ; but there is a limitation put to 
this by the necessity for length of limb to give pace, and if the legs are 
too long for the back, the action of the fore-quarter is impeded by the 
hind, and vice versd. Hence, in all horses, a reasonable length is preferred, 
and this will vary according to the occasion for weight-carrying power. 
In the thoroughbred horse, pace is essential, and his back must conse- 
quently be of sufiicient length to allow the free use of such limbs as will 
give stride enough to develope it. We shall hereafter find, that the cart- 
horse may have a much shorter back, even though he has no weight to 
carry, but he requires strong couplings of the hind and fore-quarter for the 
former to act upon, in dragging heavy weights, and as in him pace, beyond 
the walk, is never required, a short back may be allowed to be a great 
advantage without any attendant evil. The most important elements of 
strength in the back and loins are the depth and breadth of its muscles, 
for they, and not the bones, as I have shown, are the real mechanical 
means by which not only weight is carried but propelled. ISTow to lodge 
these muscles, there must be high spinous processes, wide hips, and such 
a formation of the ribs as to give width at their upper parts. Generally 
speaking the two last coincide, but sometimes the hips stand out in a very 
" ragged " or prominent position, while the ribs are flat. This formation, 
however, comes next to the most approved combination, and is far better 
than the narroAV hips and flat sides Avhich we now see in too many of our 
thoroughbred horses. In connexion with this division of the body may 
be taken the croup, the u.pper outline of which is formed by the pro- 
longation of the spine towards the root of the tail ; but the essential parts 
are made up by the pelvis. • It is very generally assumed that m order to 
develop high speed, the pelvis must be long, and this I believe to be 
perfectly true ; but the length need not be in a perfectly horizontal 
direction, and is I think much better if developed at an inclination of 



88 THE HORSE. 

about twenty-five degrees, that is to say, with a considerable fall. 
With this formation there may be the same length for the attachment of 
muscles and the same leverage in their action on the thigh, for the situa- 
tion of the hip joint (or round bone) is not altered in relation to them, 
though it is lower and more forward in reference to the spine. Hence 
the muscles which draw the thigh forward have more power, and also act 
much more quickly, giving that rapid thrust of the hind legs forward 
which is essential to good and strong action. With the perfectly 
horizontal croup you may have a long sweeping stroke which tells over 
such a course as JSTewmarket, but you very rarely meet with a quick 
couphng and uncoupling, unless the pelvis is set on to the sacrum or con- 
tinuation of the spine, at a considerable angle, so as to give the quarters 
more or less droop. Most of our best horses have exhibited this forma- 
tion, while a gi-eat number of very handsome, but utterly useless brutes, 
might be enumerated which possess the high croup of the Arab in an 
exaggerated condition, of which Mr. Gratwick's Ethiopean is a good 
example. If the portraits of the Godolphin Barb are at all to be 
depended on, we are indebted to him for. the introduction of this useful, 
though not particularly elegant shape, and I believe that it is in this 
direction, and in point of size, that he has been so useful in the stud. 
The eye is captivated by the animal, which, as the dealers say, " has both 
ends up ;" and experience teaches every horseman, who will profit by it, 
that both the stargazer and the high-crouped horse are to be avoided. In 
selecting the thoroughbred horse, then, choose such as have a deep and 
wide back and loin, avoiding either the " roach back," which causes that 
part to be inflexible, and the hoUow one, which tends to give way too 
much under weight, but regardmg as most desirable such a width of ribs 
and hips, and depth of spinous processes as shall give sufficient lodgment 
for muscles, and looking also for a proper length of spine, not too short 
for stride, nor too long for strength. Lastly, let the pelvis be attached 
at such an angle as to give a slight droop to the quarters, whether the tail 
be set on in correspondence with it or not, for the dock does not always 
come out of the pelvis in the same position viewed in relation to that 
part alone. Some of the above opinions are in opposition to those of 
Mr. Percivall, who objects to a great width of hip in the race-horse, and 
also asserts that he cannot be too lengthy and straight in his quarters. 
He says, " although the race-horse may prove disadvantageously broad 
across his hips, I believe he will never be found either too lengthy or too 
straight in his quarters ; by which I mean the length and elevation of an 
imaginary line carried from either hip to the point of his quarter, or of 
another carried from the summit of his rump to the root of his hock. 
Such straight formation of quarter implies small degree of inclination in 
the j)osition of the pelvis, the effect of which is extension of the angles 
between the pelvis and the femoral bones, and corresponding increase of 
the distances between the pelvis and the stifles in front, and between the 
pelvis and hocks behind; thereby augmenting the dimensions of the 
muscles running between these salient points, and at the same time 
furnishing them with, under the circumstances, the greatest advantages in 
their action. Length and straightness in the quarters must therefore be 
regarded as characteristic attributes of the race-horse." Of the probability 
of meeting with too great a width of hip in the race-horse I am extremely 
doubtful, and until I see it I shall continue sceptical. The Melbournus, 
which have this part wider than in any other strain, arc certainly not to 
be despised, and, in spite of Mr. Percivall, I must, on the contrary, con- 



EXTERNAL FORMATION. 89 

tinue to admire thein, whenever tliey are to be found ; my chief regret is 
that wide hips are so scarce among the descendents of that horse. 

The second division of the body, or the chest, in the thoroughbred 
horse, must afford sufficient room for the heart and kings, but it must not 
be too wide, or it will interfere with the free play of the shoulder blade 
as it glides on the side. An open bosom is regarded as a sure sign of want 
of pace by every racing man of experience, and I knoAV of no single 
exception. One of the finest two-year-olds I ever saAv in every other 
respect was Lord Standbroke's Eose de Florence ; but I could have laid 
any reasonable odds that she would be deficient in pace, because she was 
made as wide as a cart-horse between the forelegs, and so she proved to 
be on trial. A horse of fifteen hands three, or sixteen hands when in 
stud condition should measure at least seventy-four inches, and should 
be wide through the part where the rider's kiiees come on the saddle ; but 
below this the ribs should rapidly shelve inwards, and in this way allow 
the shoulder points to come closer together, and the elbows to act without 
being " tied." The anatomy of this part is treated of elsewhere, and I 
am now regarding it simply in its proportion to the rest of the body. 
Anatomically, and considered per se, a round or barrel-like chest is the 
best, because it admits of more free expansion and contraction, but when 
either high speed or smooth action is required, this formation is objection- 
able for the reasons I have given above, and in all cases it is to be avoided 
in the thoroughbred horse, while in some other breeds it must be looked 
for with great anxiety. It has been proved that good wind may be 
obtained from a chest possessing great depth without much width, and 
in some cases with a very narrow bosom, as in the celebrated Cruci&x 
(dam of Priam) ; and as the opposite proportions are incompatible with 
speed, they must on that account be altogether rejected. The withers 
are generally thin, and sometimes raised quite iuto a razor-like form, 
which, however, is a defect, as it is attended with no advantage to 
counterbalance the difficulty which it presents in the way of the saddler, 
who is constantly being called on to prevent his tree hurting the horse's 
back. A moderate development of the spinous processes is required to 
give attachment to the muscles which support the neck and move the 
shoulder, but the excessive height wliich we sometimes see is not of the 
slightest avail for this purpose. 

The next and last component parts of the body are the back-ribs, 
FLANK AND BELLY. Here WO have chiefly to consider the proper lodgment 
of the organs of nutrition ; but there is also the junction of the fore and 
hiad quarters to come under review. For both these purposes the back-ribs 
should be long, or, as such a formation is generally called, " deep," so as 
not only to give protection to the contents of the belly, but to afford a 
strong attachment to the muscles which connect the chest to the hips. 
The space, also, between the latter and the last rib should not be large, 
or there will be an element of weakness ; but if too limited, the action in 
the gallop will be confined, and the hind legs will not be brought suf- 
ficiently forward. About the breadth of the hand is the proper allowance 
to make for this space in a horse of average size and make, and either 
more or less than this may be considered a defect. To obtain this forma- 
tion, the ribs themselves must be set wide apart, and not huddled up 
together, as you sometimes see, leaving a great space between the last and 
the hip. When the back-ribs are long, the lower outline of the belly 
swells considerably below the level of the girth-place, and a very elegant 
shape is developed, as well as one generally united with a hardy consli- 



90 THE HORSE. 

tution. Sometimes, it is true, the two are not combined, and now and 
then we meet with, a very good feeder and robust animal with shallow 
back-ribs ; but the rule may be considered to be as I have stated it, and 
the purchaser will do weU. to attend to it in making his selection, when 
he knows nothing of the character of the individual. For fast road-work, 
where the failure of the legs is generally the limit to the amount of work, 
a very heavy carcase is an objection, as it increases the weight upon them ; 
and an overtopped harness-horse — that is, one with a body too big for his 
legs — is a most worthless brute ; but in the thoroughbred there is seldom 
this formation, and the tendency is, on the other hand, to be too light in 
the flank, rather than too deep. A light-carcased or herring-gutted horse 
when " set " for the race-course or the fast himting country looks cut in 
two, and his performances generally correspond with his appearance. 

Projecting forward with a beautiful sweep, the neck comes out of the 
chest in this Idnd of liorse with a most elegant outline. Of a greater 
length than in any other, it is also proportionally thin ; but both these 
dimensions may easily be exaggerated, a very long and thin neck being 
objectionable, and rarely corresponding with good wind. The lines re- 
semble greatly those of the neck of the gamecock ; and when there is a 
decided angle about three or four inches from the jaw, the horse is said to 
be " cock-throppled," and it is then generally supposed that he is more 
than usually liable to become a roarer or a whistler. The curve of this 
part a good deal depends upon the breaking and subsequent riding, 
different hands producing a great variation in the carriage ; but if the 
bones are so formed and connected together that the natural curve has its 
concavity upwards, it is almost impossible to produce a proper bend in 
the other direction, though still much may be accomplished by perse- 
verance. A "ewe neck," as this is called, is very objectionable on this 
account ; but it is very often combined mth speed, fine action, and great 
gameness. More depends upon the junction between the head and neck, 
than upon the latter in itself, for by long-continued perseverance, it may be 
made so supple as to bend at the rider's will ; but if the jaws are too 
narrow to allow the head to bend upon the neck, no means that can be 
applied will make any impression, and the result is that the mouth is 
spoiled, and frequently the temper also. A large and free windpipe, that 
is, one of suificient diameter for the passage of air, and not tied down by 
any bands of fascia, mil be necessary for good Avind ; and this point 
should specially be examined. 

In the head is contained the organ of intelligence, which is also the 
chief seat of that nervous energy which animates the whole body. Here 
also are the eyes, and the external apertures of the breathing apparatus ; 
so that the form of this part of the body is of great importance. Size is 
power, and, ca'tej'is paribus, a large brain is to be regarded as a most 
valuable adjunct. Hence the head should be wide above the eyes, as well 
as between the ears, and somewhat fidl or projecting in the forehead also, 
in order to give lodgment to a brain of good volume. It is the great 
development of this organ in the thoroughbred and his Eastern relations, 
that gives the extraordinary stoutness and fire for which they are so 
remarkable ; and therefore a horse of this breed deficient in volume of 
brain will be found in these respects no better than his low-bred rivals. 
In every other part, the weight should be reduced to the minimum neces- 
sary for carrying on the functions peculiar to it, save only the eye, a very 
small one being generally found to be prone to disease. The thorough- 
bred horse has a beautifully full and gazelle-like eye ; but in tliis organ 



EXTERNAL FORMATION. 91 

many half-bred animals are qxiite eqnal to him — the eye of the cart-horse, 
however, showing the opposite extreme. A very prominent or unnatjirally 
convex eye, called a " buck eye," is not to be regarded as desirable, being 
an evidence of shortness of sight, and therefore not to be confounded with 
the full and soft expression indicative of good manners, high courage 
when roused, and soundness. !N'ext to the eyes in importance are the 
nostrils, which should be open, and when the horse has gallopped should 
stand out stiffly, showing the red lining membrane, and admitting the 
air freely. Of course, even the smallest nostrils are of larger area than 
the windpipe ; but there is generally a coincidence between their size and 
that of the internal passages higher up, and on that account a patent 
nostril is to be looked for with some anxiety. I have known some horses 
with small nostrils possess excellent wind, because in them the internal 
conformation was of full size, and if, as I before remarked, the area of the 
two nostrils together is always much greater than that of the windpipe, 
they cannot in themselves offer any impediment to breathing. Without a 
trial, however, as the internal passages cannot be measured, the size of the 
nostrils must be accepted as the best guide to that of the more essential parts, 
and practically this is sufficient for general purposes, only inferior to an 
actual trial. The ears should be moderately long, thin, and not inclined 
to " lop." The muzzle should be fine ; but in those very pointed jaws, 
which their owners regard with so much pride, as " small enough to drink 
out of a quart pot," the nostrils are seldom large enough, and hence they 
are to be regarded with great suspicion, beautiful as they undoubtedly are, 
A slight concavity in the front line, descending from the forehead to the 
front of the muzzle, is regarded as a mark of breeding, and, if not too 
marked, deservedly so ; but a very deep concavity is often attended with 
a vicious temper. Lastly, a lean and wide lower jaw should not be omitted 
as a grand desideratum ; the former point is merely a sign of breeding, 
but the latter is (as I before remarked in describing the neck) essential to 
the proper bending of the one part on the other. The experienced horseman 
always passes his fingers between the angles, and if there is not plenty of 
room, he knows that the head cannot be well carried, and he is inclined 
to suspect that the larynx will be impeded in its functions, and that, con- 
sequently, respiration will be affected either by roaring, whistling, or 
some or other of the many forms of "making a noise." With all these 
dimensions, which may, comparatively, readily be described, there should 
be combined a cheerful and airy expression of countenance, without 
any appearance of vice. The thoroughbred horse is not often too sluggish, 
and it is not in that direction that we should look for infirmities of 
temper; nor is it easy to describe the marks or signs by which vice 
of any kind can be at once recognised from the mere expression. Still 
the horseman will do well to study the countenance of this as well as 
other breeds of horses, and he will find, in course of time, that no little 
assistance will be derived from it. 

The Shoulder-blade is, like the head, pecuHarly formed in the 
Eastern horse, having greater obliquity in its position, and a superior 
length and breadth, as compared with aU others. For the reasons which 
may be alleged for the desirability of these characteristics, I must refer to 
pages 8 — 9, where I have already given them. Suffice it to observe, that an 
obliquely -placed and hroad blade, well clothed with muscles, is the desirable 
formation of this part, added to a well-developed " point," as the pro- 
minence at the joint between the blade and true arm-bone is called by the 
horseman. If this is too level and smooth, the muscles which are attached 



92 TUE HORSE. 

to it have not sufficient leverage ; wliile if it is very ragged and prominent, 
it is a, mark of diseased or excessive growth of bone, and is generally 
attended with a stiffness of the part. Indeed, in examining a shoulders 
blade, freedom of action is to be regarded much more than its exact 
position when at rest ; for if you have the desired effect, it matters not 
(except for breeding purposes) whether it is exceptional or not ; and, as a 
matter of course, it is better to have a freely-playing shoulder which 
when at rest is too upright than a perfectly formed one confined to its place, 
as we sometimes see it. The obHque shoulder-blade is specially required 
in all horses which come down upon their fore legs after a spring, whether 
this is in the gallop, or the leap, or the trot, for the use of it is by its 
elasticity to break the jar which is thereby occasioned. The upright form 
is stronger, as the weight is placed more directly over the column which 
bears it, but it allows of less elasticity under the sudden shock given by 
the impetus of the body as it approaches the earth, and for this reason is 
only suited to the slow work of the cart-horse, or heavy machiner. In 
conjunction Avitli the oblique, and therefore long blade, is always found a 
long true arm, which is sometimes so extended backward as to place the 
elbow absolutely in the way of the girths, and then perhaps may be con- 
sidered as too long, especially as it throws the weight of the fore-quarter 
much in front of the fore legs, and tends to make the horse possessing 
it somewhat unsafe unless his action is particularly free. This part also 
should be well clothed with nmscles. 

The fore arm or arm, as it is generally called, is not remarkable 
for any great pecuharities, but it is somewhat larger in proportion to the 
cannon bone than in other breeds. 

The knee is broad and deep, from before backwards, and the leg below 
the knee is peculiarly free from that contraction or " tying in" which in the 
cart-horse and allied breeds is so objectionable, being an element of weak- 
ness when the joint is exjDosed to the strains incidental to fast work of any 
kind. So also a bending backwards of the joint called the " calf-knee," 
common in the cart-horse, is condemned in the race-horse for the same 
reason. 

The bone op the leg both in the fore and hind-quarter is small, but of 
compact substance, while the suspensory Hgament and back sinew are so 
large, and stand out so freely, as to appear to form quite one-half of the 
leg. The fetlock joints are clean and of good si^e, the pasterns long and 
elastic, and the feet though small as compared with other breeds, yet large 
enough for the weight they have to carry, thek horny covering being also 
tough and compact. 

In the hind-quarter the Eastern horse and his descendants excel all 
others in symmetry and in the length of the various parts composing it. 
Comparing the cart-horse with the subject of the present investigation, one 
is struck with the greatly increased length of the thighs of the latter, 
approaching ahnost to the proportions of the greyhound. In the cart- 
horse, when walking, the stifle joint can hardly be seen, while in the race- 
horse it is brought out prominently at every step. This gives the stride 
necessary for pace, and the fast strain of blood known as that of Selim, and 
his brothers Castrel and Eubens, possesses this pecidiarity in a marked 
manner, though from the high position of the stifle in them, and their 
straight hocks, many people lose sight of this peculiarity. "With regard 
to the hocks of a racehorse, they should be of full size, clean, and as a matter 
of course, free from curbs or spavins. They are also generally considered 
to require very long points, that is to say, the projecting lever to 



HEIGHT AND COLOUR. 93 

v-vliicli the ham-string is attached should he long. From an examination 
of many racehorses 1 am satisfied that for sj^eed this may he over-done, 
for though power is gained hy it, quickness is sacrificed ; and a very long 
point to the hock is apt to give long, dull, and dwelling action, entirely 
opposite to quick pace, though perhaps telling over a long flat. All are 
agreed that the gaskin or lower thigh must be muscular, and both for 
beauty and effect this is a most important jDoint. In other respects, the 
hind-quarter of the thoroughbred should resemble that of any other variety 
of the species. 

The whole of these points should be i!i proportion to one another — 
that is to say, the formation of the horse should be " true." He should not 
have long well developed hind-quarters, with an upright, weak, or confined 
fore-quarter. JSTor will the converse serve, for however well formed the 
shoulder may be, the horse will not go well unless he has a similar forma- 
tion in the propellers. It is of great importance, therefore, that the race- 
horse should have all his various points in true relative development ; and 
that there shall not be the hind-quarter of along racing-like horse with the 
thick confined shoulder which would suit a stride less reaching in its 
nature. A remarkable instance of the advantages of such a formation is 
exhibited in Saunterer, whose frame is not characterised by power or any 
other special perfection, but being perfectly true in his formation he was 
one of the best, if not the very best, horse of his year, as he proved by his 
various achievments. At page 85 will be found an engraving of him, 
copied from one of the best portraits I ever saw, by Mr, H. Barraud, 
which should be carefully examined. 

HEIGHT. 

In height the racehorse varies from fifteen hands to sixteen and a 
half, or even seventeen hands ; but the general height of our best horses 
is about fifteen hands three inches. Few first-class performers have 
exceeded the height of Surplice, who is sixteen hands one inch, as is also 
another Derby winner. Wild Dajrrell. Sir Tatton Sykes was fifteen 
and a half hands ; and between his height and that of Surplice may be 
ranged every great winner for the last ten or twelve years. This average, 
therefore, may fairly be laid down as the best height for the racehorse, 
though it cannot be denied that for some small and confined courses — as, 
for instance, that of Chester, a smaller horse of little more than fifteen 
hands height has a better chance, as being more capable of turning round 
the constantly recurring angles or bends. 

COLOUE. 

The colour of the thoroughbred horse is now generally bay, brown, 
or chestnut, one or other of which will occur in ninety-nine cases out of a 
hundred. Grey is not common, but sometimes appears, as in the recent 
case of Chanticleer and many of his stock. Black also occasionally makes 
its appearance, but not more frequently than grey. Eoans, duns, sorrels, 
&c., are now quite exploded, and the above five colours may be said to 
complete the list of those seen on the race-course. Sometimes these colours 
are mixed with a good deal of white, in the shape of blazes on the face, or 
white legs and feet ; or even all these marks may occur, and the horse may 
have little more than his body of a brown, bay, or chestnut. Most people, 
however, prefer a seK colour, with as little white as possible ; and 



94 THE HORSE. 

nothiiig but tlie great success of a liorse's stock would induce breeders to 
resort to him if they were largely endowed with white. Grey hairs 
mixed in the coat, as in the Venison's, are rather approved of than other- 
wise ; but they do not amount to a roan, in which the grey haii'S are equal, 
or even more than that, to those of the other colour mixed with them. 

COAT, ]\IA1^E, AOTD TAIL. 

The texture of the coat and skia is a great proof of high breeding, 
and in the absence of the pedigree would be highly regarded ; but when 
that is satisfactory it is of no use descending to the examination of an 
inferior proof ; and, therefore, except as a sign of health, the skin is seldom 
considered. In all thoroughbred horses, however, it is thinner, and the 
hair more silky than in common breeds ; and the veins are more apparent 
under the skin, partly from its thinness, but also from their extra size and 
number of branches. This network of veins is of importance in allowing 
the circulation to be carried on during high exertions, when, if the blood 
could not accumulate in them, it would often choke the deep vessels of the 
heart and lungs ; but by collecting on the surface great relief is afforded, 
and the horse is able to maintain such a high and long-continued speed 
as would be impracticable without their help. Hence, these points are not 
useful as a mere mark of breed, but as essential to the very purpose for 
which that breed was established. 

The mane and tail should be siUcy and not curly, though a slight 
wave is often seen. A decided cuii is almost universally a mark of 
degradation, and shows a stain in the pedigree as clearly as any sign can 
do. Here, however, as in other cases, the clear tracing of that all-powerful 
proof of breeding wiU upset all reasoning founded upon inferior data. The 
setting on of the tail is often regarded as of great importance, but it is 
chiefly with reference to appearances ; for the horse is not dependent for 
action or power upon this appendage. E'or is strength of dock of any 
certain value as a sign, for I have known some very stout horses with 
flaccid and looselj'^ pendent tails but still it may be accepted as a general 
rule, that when the muscles of the tail are weak, those of the rest of the 
body are likely to be so also. 

THE THOEOUGHBEED HUNTEE AND STEEPLECHASEE. 

Hitherto we have considered the thoroughbred horse as intended to be 
tested " over the flat," that is to say on our ordinary race-courses, but, as I 
have before mentioned, the hunting-field is also largely supphed from the 
same som'ce, and in addition the steeplechase is now almost entirely carried 
on by means of thoroughbred animals. It is found that many horses Avhich 
are too slow when tried as two or three-year-olds over our ordinary courses, 
and therefore discarded from the racing stable, are able to beat all others 
over a country, either with hounds or in the steeplechase. Whether this 
improvement in form is owing to the greater distance, or to increased age, 
or to the addition of fences, such is undoubtedly the fact, as might be 
proved by innumerable weU-kno-wn instances. Sometimes perhaps one, 
sometimes another, of these may effect the change, and perhaps, occa- 
sionally, all three may combine to produce it, but imdoubtedly the first 
hope of the OAvner of a slow racehorse is that he may yet become a good, 
and therefore fast, hunter or steeplechaser. In the palmy days of steeple- 
chasing, when 1,000^. was a common price for a fkst-class horse suited to 



HALF-BREDS. 95 

the purpose, such an animal was as difficult to procure as a horse to win the 
Derby, and a man who had one congratulated himself on his good fortune. 
But now, in spite of the fresh impetus given to the sport by the establish- 
ment of aristocratic and national hunt races, it languishes sadly, and no 
one Avould dream of entering it as a speciJation, either by breeding or 
purchase. All that is wanted is a racehorse of sufficient power to carry 
eleven or twelve stone, and with temper and courage to make him 
take to jumping. Without these quahties it is useless to attempt to do 
much with a young horse in the way of education, for though in the 
hands of a determined schoolmaster he may be made to jump, yet he 
will never be to be depended on, and when most wanted, he will be sure 
to fail. So also with his action, it must be rounder and have less of the 
daisy-cutting style than is required on the flat, for otherwise he will be 
sure to fall ia passing over the grips and other inequalities which he has 
to encounter. If, therefore, a slow racehorse of stout blood, has good 
manners and courage, and is possessed of a sufficiently strong frame to 
stand the shocks of the steeplechase-coiu'se, he may be thrown by tiU the 
ground is fit to begin to school him, and he will often reward his owner 
by becoming a fijst-rate performer over a country. I have specially noted 
the character of the blood, for there axe some strains which may be relied 
on with far more certainty than others, for this purpose. The descendants 
of Waxy, for instance, wherever they have good shoulders, and of suffi- 
cient size and substance are most valuable ; while on the other hand the 
Sehms are too flashy as a rule, though one or two sons of Ishmael and 
Eatcatcher may be instanced as exceptions. Drayton, who got more first- 
rate steeplechasers than any stallion of his day, being sire of Bourton, 
Standard — Guard, Victim, and several others of less note, was by Mulej'-, 
son of Orville, out of Prima Donna, by Soothsayer, grand-dam by Waxy. 
He was not himself successful on the flat, nor has he got a good racehorse, 
but his stout blood, good temj^er, and strong frame and constitution, were 
exactly suited to the task required of steeplechasers and hunters. 

The thoroughbred hunter is similar in external form to the steeple- 
chaser, but in him "good manners " are stiU. more requisite. So also when 
a high weight is to be carried a stronger frame is required than for the 
eleven stone or twelve stone of the steeiilechase course. 



GHAPTEE VII. 

HALF-BREDS, COBS, AND PONIES. 

THE HALF-BRED HUNTER — THE IRISH HUNTER — THE CHARGER — THE COVERT, EGAD, 
AND PARK HACK THE LADIES' HORSE — COBS, GALLOWAYS, AND PONIES — THE CAR- 
RIAGE, BROUGHAM, OR CABRIOLET HORSE— THE HEAVY MACHIN2R THE PHAETON 

HORSE — THE GIGSTER, OR FAST TROTTER. 

All the varieties included in this chapter require a considerable 
infusion of Eastern blood, inasmuch as though some of the harness- 
horses are not called on to travel very fast, yet considering the weights they 
have to draw, their efforts are violent enough to tax both the wind and 
stamina to an extent which can only be endured by the Eastern horse or 
his descendants. Even the omnibus-horse, travelling only six or seven 
niUes within the hour, including stoppages, must not be of cart blood, or 



96 THE IxORSE. 

lie will kiiock up before he reaches the end of his first journey, when 
called upon to draw his share of four tons at that pace. The Exmoor 
ponies have a strong infusion of Eastern blood in them, and the light 
and elegant head of the Shetlander in itself would almost warrant us 
in including him. in the list. It is well kno^\^l that the JSTew Forest 
ponies in the last century were repeatedly supplied with an Eastern cross, 
and the celebrated Marske, sire of EclijDse, is said to have covered several 
of the mares of this breed, while standing at Bistern, near Ringwood, in 
Hampshire, in 1767 — 1768, for want of mares of a superior character. 
This chapter, therefore, will include a descriiDtion of every EngHsh horse, 
but the thoroughbred and the heavy draught horses iised for agricultural pur- 
poses, and the moving of heavy goods. The term "half-bred" is a misnomer, 
for it is generally applied to those horses which have a much larger propor- 
tion of Eastern blood than half, and, in many cases, iihey possess fully 
thirty-one parts out of thirty-two, or even more. Mr. Apperley (Nimrod) 
advocated the first cross between the cart-mare and the thoroughbred 
horse for hunting purposes, but the plan has not been found to answer, 
and is now entirely abandoned from a long experience of the want of 
symmetry in the produce, and from their deficiency in staying poAvers over 
a distance of ground. Even for fast road-work thek legs do not stand, 
but throw out spHnts, side bones, or spavins, so soon and so frequently, 
that they are never chosen for the purpose by good judges on that account 
alone. 

THE HALE-BEED HUNTEE. 

The Hunter in our fast countries, such as Leicestershire, N'orthamp- 
tonshire, parts of Oxfordshire, and Gloucestershire, is generally selected 
(if the purse Avill permit it) with a pedigree entirely contained in the 
Stud-book. There are, however, few true thoroughbreds that can carry 
twelve stone across country, that is to say, as compared with the number 
of hunting men of that weight, and consequently their price is raised to a 
height that can only be reached by a long purse. A "made hunter" of 
this class is worth from 2501. to 5001. according to his " manners " — for 
as many of them have been broken for the racing stable and have passed 
through that mill, they are liable to be somewhat inclined to pull, and to 
exhibit other failings incidental to that school. In cramped countries, the 
thoroughbred horse is not so well calciilated as the half-bred to get over 
standing jumps, for his hind legs are not so well under him ; and from the 
absence for generations of practice in any paces but those required for 
racing, he has lost in some measure the power to put his fore and hind 
feet wherever they are wanted to be, which is so constantly in demand in 
" provincial countries," Where, however, pace is the chief desideratum, 
and where hounds go so fast that without that quality in the horse, also, 
his rider is soon thrown out, the thoroughbred horse alone can be sure of 
keeping a front place, and for that reason is in such great demand. He 
can undoubtedly carry any Aveight up to twelve stone, or even sometimes 
sixteen stone, over a wider brook or double jjost and raUs, than the haK- 
bred, but I know of no instance in Avhich a pure thoroughbred has ever 
got over any very high jump, such as a six-foot stone wall or piece of 
timber. Chandler and Proceed, Avho cleared thirty-seven feet and thirty- 
nine feet respectively, were both thoroughbred, though not in the Stud- 
book, and no half-bred horse has ever come near to these performances; 
but if a match was made to get over a high wall no one would select a 
thoroughbred horse for that purpose. Hence, the haK-bred hunter has 



THE HALF-BRED HUNTER. 97 

still many admirers, and, on the average, nine-tentlis at least of tlie horses 
which appear at the covert side throughout the kingdom must be included 
in this class. Many have fully seven-eighths of pure blood, and perhaps 
few have less than that proportion, but there is a distinct stain in the 
third or fourth generation which entitles them to ajQfix h.b. to their names 
if they are entered'for any race where there is an allowance for half-breds. 
There is always great difficulty in obtaining the bones and joints in a 
thoroughbred of sufficient size to stand the shocks of the hunting field, 
and for weeds of this class there is a very limited sale. Hence, the 
breeder naturally avoids the risk, esj)ecially as he must go to a very high 
price for his mares if he is "to obtain them of such a size and substance as 
he will desii'e. A haK-bred mare may be purchased for 201. or 301. with 
big legs and joints, and she therefore is chosen, often without knowing 
her pedigree or even where she was foaled. The consequence is that the 
country is deluged with colts of all shapes and characters, some of which 
may be thoroughbred without the knowledge of their breeders, but most 
are really what they are said to be, namely, half-bred, which I have 
explained as meaning the possession of more or less stain of nondescript 
blood. I have described the shape and characteristics of the thoroughbred 
horse so fully that it is needless for me to return to the subject ; but as far 
as his jDowers for hunting purposes are concerned, it was necessary to 
allude to them here as I have done. 

In choosing the half-bred hunter, regard must be had to the weight he 
has to carry and the country he has to cross — for the lighter the weight 
and the more open the country, the more highly bred should he be. 
A man of eighteen stone must generally be contented with an active 
cart-horse, but sometimes a remarkably strong colt is reared possessing a 
good deal of blood, /or his shape, and he is worth a large sum, when 
taught the trade which he has to carry on. In any case, however, the 
hunter shoidd have the free use of his legs, and should be able to gallop 
over rough ground without a mistake. It is here that the training for the 
race-course so often tells unfavourably, for every training-ground is kept 
as level as possible, and the racing colt has had no necessity for picking 
his way. From his earliest days he has been either turned out in a level 
paddock or he has been in a loose box, and hence he has had little occa- 
sion to look where he is going. On the other hand, the half-bred is turned 
out till he is four years old, and the fields which he runs over are com- 
posed of every variety of ground, often crossed by roads with deep ruts, or 
containing such other inequalities of sui'face, that if he does not take care 
he will fall over them. The breaker, likemse, if he knows his business, 
takes him over undulating ground, and thus he learns to avoid mistakes 
which might break his own or his rider's neck in the hunting field. Ifo 
fall is so dangerous as one occurring from the horse putting his foot into 
a blind drain, which a clever animal will seldom do, while a racehorse 
wiU rarely avoid it for any length of time if ridden over ground con- 
taining these dangerous traps without great care on the part of the rider. 

The points essential to the hunter are chiefly the following : — First 
and foremost, he must have a good shoulder-blade, placed obliquely to 
sustain easily the shock of falling from a height, and enable the horse to 
get away again quickly from it. It should also be particularly well 
clothed with muscles, or the part will soon tire, and after getting over the 
first few fences in good style a fall will occur. The muscxdarity of the 
fore arm is likewise of great importance for the same reason, for this part 
also soon tires if not sufficiently powerfuL 'Next to the shoulder and arm 

H 



98 THE HORSE. 

come tlie hind -quarters, which should he powerful in proportion to the 
■weight which is to be carried. In this class of horses still more than ia 
the racehorse a straight quarter is my aversion, and I never yet saw a 
perfect hunter with this kind of shape in the fullest degree. The Irish 
hunter, which is remarkable for cleverness, has almost invariably a low 
croup, as we shall presently see; and the shape which is represented in the 
frontispiece is the one which I believe to be perfection for the purpose we 
are now considering. The horse of which this is a most faithful portrait is 
supposed to be by Irish Bu'dcatcher, and was imported from Ireland with 
that pedigree. He is nearly thoroughbred, and in my belief can carry 
twelve stone against anything in tliis country, with the most beautiful 
action in the world ; but belonging to a gentleman who eschews the 
steeplechase course, he has never been pubhcly tried, and I only judge his 
qualities from his performances in private, which are to my own know- 
ledge such as to entitle him to the character which I have given him. 
The likeness is most faithful, and does Mr. Barraud the greatest credit; 
the engraving. is on that account to be regarded as doubly valuable. 
Indeed, if we could obtain plenty of such horses, there would be nothing 
further to desire; but he is an exception, and can only be considered as 
the standard or type to be aimed at in breeding the hunter to carry twelve 
stone or fourteen stone. Wide hips are especially necessary in the hunter 
intended to carry weight, and even ragged ones are to be preferred to the 
narrow weak hips which give a good side view, but look like a deal board 
from behind. Large and muscular haunches and gaskins (or thighs) can 
alone give propelling power, but if these exist with small or diseased 
hocks the power will be thrown away. In the hunter far more than in 
the racehorse, the hocks should be well bent, and the stifles high and 
wide, or the action will be disiuiited, and the power of shifting the 
fore feet so as to avoid holes, &c. will be wanting. Below the hocks and 
knees the canna bones should be large, and the suspensory ligaments 
and tendons strong, clean, and free, while the pasterns should be strong 
and shorter than in the racehorse, terminating in feet large enough to 
avoid sinking in deep ground. In the middle-piece a greater width is 
desirable than in the racehorse, where excessive speed compels, to some 
extent, a sacrifice of " bellows' room," and a chest slightly wider than in 
tiiat variety may be admitted as perfection, though still not too wide and 
open. The back and loins must be strong, and well united to the hips 
by the back-ribs, .being deep and close up, so as to bear the strain given 
by the superincumbent weight in coming to the ground after a leap. 
This kind of horse also has great demands upon his stamina, for he is 
sometimes kept out for a whole day without food, and has generally an 
empty stomach from nine o'clock in the morning till five or six in the 
afternoon, which is double the interval best suited to his constitution. 
Hence a full middle-piece is a desideratum, and in no class of half-bred 
horse is it so much required, for no other is exposed to such calls upon 
the digestive organs. The racehorse even when deprived of his hay by 
*' setting " is allowed plenty of corn a very short time before running, but ] 
the hunter may leave his stable at eight or nine o'clock in the morning, 
and after being out for hours either drawing coverts blank or perhaps 
getting a moderate run, a fresh fox is foimd at three o'clock, and he must 
nevertheless go to the front or his master will despise him. Such a tax 
can only be borne by digestive organs which have plenty of room, and 
therefore it is that deep back ribs are so specially looked for by the 
hunting man of any experience. 



I 



THE IKISH HUNTER. 9& 

In height the hunter may vary from fifteen hands one inch to sixteen 
hands two inches, the former heing the lowest limit which as a rule will 
give size and power sufficient to get over a hig place. Exceptions have 
occuiTed, such as in Mr. Yevers' Little Tommy, who was not more than 
fourteen hands and a half, and yet both in the steeplechase and hunting 
field was very nearly A 1, and could carry eleven stone seven pounds with 
oreat ease. Few men, however, like to be mounted on ponies ; and unless 
your nerve is very great, a big fence looks still bigger when you look up 
to its top than when you can look down upon it in riding towards it. 
On the other hand, an overgrown animal is seldom able to do more than 
carry himself, and frequently he cannot do that for any distance. Here, 
also, exceptions are met with, and Sir Piers Mostyn's Seventy-Four, who 
was seventeen hands and an inch, is a case in point, being a splendid 
hunter, and though not a wianer of any great steeplechase, yet running 
a good second once or twice. 

Manners make the man, but still more the hunter ; and without 
" good manners" no horse can be considered fit for a gentleman to ride to 
hounds. A strong puller may make an excellent steeplechase horse, as I 
have ah'eady said, but even then he will not be equal to the more com- 
posed yet equally high-couraged animal who takes nothing more out of 
himself than is absolutely requisite for the task he has to perform. And 
no one who could afford to pay for what he regards as perfection would 
willingly ride a pulluig horse to hounds, and one that is also irritable at a 
check is stUl more objectionable. Some horses will not wait for their 
turn at a gap or gate, but, in spite of bit and heel, wiU rush at some part 
of the fence, and thus jeopardize their riders. Such propensities are 
extremely disagreeable, and condemn their possessors in the opinion of all 
men of experience. Good manners generally are displayed when the head 
is well formed and the expression of countenance is good, but an expe- 
rienced eye alone can judge of these particulars. 

Lastly, a good mouth should never be overlooked, and as the setting 
on of the head is essential to perfection in this respect, a purchaser should 
not omit to notice that fact, in selecting a hunter without a trial. Many 
a horse's mouth is spoiled from attemj^ting to alter the shape of the neck 
by its 'means; AvhUe, again, a too supple neck gives way so much that it 
is difficult to get a mouth sufficiently dull to bear the slightest handling. 
It should always be remembered that an over-tender mouth may easily be 
altered for the better, while a dull one wUl remain so in spite of all the 
expedients which may be adopted. The only sure way to arrive at a 
knowledge of this point in any individual horse is to ride him under the 
same circumstances as he will be required for. Some will display an 
excellent mouth when ridden singly on the road, while with hounds they 
will pull one's arms off; others, again, will be pleasant enough if allowed 
to sail along at best pace, but cannot be kept away from the hounds 
without showing temper and disregarding the bit. It is, therefore, not 
only necessary to ascertain the nature of the mouth when the animal is 
not excited, but also to try it when he is wound up to the highest pitch; 
and a disregard of this precaution is constantly leading to disappointment. 

THE lEISH HUj^TEE. 

Between the English and Irish Hunter there are several slight points 
of difference. Thus the latter is remarkable for a particularly neat head, 
almost too narrow across the forehead, but full between the ears. The 

h2 



100 



THE HORSE. 



muzzle is small, but with good nostrUs ; jaws open, and head well set oa 
The shoulders are particularly sloping and powerful, middle-piece well 
ribbed but slightly fiat, hips wide and powerful, the loins also being mus- 
cular and well united to the back. The croup is almost always sloping, 
and the tail set on low. Legs and feet clean and sound. With these 
external characteristics a sour temj)er is often combined ; but the consti- 
tution is almost always hardy, and the powers of jumping are of a high 
order, displayed in height rather than in width. When an Irish hunter 
can be obtained possessed of good manners, he is very valuable indeed, 
but there is so much doubt on this point that a careful trial should always 
be obtained. 

THE CHAEGER AND TEOOPEE. 

It cannot be said that any particular breed of horses merits this name, 
but there are some characteristics which must always be looked for in a 
horse intended for this purpose. Between the officer's charger and the 
troop-horse of the private soldier the only difference is in the degree of 
perfection to which the above points are carried, for there is no doubt that 
the same qiialities which are desirable in the one are also required in the 




THE CHARGER. 

other. In the one case, however, there is a limit put to the price by Govern- 
ment, varying from 2il. to 351., while in the other the purse of the officer 
is alone the measure of the extent to which the market may be searched. 
Two points are specially desirable, namely, sufficient size and power to 
carry the heavy weight of a dragoon or lifeguardsman triumphantly agamst 
opposing cavalry; and, secondly, so much handiness at aU paces that 
complete control of the horse may be maintained with the bridle-hand, 
while the sword, lance, or carbine is used by the other. An officer's 



THE COVERT-HACK JOI 

charger is usually sixteen hands high, and of power proportioned to the 
weight he has to carry. His hind legs ought to be well under him, and 
his shoulders must be sloping and powerful, with a head and neck well 
put together, and rising out of the chest so as to give effect to the bridle. 
Such a horse is well displayed in the engraving, which is from a painting 
of a well-known charger belonging to an officer in the 1st Life Guards, by 
Mr. Barraud, who has kindly placed it at my service. Unless the hocks 
are well bent and the stifles forward it is almost impossible to teach a 
horse the military manege to its full extent, and hence this point is care- 
fully insisted on by cavalry officers. Occasionally, a thoroughbred horse 
is met with possessing this formation, but generally that breed is deficient 
in it, in consequence of the different style of going which is adapted for 
racing. Nearly all the chargers used in the cavalry are therefore half- 
bred, and a large proportion of them come from Lincolnshire, where, 
indeed, almost all of the Life Guards' troop-horses are bred specially 
for that purpose, being the produce of the black Lincolnshire cart mare 
crossed with the thoroughbred. These are sent up as three-year-olds to 
the three regiments, at ?>bl. apiece, but of late years there has been a diffi- 
culty in procuring sufficient numbers to fill up the gaps made by disease 
and death. The troop-horses of the dragoons and lancers are bought as 
four-year-olds, and are obtained from various sources throughout England, 
Ireland, and Scotland, Messrs. Phillips and East, of London, having the 
command of the market. 

THE COVEET, EOAD, AND PAEK-HACK. 

By the word hack is understood a horse specially intended for the 
saddle, and to be used on some kind of road, which may be the cross roads 
in the way to covert, or the ordinary turnpike, or, lastly, the loose 
gravelly roads of our parks. The same class of animal is used in all, but 
there are some slight differences between the three kinds, as we shall 
presently see, correspondhig with the purposes for which they are seve- 
rally used. 

The covert-hack is required to carry his master to the meet of the 
pack of foxhounds to which the hunter or hunters have been sent on. 
The object of this arrangement is to save time to the rider, and also to 
allow the hunter to be taken quietly to the fixture by the groom, who 
exchanges the one for the other just before the hounds are thrown into 
covert. Hence this kind of hack must be fast as well as stout, and it is 
expected that he shall be able to carrr ".ny ordinary weight from twelve 
to sixteen miles within the hour, to do which he must maintain a fast 
hand-gallop over all sorts of ground, and occasionally " do " a little fence 
or two to cut off a corner. In days of yore, our grandfathers breakfasted 
at daybreak, or sometimes rode ten miles on an empty stomach to the 
house of a friend near the appointed meet ; and they were contented to do 
this at a pace which would not turn a hair of their hunter's coat, even 
though that was perhaps not quite so silky and short as it is expected 
now to be. Such a practice would now be voted slow, even though the 
breakfast-hour might easily be appointed for eight a.m., leaving an hour 
and a half or two hours to ride quietly to covert. But, no, the fast man 
must ride fast, and make his appearance on his blood-hack, galloping 
sixteen miles an hour, and with his overalls bespattered with mud. He 
leaves his house at half-past nine or ten a.m., and reaches the meet just in 
time to put off his outside skin of dirt, and appear without a blemish on 



102 THE HORSE. 

his boots and leathers. For this purpose the hack must be a galloper, 
capable of keeping up a fast hand-gallop all the way from point to point ; 
he should be an easy goer at this pace, safe, and clever enough to take 
any moderate fence which may interfere with a short cut from one point 
to another. Green lanes are often very deep, and it would be impossible 
to get along them at the desired pace ; the only alternative therefore is to 
turn out on the adjoining sound ground, and get over or through the 
fences as well as tlie hack is capable of doing them. If he is a perfect 
covert-hack he will creep or jump in hand, or get across the country in 
some way, according to the weight he has to' carry ; and he should there- 
fore be a miniature hunter, with the additional requisite of being a good 
hack on the road. Many a horse is a pleasant and safe goer on soft 
ground, but if he is set going on a turnpike-road he will roll over his rider 
in the first half-mile. This is what the covert-hack should not be ; what 
he should be is, a clever and safe galloper. A trotter is tiring, in the first 
place ; and in the second, is not suited for the green sides of a road or the 
green lanes which can generally be met with in reaching the meet. About 
fourteen hands is the best average size for these hacks, whatever the rider 
may be ; if for sixteen stone or upwards, the hack must be a cob ; but if 
for much less, he may be blood-like, or even quite thoroughbred, if he can 
be obtained of that breed with sufficient action. Most covert-hacks, how- 
ever, are under-sized hunters, the produce of mares intended to breed 
something more valuable in the market ; but not growing into the con- 
templated proportions, the breeder is obliged to sell them as hacks j and 
when fast and clever enough, they are devoted to the purpose now under 
consideration. Act?r>n is the main point ; not too high, so as to throw 
time and space away, but a fast stealing-away kind of style, which gets 
over the ground without distressing either horse or rider. If the hack 
can get along in this way, safely over all sorts of ground, and can last at 
his three-quarter pace for ten or a dozen miles, he is a good covert-hack, 
let his appearance be what it may; but most men prefer good looks in 
addition, especially as these hacks are available during the summer for 
other purposes. A neat head and neck, with a general outline calculated 
to please, the eye, are therefore eagerly looked for ; and the consequence 
is that one of fourteen hands, or a little more, tolerably weU-bred and 
good-looking, which is capable of carrying from twelve to sixteen stone 
comfortably, and at a fast pace for the distance above specified, is worth 
from 50^. to 100?., according to his looks and action. A good judge will 
of course suit himseK for one-half the lower simi ; but in London, or any 
of the best hunting countries, such an animal is worth as much as I have 
stated. It must be recollected that he requires aU. the good qualities of 
the horse, except flying speed and great size; and that he must possess 
beauty of form and good temper, safe and fast action, cleverness, and 
above aU good sound feet and legs to stand the battering of the roads over 
which he must often be ridden at his three-quarter pace. Now, many 
scores of hacks, so called, may be looked over before a good judge could 
select one corresponding in all points with the above description, and con- 
sequently when one is found it is fair to expect that his value will be 
estimated accordingly. Such anitnals fetch long prices even at the 
hammer ; and when Mr. TattersaU has one before liim, with a known 
good character, it more frequently reaches above the fixst-named sum than 
drops below it. 

The road-hack varies from the foregoing in being necessarily more 
of a trotter than a galloper, inasmuch as he is intended for use on 



THE KOAD-HACK. 103 

Macadamised roads, many of which are made of granite or flint, and are, 
therefore, as hard as iron. To gallop much on such a surface is to lame 
your hack ; and even a fast trot is not to be indulged in for any distance, 
or on successive days, for fear of the same results. The Americans drive 
their trotters in their own country, and do not ride them, by which a 
faster pace may be obtained without injury; but in England the roads, 
being so much harder, soon compel a moderation of the fast trot, even in 
the imported horses, whose legs and feet are undoubtedly very sound and 
good, but still not capable of sustaining the wear and tear of granite roads 
at the rate of sixteen miles an hour. Hence, on our roads, we give up 
the gallop in favour of the walk and trot, which must be done cleverly. 
The former pace, especially, should be carefully inspected in selecting a 
hack, for nothing is so impleasant and trying to the rider as an unsafe or 
rough walker. The fore foot should be well lifted and put down again on 
its heel with a corresponding action of the hind leg, by which, on the one 
hand, "knuckling over" is avoided, from reaching the ground too soon; 
and, on the other, " over-reaching," from the opposite extreme. A good 
hack should walk nearly or quite five miles an hour, and though some 
will do considerably more, it is seldom by anything but a kind of shuffle, 
which is not pleasant to the rider, nor elegant to the spectator. The trot 
should be of that character that it may be brought down to eight miles an 
hour, or extended to fourteen; and this is the perfection of the pace, for 
few horses can do both well, being either too close to the ground in the 
former for safety, or toe set and lofty in their action for the latter. No 
defect is worse than the unsafe action, which results from a weakness of 
the extensor muscles of the arm, and in which the trot is pretty good as 
long as the horse is not tired, but after a few miles the leg is not lifted 
witla power enough, and the toe is constantly striking against some 
inequality of the ground, from ivhich it is not recovered. This marks the 
defect ; for it must not be confounded with habitual stumbling, which is 
as likely to occur at starting as at any other time, and which is always 
easily detected by watching the mode of putting down the foot in the 
naturally unsafe trotter, where the toe touches the ground first, and the 
heel then follows, as is evidenced by the state of the tip of the shoe. 
Here a trip may occur often, and yet no fall follow, because the extensors 
are strong, and effect a recovery after the mischief has been nearly done. 
But when the extensors are weak, the toe, which has been well raised at 
first, after a few miles touches the ground, and, not being rapidly recovered^ 
a fall ensues of the most severe character. For this reason it is necessary 
to ride a horse some distance before his action can be pronounced upon, 
and only then can it be said that he is fit for a timid or bad rider. As 
we shall hereafter find in discussing the mode in which the several paces 
are performed, the trot of our horses is somewhat different from that of 
the Americans, the knee in ours being more rounded, and the foot there- 
fore reaching the ground Avith a greater tendency to "toe" it. With 
regard to shape, though, as in the racehorse, there is a particular formation 
which is more likely to give good hacking powers than any other, yet 
experience teaches every horseman that it cannot be relied on either 
negatively or positively. From a stable full of hacks no one would dream 
of making a selection without seeing them out, for it would bo a hundred 
to one that the same animal would not be fixed on before and after a 
trial. Every butcher's boy who has been a year or two in the trade will 
tell you that hacks, still more than racehorses, go in all shapes, and though 
oblique shoulders may be desirable, yet many a good hack is without 



104 THE HORSE. 

them. Action is the sine qud non, united to stoutness, temper, and 
soundness both of wind and limb, as well as of the eyes. A horse with a 
thick-loaded shoulder often makes a good hack, while a very thin one is 
not suited for long-continued journeys, its muscles soon tiring, and a trip, 
or series of trips, being the result. There are, however, one or two essen- 
tials in the shape of a good hack which shoidd never be overlooked, let 
the action be what it may. Firstly, the shoulder-blade must be wide 
enough at its upper part and sufficiently clothed with muscle behind it to 
keep the saddle in its place, which may readily be ascertained by the most 
inexperienced person by putting one on and riding a mile or two, partly 
down hill. The horseman knows at once whether the shape of this part 
is suitable, but practice is required for this, and unless it has been 
obtained, it is better to leave nothing to chance, but to take the trouble 
to ascertain the fact. Secondly, the jaws should be wide, and the head 
and neck so put together that they can be bent into proper form, without 
which the mouth cannot remain good, and no hack can be considered 
perfect. Tliis, however, I have previously enlarged upon at great length, 
and therefore I need not repeat what I have written. I have alluded to 
the walk, trot, and gallop in mentioning the paces of the hack, but have 
said nothing of the canter, because it is not much used by gentlemen, on 
account of its wearing the off leg out more than the trot, from the great 
stress laid upon that limb. Even if the lead is continually changed, more 
mischief is done by 10,000 hard blows than by 20,000 comparatively 
gentle, and therefore, excepting on the turf by the side of the road, the 
canter should not be indulged in by the male sex. 

The park-hack should be the road-hack I have described with the most 
showy form within reach ; but as this last is the point which is the most 
attended to, an animal is often selected of the most wortliless kind in other 
particulars, either from some deficiency of constitution or infirmity of legs. 
There are every year some scores of useless bnites turned out of the racing- 
stables with legs which will not stand a preparation, in consequence of 
their tendency to inflame and become unsound. Xow, these horses are 
often barely up to eleven stone, and also unfit for the hunting-field, from 
defective hocks, or from some peculiarity of temper which prevents their 
taking to jump. They are " well topped" — that is, well formed about the 
head, neck, and body ; and to the inexperienced eye are very taking. 
They may also have high action, and sometimes particularly so j for the 
higher it is, the more likely to occasion inflammation of the legs. These 
animals are put by, cooled down, and blistered, and are then brought out 
as showy hacks, for the use of gentlemen who merely require a short 
constitutional airing qyqtj fine day of an hour or an hour and a half ; and, 
as fine days do not average above four per week, many horses even with the 
most infirm legs can accomplish that amount of work, if ridden quietly over 
hard ground. Many such animals are exhibited daily in Hyde Park, where 
the soft ground of Eotten Eow exactly suits them ; but there are others to 
be seen there of the most perfect description, capable of standing as much 
work as any butcher's pony. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that the 
great majority of our park-hacks, even if they are specially bred for the 
purpose, are incapable of doing as much work over hard ground as the 
coarser-bred and more common-looking brutes in use among the butchers 
and general dealers who attend country fairs from long distances. Eastern 
blood is a great advantage in most respects, and no doubt when the animal 
possessing it is sound, he will bear the shocks of the road with impunity ; 
but there is no question in my mind that he fails in the matter of enduring 



THE PARK-HACK. 105 

daily concussion on the road, and that a "Welsh pony or N"ornian horse will 
stand nearly twice the amount of this work without showing its effectR, 
This is the weak point in the breed, partly arising from original want of 
aize in the bone and joints, but chiefly, I imagine, from the constant use 
of stallions for inferior stock which have themselves suffered from inflam- 
mation of the legs and its consequences ; hence, in process of time, a breed 
of horses is formed, which has legs more than usually prone to lameness, 
in consequence of being the produce of sires and dams that have been 
turned out of the racing stable for this very infirmity, which is sure to be 
transmitted to the offspring. That Eastern blood is not necessarily prone 
to inflammation of the legs and feet is tolerably manifest from our experi- 
ence of modern Ai-abs and their descendants in this country, as well as 
abroad. Since the Crimean war, the number imported into Great Britain 
has greatly increased, and though most of them have been selected almost 
at random, they are certainly not defective in their legs, though perhaps 
not coming up to the degree of wirirxess which is possessed by the Welsh 
pony. I have myself owned an Arab as well as a grandson of an Arab, 
which would bear any fair amount of hammering uninjured, and from 
these facts, and others not within my own knowledge, I am led to conclude 
that the cause is not inherent in the breed, but is accidentally introduced 
hy the use of rejected stallions for farmers' purposes. These get good- 
looking colts, which fetch high prices, and therefore suit the breeder's 
purpose just as well as the sounder horse, who would perhaps cost twice 
as much for his services. The farmer seldom tries the legs much, and it 
is only when put to work that the weakness is discovered, which to the 
eye is not by any means perceptible. From a long experience in my own 
case, and ia that of others, I am convinced that legs cannot be selected by 
the appearance or feel. I do not mean to say that out of forty horses the 
twenty with the best-looking legs will not beat the others, but that it is 
impossible for any judge, however good, to pronounce with anything 
like certainty whether a certain leg will stand or not, without knowing 
anything of the possessor of it. In so many instances have I seen a leg, 
pronounced by several good judges to be undeniably good, go to pieces 
directly, and a bad one stand, that I can only come to the conclusion that 
no certain opinion can be formed from a mere inspection. This is a great 
source of loss to the dealer who buys his horses after a long rest, and with 
their legs looking fine and sound ; for even the necessary " showing out" 
mil make many give way, and lameness ensues of a character which will 
not warrant a "return," yet sufficient to prevent a profitable sale. A 
horse sore from work is cooled down, physicked, and put into a loose box; 
he is then blistered, and kept without more than quiet exercise tiU he is 
to be sold, and by that time his legs are as fine as the day he was foaled. 
Now, I defy any one, however skilful, to detect the inherent weakness ; 
but there it is, and on the first week's severe work the inflammation 
returns as bad as ever. The park-hack not requiring legs to stand severe 
work, his place is well fiUed by any horse of good temper, safe, and showy 
action, and of elegant shape. Good temper is necessary, because as these 
horses are not worked hard, they speedily become unmanageable if they 
are naturally of a vicious disposition. Work will quiet almost any horse ; 
but in order to have a horse pleasant to ride at all times, whether fresh or 
ptale, he must be of a very tractable temper indeed, lilany horses which 
will come out of the stable, when fresh, in a state of fiery and hot 
impatience, rearing and kicking like mad animals, will, when in good 
work, be as quiet as donkeys ; and hence it is not always wise to reject 



106 THE HORSE. 

one showing these qnalitJes, nor yet is it prudent for a bad horseman to 
mount one without previous riding, although he may know him to he quiet 
enough when regularly worked. 

THE LADIES' HOESE. 

This variety op the horse should be a perfect park-hack such as I 
have already described, but moulded in somewhat longer proportions, so 
as to give room for the habit to spread without quite eclipsing the animal. 
Many a hack looks extremely well under a man, but when a side-saddle 
and habit are on him, he shows nothing on the near side from the point 
of the shoulder to the hip, and hence is not adapted in appearance to a 
lady's use. A back too long to carry the weight of a man above nine 
stone is yet strong enough for a lady of average proportions, who seldom 
weighs, even with an eighteen pound or twenty pound saddle, more than 
ten stone, and many not near so much. This formation also gives a softer 
canter, and therefore possesses every good quality desired for a lady's use 
without any drawback. To be in proportion to this increased length of 
body, the neck should also be long, and thus an animal is well chosen for 
a lady which would be rejected by most male judges for their own use. 
In point of soundness, mouth, and temper, he must be unimpeachable, for 
the legs are far more tried by the canter than by any other pace, and 
ladies generally choose the cleanest, and therefore the hardest part of the 
road, and ride the faster there, because they can do so without splashing 
their habits. In wind also there should be no defect, as a gallop is not 
avoided whenever turf is at hand, and sometimes when this is not to be 
obtained, it is taken on harder ground. The mouth of a lady's horse should 
be light and level, and the neck so easily bent that there is not the slightest 
tendency to throw the head up, even when the hands are held so high as they 
necessarily must be from the nature of the lady's seat. There is a popular 
idea that a horse does not pull as much with a lady as with a gentleman, 
which is very erroneous. The hands of most men are bad enough, but for 
one good pair of female hands there are a dozen possessed by men, and this 
is irrespective of the greater number of riders among the male sex, but 
calculated in proportion, that is to say, the per centage of good hands is 
far greater among men than among women. Of course we do not see the 
same severe hanging on the bit displayed by ladies, because they have 
neither the same weight nor the same strength as their brothers, fathers, 
or husbands ; but as far as they can, they spoil their horses' mouths, with 
some few occasional exceptions. From the nature of the lady's seat, the 
hands cannot be held low over the withers, and if the horse's mouth 
absolutely requires the hands to be kept down below the level of the knee, 
they must be divided, and a rein taken in each. This generally gives an 
inelegant seat, but a year or two ago it was the fashion, and wherever it 
could be adopted it was : in order to maintain an upright position of the 
body, the hands must be brought almost back to the hips, and no shifting 
of the rein from one to the other can be effected without raising them 
above the knee. It follows, therefore, that the lady's position causes great 
difficulty in the management of an awkward mouth, and that, therefore, a 
very perfect one should be chosen for her use. In addition to good legSj 
length of body and neck, and a perfect mouth, the ladies' horse should be 
of a fine temper, and not too lazy, or he will need the spur ; nor too hot, 
or he will get beyond her control In height he should be between fifteen 
and sixteen hands, less than the former being objectionable on account of 



COBS, GALLOWAYS, AND PONIES. 107 

the splashes on the habit which is caused by too low a horse, and a greater 
height being generally attended with a rough and therefore unpleasant 
action. The walk and canter are the absolutely essential paces, but a 
good and even trot should, if possible, be superadded, for the sake of giving 
useful exercise to the rider, and at the same time saving the legs of her 
horse, which are tried far less in this pace on hard roads than in the 
canter. 

COBS, GALLOWAYS, AND PONIES. 

The Cob is merely a thick and strongly made hack about fourteen 
hands in height, and suited to carry from fifteen to twenty stone. All the 
points are therefore such as are required in the ordinary hack, but they 
must be strong in proportion to the weight to be carried. The twenty 
stone cob is in fact a compact and active little cart-horse, with canna 
bones as large as in that variety, and generally with the same tendency to 
throw out bony growths. In those up to less weight more breeding may 
be displayed, but even in them the cart-horse generally predominates with 
all his attendant disadvantages. Few breeders take any paias to obtain 
the cob, and his occurrence is chiefly accidental, being a dwarf among 
those colts intended for hunters, or an unusually well-shaped and active 
little cart-horse. The former is the more valuable by far, as his action 
will be cleaner and less heavy, while his limbs will stand fast work much 
better, and if wanted for the gallop his wind will be far more lasting. 

As TO THE Galloway, the term itself as well as the animal it represents 
are quite out of date. Originally, the word was confined to the full-sized 
ponies which were bred in the south of Scotland, and wliich showed more 
Eastern blood than the Highlanders. They seldom exceeded fourteen 
hands, and are described as possessing all the attributes of a clever hack. 
The distinct breed, however, is now lost, and the name is quite excluded 
from the horseman's vocabulary. 

Among modern ponies there is great variety, but the breeds are seldom 
kept distinct. It may, however, be said that the following are sufficiently 
so to be considered as sub-varieties of this division — namely, those of 
Wales, the New Forest, and Exmoor, in the South ; and the Highland 
and Shetland pony in the North. 

The Welsh pony is a strong useful animal, averaging about thirteen 
hands in height, and possessed of a neat head, good shoulders, a capital 
back, and most enduring legs and feet. Many of them are of a cream or 
dun colour, and if the latter, marked with a dark stripe down the back, 
which colour extends to the mane and tail. These peculiarities are sup- 
posed to be derived from Norwegian sires which some years ago were 
introduced into the district in the hope of improving the breed, which 
was then very small and weedy, with a remarkable preponderance among 
them of " cat hams." The cross has proved usefid ; but either from it or 
fcom the original breed, the Welsh pony is extremely disposed to be 
obstinate ; but as man is very apt to convey his own qualities to the dumb 
creatures about him, and as obstinacy is notoriously prevalent among the 
biped inhabitants of the province, it seems probable that Norway is 
altogether innocent. These ponies are bred in considerable numbers by 
the farmers, and suffered to run on the hills till they are three years old, 
when they are collected and either sold by auction on the spot, or sent in 
di'oves into England, where they are readily disposed of at prices varying 
from 51. to 15^. Tlie Eev. T. WilHams of Tyr-y-cwm, near Swansea, is 
one of the most celebrated of these breeders, and I have seen some of his 



108 THE HORSK. 

ponies, especially a stallion ridden by himself, of xery fine symmetry and 
action. 

The ]S"ew Forest pony will shortly be as seldom met with as the red 
deer in that district, that is to say, running wild, for the whole forest is to 
be broken up into farms, and as the land is valuable it will scarcely be 
devoted to breeding ponies. The breed is not much sought after, being 
more useful than ornamental, and not too highly gifted with the former 
quality either. The head is large and coarse, the sides flat, and the feet 
and legs by no means what they should be, if appearances are to be taken 
as the guide. Nevertheless, they stand work better than might be ex- 
pected, and I have known several which were tolerably good-looking as 
well as extremely safe and pleasant hacks. 

The Exmoor pony is said to be particularly hardy, and his short thick 
middle would lead one to suppose that this character is well deserved. 
Most of them are capital jumpers, and it is said that they will carry a 
heavy man up and down the Devonshire hills in a most astonishing way. 
I have seen many of these ponies, but have never had an. opportunity of 
judging how far report has exaggerated their powers. They are remark- 
able for a peculiarly hght bay colour of the muzzle and legs. Mr. Knight, 
of Simonsbath Lodge, and his agent, Mr. Smith, have taken great pains 
to improve the breed, and have crossed the native Exmoor mares with 
good thoroughbred English stallions, as well as with trotters and Arabs. 
The result is the production of many good-looking ponies annually 
brought to the hammer, but the prices realized are scarcely such as to 
warrant a continuance of the experiment. 

The Highland pony is remarkable for his docility and general good 
manners, by which circumstance he makes the best shooting pony in the 
world, and can be taught almost anything, except perhaps to gallop with 
the racehorse. These ponies have, like the old Welsh breed, the forma- 
tion of hind-quarter called " cat hams," but this only gives a greater power 
of using them and especially of creeping over broken ground, in which they 
are unapproachable. Their intelligence also is so great that it is almost 
impossible to get them into a bog ; and if by chance they find themselves 
sinking, they avoid the struggles which are instinctive in other breeds, and 
manage either to creep quietly out, or else wait patiently till assistance 
comes. In si2e they vary from twelve hands and a half to thirteen and a 
half, and in shape they present little to be remarked except their neat 
heads and cat hams. They are able to carry considerably more weight 
than their frames would lead one to expect, and sometimes a six-foot 
brawny Scotchman may be seen on one of them without causing any 
apparent distress, and with difficulty keeping his legs off the ground. 

Lastly, the Shetlander comes under review. He is the smallest 
variety of the British horse, and his appearance is well delineated in the 
annexed engraving. His head, almost concealed by his rough shaggy 
mane and forelock, looks smaller than it really is, while his neck is ex- 
tremely well formed, and his shoulders are slanting, muscular, and fuU of 
liberty. In fact, these little animals have powers proportionally as great 
as that of a dray-horse, and appear to carry with ease a man of eleven or 
twelve stone, if only he can arrange his legs so as to avoid walking and 
riding at the same time. They vary in height from nine to eleven hands, 
or sometimes a little more, and hence they are admirably calculated in this 
respect for the use of children, while their tempers are generally so good 
that they may be pulled about with as much impunity as a Newfoundland 
dog. Their coloxirs are chiefly bay, brown, or rusty black, chestnuts and 



THE CARRIAGE, BROUGHAM, OR CAB-HORSE. 



109 



greys being extremely rare. Large numbers are imported into England 
every year by the steamers from the North, and sold at prices varying 
from 51. to 30^. according to appearance and action. 




THE SHETLAND PONT. 



THE CAEEIAGE, BEOUGHAM, OE CAB-HOESE. 

Most of our best-shaped carriage-horses are now bred in Yorkshire 
and Lincolnshire ; but some few, and those not the worst, come from 
Shropshire and the borders of the adjacent counties, among which last 
may be mentioned with honour the celebrated bay of Count Bathyany. 
These horses are chiefly the result of a cross between the old Cleveland 
horse (now nearly extinct) and the thoroughbred Eastern horse, the pro- 
portion of the latter blood being difi&cult to ascertain, as in most instances 
the pedigrees of the stallions and mares cannot be traced with any cer- 
tainty for more than two or three generations, in spite of the assertions to 
the contrary of their breeders. Grand figure and high action, rather than 
pace, are the objects aimed at, especially for the use of the cabriolet, in 
which extravagant knee-action is considered essential to a perfect turn-out. 
The original from which my illustration of this variety is taken was for 
some months in the possession of Mr. Anderson, of Piccadilly, and sold by 
him at a long price to go abroad. He was painted by Mr. Barraud as a 
fine specimen of his class, and certainly the artist has conveyed to his 
canvas with great success the characteristic action of the cab or carriage- 
horse, which it will be seen differs from that of the fast American trotter 
represented at page 34 in its roundness and in the high elevation of the 
knee. Hence, it is more showy, or " gaudy " as the dealers say, and much 
less fast, ten miles an hour being the outside pace of these horses, and 
even this being too much for their legs and feet on our roads. At the 
time when Count Bathyany was so celebrated for his carriage-horses. 



110 



THE HORSE. 



Avhose action was splendid, lie always "tlirew hj" each pair at stated 
intervals, so as to reduce the inflammation of the feet and legs caused by 
the hammering on the road, before it had had time to leave any organic 
mischief. Being at least sixteen hands in height, with round barrels on 
which flesh is always loaded for the sake of show, their legs and feet have 
a good deal of weight to carry, and even with moderate action these soon 
wear out, if they are of bad form or materials. Hence, they are never 
used till they either are, or are supposed to be, five years old ; but to 
make them handy and safe in London they must be driven about the 
streets in the break for some months before they wiU stand a crush at the 
opera, or any other similar trial of steadiness and nerve. Some hundreds 
of pairs of these horses are jobbed in London by Mr. East, Messrs. 
WimbiTsh, and other jobmasters of less note, while nearly as many mora 




THE CARRIAGE, 'BIIOUGHAM, OB CAB HORSE. 

are kept by their owners for their oWn use. The engraving I have given 
will convey the characteristics desired in this horse better than any 
written description; but though it will serve to show the external 
form and action, it is on too small a scale to indicate in a reliable 
way the wiry and clean legs which are indispensable, and without 
wMch work soon causes lameness of some kind or other. The head 
is particularly good for so mixed a breed, and indicates the care which 
has been paid for many years to the selection of sires and dams. But the 
neck is the main feature in point of show, being of a most elegant forma- 
tion ; and the head being weU set on gives that beautiful rainbow sweep, 
which is shown in the portrait of Mr. Anderson's horse. Much of this is 
produced by careful breaking ; but without a naturally good formation of 
the bones, all the breakers in the world cannot make a horse bend himself 



THE HEAVY MACHINER. Ill 

into the beautiful outline so frequently displayed in Hyde Paik. Oblique 
but muscular shoulders, short backs, and long though strong quarters, 
with a great deal of ground covered below, constitute the remaining points 
characteristic of tliis horse, and leave nothuag to be desired except that 
more of the same sort should be annually bred. The broughams of London 
take those of inferior shape and action, but some of them are furnished 
with horses of nearly as much fashion and action as the cabriolets and 
carriages of the most aristocratic houses. StUl, on the whole, there is no 
doubt that the latter take off the cream of this variety of horse. 

THE HEAVY MACHmER 

Our omnibuses and vans are supplied with a most wonderfully active 
yet strong kiad of horse, which is in some measure obtained from the 
breeders of the last variety, being too plain in appearance, and sometimes 
too heavy in action, for private use. Their price is so low, averaging 
about 30^. when sound and five or six years old, that no one would 
be remunerated by attempting to breed them exclusively for the purpose 
to which they are finally put, and hence they are to be considered as the 
blanks in the breeder's lottery planned for other and more valuable kinds, 
such as the carriage horse or hunter, or as agricultural stock which have 
paid for their keep since their second year. Thirty or forty years ago 
such a class of animals was quite unknown, and there was no medium 
between the coach-horse or poster and the true cart-horse. Of late, 
however, as our roads have been improved, it has been discovered that by 
placing heavy goods on springs they may be moved at the rate of six 
miles an hour in as great weights by these horses as were formerly drawn 
by the dray-horse at two and a half or three miles per hour. The pair- 
horse omnibus also is a modern invention, and many are now drawn 
eight mQes within the hour conveying twenty-six passengers, besides 
the coachman and conductor, whereas sixteen used to be the full comple- 
ment for four horses, and with the use of a lighter vehicle. In those 
districts where the soil is light and G.O. ploughs are in vogue, the agricul- 
tural horses are so active that a selection from them wUl give a number 
of useful heavy machiners ; and some horses which refuse to work steadily 
at plough, will take to faster work with comparative kindliness. This last 
sort, however, do not bear a fast pace, but up to six mdes an hour they 
can pel form extremely well. The action of our omnibus horses is re- 
markably good for all useful purposes, being so safe that one rarely sees 
a mistake, and when a fall occurs it is almost invariably from a slip and 
not from a stumble. Much of this improvement in action is due to the 
absence of the bearing-rein and the general use of the snafiSe, leaving the 
animal at liberty to move without the dreadful restraint which was 
formerly so indiscriminately imposed. 

THE PHAET0:M-H0ESE, GIGSTEE, OE EAST TEOTTEE. 

Between the Norfolk and American trotters, which may be taken 
as the types of the two kinds of trotting developed in the horse, there is 
a very considerable difference. I have already described the latter, but it 
remains for me to say a few words about his English rival. In both there 
must be a considerable infusion of Eastern blood, not for the purpose of 
giving pace, but endurance. Many a low-bred animal can trot a mUe in 
pretty fair time, but he cannot keep his pace up j and indeed when very 



a2 THE HORSE. 

fast time is to be made, as, for instance, what the Americans call ** low in 
the two-thirties," that is, a mile in little over the two and a half miautes, 
blood is almost equally in demand for that distance as for a longer, and 
the distress is nearly as great as in running a mile over the flat at !N"ew- 
niarket. Norfolk has long been celebrated for her breed of trotters, and 
these are still in considerable demand for our gigs and phaetons, but their 
trot is not soft enough to make them desirable hacks, and they are little 
used for that purpose. The same applies to the American trotters, which 
are kept to their waggons all over the States. The action of the Norfolk 
trotter is more showy than that of the American, chiefly because the eye 
is the sole test applied in this country, no purchaser caring for a faster 
pace than fourteen or fifteen miles an hour, and most contenting them- 
selves with twelve, whereas, on the other side of the Atlantic, the time-test 
is applied in all cases and the value of a horse is in proportion to what he 
can do with the stop-watch in the hand of his examiner. The action of 
our best trotters resembles that of the carriage-horse displayed at page 
110, but in the smaller animals it is somewhat shorter and sharper. 
The foot is not tlirust forward so much as in the American, either before 
or behind, and hence there is more time lost in each step. In point of 
appearance and breeding, our gigsters and phaeton-horses are of all kinds, 
from the pure thoroughbred to the strong but undersized carriage-horse. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

AGRICULTURAL AND DRAY HORSES. 

THB OLD ENaLISH BLACK OART-HOBSE — THE SUFFOLK CART-HORSE — THE IMPROVED 
LINCOLNSHIKE DRAT-HORSE — THE CLYDESDALE HORSE— OTHER MIXED BREEDS. 

THE OLD ENGLISH BLACK CAET-HOESE. 

From time immemorial this country has possessed a heavy and com- 
paratively misshapen animal, the more active of which were formerly used 
as chargers or pack-horses, while the others were devoted to the plough, 
and, as time wore on, to the lumbering vehicles of the period of Queen 
Elizabeth and her immediate successors. In colour almost invariably 
black, with a great fiddle-case in the place of head, and feet concealed in 
long masses of hair, depending from misshapen legs, he united flat sides, 
upright shoulders, mean and narrow hips, and very drooping quarters. 
Still, plain as he was, he did his work wiUingly, and would pull at a 
dead weight till he dropped. This last quality was necessary enough 
at the fijst introduction of wheel carriages, for the roads were so bad that 
the wheels were constantly buried up to their naves in the deep ruts cut 
into them at the bottom of every hill, or wherever there was not a clear 
course for the water to run off. True pulling was, therefore, considered 
the first and most essential attribute of the cart or heavy carriage horse; 
and as without it the traveller or carter would be constantly left in the 
** Slough of Despond," it is not to be wondered at that such was the case. 
The figure of the war-horse, as represented in the Duke of Newcastle's 
celebrated treatise, was common enough fifty years ago among the agricul- 
tui-al horses of any district but that immediately north of the estuary of 



OLD ENGLISH BLACK CART-HORSE. 



113 



the_ Thames, where the Suflfolk Punch had been produced at an earlier 
period, and perhaps a limited extent of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire Such 
an animal is represented in the annexed engraving, which may, however 
be regarded as, in some respects, exaggerating its characteristics. The 
sliort quarter looks still plainer from being foreshortened, and the shoulder 







I A 



THE nORSE. 



THE SUFFOLK CART-HOESE. 

In the latter part of the eighteenth century the agriculturists of 
Norfolk and Suffolk were far more enterprising than their brethren 
throughout the remainder of England. Among other subjects to which 
they paid special attention was the cart-horse, which, though said by Mr. 




Culley to be a plain horse, was far more level and symmetrical than the 
aboriginal horse of the country. The Suffolk horses of the early part of 
the present century were thus described by the above observer : — "Their 
merit probably consists more in constitutional hardiness than fine shape, 
being in general a very plain horse. Their colour is mostly yellowish, 
or sorrel, with a white ratch or blaze on their faces. The head large, ears 
'^de, muzzle coarse, fore-end low, back long, but very straight, sides flat. 



THE IMPROVED LINCOLNSHIRE DRAY-HORSE. 115 

Bliouldera too far forward, hind quarters middling, but rather high about 
the hips, legs round, and short in the pastern, deep barrelled, and full in 
the flank. Here, perhaps, lies much in the merit of these horses, for we 
know from observation and experience that all deep-bellied horses carry 
their food long, and consequently are able to stand a longer and harder 
day^s work." This variety is now quite extinct; the improved Suffolk is 
lighter and quicker than the old breed, with a low powerful shoulder, and 
very drooping croup. The legs also are very clean and wiry. A good 
example will be found in the engraving, drawn by Mr. Harrison Weir 
from a celebrated prizeholder at the agricultural shows of 1859. 

The Suffolk now shares with the Clydesdale pretty equally the appro- 
bation of the farmers throughout Great Britain, the former being generally 
preferred in the south, and the latter in the north. It is supposed, how- 
ever, by many breeders of experience that the northern horse is gradually 
gaining on his competitor, and that in the course of a few years the 
Suffolk wOl be as scarce as the dray-horse. On the other hand, his 
admirers maintain that no other horse is so hardy, and that he will do 
more Avork in the same time, and on the same amount of food, than any 
other. The testing of such a matter is not so simple as it may appear, for 
it would be necessary to try the experiment with a number of horses of 
each kind, and carry it on for months together. A less severe and 
complete trial would be of little use, and could not by any means be con- 
sidered as definitive, nor would it be so even conducted as I have said it 
ought to be unless it was under the actual superintendence of unpreju- 
diced observers. 

THE IMPEOVED LmCOLNSHIRE DEAY-HOESE. 

About the same time the farmers of Lincolnshire were employed in 
producing, partly for their own heavy clay lands, but chiefly for the use 
of the London drays, a large and magnificently-shaped animal, generally 
known as the Dray-Horse. Many of these stand from seventeen to 
eighteen hands high, with bodies of enormous girth, and legs, if not in 
proportion, yet of greater size than in other breeds. 

They are the produce of a cross between the old English black and the . 
Flemish horse ; but the former had previously increased in size and sub- 
stance, from the nature of the grasses of the district, which seem peculiarly 
adapted to develop the growth of this animaL Unfortunately, both sire 
and dam are slow, and the produce, from its increased bulk, is rendered 
still slower, being whoUy unfit for agricultural operations in competition 
with the Suffolk or the Clydesdale horses, and only well adapted to move 
heavy brewers' drays, which cannot from their weight be expected to travel 
very rapidly. Even here, however, a quicker horse is rapidly displacing 
him, and, except in a few of the old established breweries, the true dray- 
horse is now rarely seen. Thirty years ago in a walk along Cheapside 
and Cornhill, two or three teams of splendid dray-horses were certain 
to be found ; but now we may often go from one end of the city to the 
other without seeing one. The spring- van, with its heavy machiners, has 
monopolized all the cartage but that of the heaviest barrels, and the dray- 
horse is gradually going out of use. As these horses can only be reared on 
rich pastures, they are bred in a very limited locality, and are sold, at two 
years old, at an average of about 40^. a-piece to the farmers within a short 
distance of London, some few of whom in Wiltshire and Berkshire breed 
them themselves. Whether obtained by breeding or purchase they work 

I 2 



il6 



THE HORSE. 



them moderately, and feed tliem higlily for tlie two seasons between their 
second and fourth years, when they are put into a loose box, and made 
up witb oil-cake or Imseed, barley, and clover hay, tdl they are as fat a. 
bacon ho-s : after which consummation they are fit for the London 




market, and fetch from 70^. to 1201. each. It is no wonder, therefore, 
that their naturally thin and large soles become convex, or that side-bones 
are thrown out, attended by lameness, which makes so many of them 
utterly useless. These horses are of all colours, except chestnut. 



THE CLYDESDALE HORSE. 



117 



THE CLYDESDALE HOESE. 

The Clydesdale is intermediate in size between tlie Suffolk and the 
dray-liorse, but more active than either. He is supposed to be bred from 
a cross of the Dutch or Flemish horse, imported by the Duke of Hamilton 
in the latter part of the last century, with the active descendants of the 




pack-horses, which were retained in use longer in the north than in the 
south. He has an extremely neat head, a light neck, and a round middle- 
piece, which IS nevertheless very deep in the girth-place. A well-shaped 
iiorse of this breed, though higher than the Suffolk, appears to be on 
slioiter legs, as is shown in the engraving, which represents a horse 



118 THE HORSE. 

sixteen hands two inclies higli, the property of Prince Albert, and pur- 
chased by him for 500?. The long stride, which is characteristic of the 
breed, is partly dependent upon their greater length, and partly upon 
habit and training. These horses are said to be able to draw heavier 
loads in single carts than any others, and hence they are specially adapted 
to that kind of work, which consequently prevails throughout the lowlands 
of Scotland, where the Clydesdales are universally employed. They axe 
generally docked, and their comparatively short tails will serve to dis- 
tiuguish them to the eye of the unskilled observer, irrespective of ihose 
marks of breeding which an experienced hand will readily detect. A 
great many inferior animals were formerly bred, which were objectionable 
from their light bodies and long legs, but these faults are now compara- 
tively rare, great attention having been paid to the breeding of the Clydes- 
dale horse during the last thirty years. Still they are supposed to require 
a good deal of nourishing food, and though a pair oi them will undoubtedly 
plough a great breadth of land in a given time, it is not settled whether it 
is done economically or the reverse. 



OTHEE MIXED BEEEDS. 

The Cleveland, if it ever existed as a variety of the cart-horse, cannot 
now be found, and it is probable that the original breed was employed as 
a pack-horse solely, being too light for the heavy plough work of our 
ancestors. At present he is a coach-horse, and cannot therefore be classed 
among those which I am now describing, though he is still claimed by the 
breeders in the district of Yorkshire from which he takes his name as a 
distinct variety. It is true that he is sometimes used for agricultural 
purposes, resembling the Suffolk horse in quickness, yet not being equal 
to him in constitution. But he is chiefly sought after for the carriages of 
the aristocracy, to which his rich bay colour, and clean legs, often of a 
jet black, are well suited. I do not myself believe in the purity of the 
breed, nor can I find from the Yorkshire men themselves any signs by 
which it can be distinguished. 

Throughout England and Ireland cart-horses of every shape and 
size are met with, possessing no peculiarity whicJi can entitle them to be 
considered as separate breeds, and indeed being produced from working 
mares put to stallions selected at random from those offered in the imme- 
diate neighbourhood. Some of these sires are individually very perfect 
animals in shape, and can compete with the best Suflfolks or Clydesdales ; 
but they cannot generally be depended on to the same extent for getting 
stock as good as themselves. This is caused by their being the produce of 
various strains ; but when the breed to which they belong has been kept 
pure for some generations, as is the case in certain families and districts, 
this remark does not apply to any extent. Most farmers now, however, 
who are particular about their horses, either use the pure Suffolk or 
Clydesdale, or put their cross-bred mares to stallions of one or other of 
these breeds. 



llf) 



CHAPTER IX. 

ON THE LOCOMOTIVE ACTION IN THE VARIOUS PACES. 

NATURAL AND ACQUIRED PACES — DISTRIBUTION OF 'WEIGHT — ATTITUDE ASSUMED IN 

STANDING — MODE OF PROGRESSION — THE WALK — TROT — CANTER— HAND-GALLOP 

EXTENDED GALLOP— THE AMBLE — RACKING, PACING, AND RUNNING — THE PACES OF 
THE MANEGE — LEAPING. 

NATUEAL AND ACQUIEED PACES. 

In A STATE OP NATURE it IS probaUe that the horse only possesses two 
paces, namely, the walk and the gallop ; but when he is the produce of a 
domesticated sire and dam, even before he is handled, he will generally 
show a slight tendency to trot, and sometimes to amble, rack, or pace, if 
any of his progenitors have been remarkable for these artificial modes of 
progression. In this country, however, it may be assumed that the horse, 
without being taught, walks, trots, and gallops, more or less perfectly, 
according to his formation and temperament. 

DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT. 

Except in the gallop and canter, in the fast trot, and in leaping, 
the weight of the horse is borne by two or more of the legs, and we shall 
find that ia consequence of the projection forwards of the head and neck, 
the larger moiety is sustained by the fore leg (or legs) than by the hind. 
This can easily be demonstrated in the act of standing ; but thje same rule 
which applies to that position will also serve for any other. 

It is important to the horsemaster to ascertain the circumstances which 
will change these proportions, because he finds practically that, in road 
work, the fore legs wear out faster than the hind, and consequently any 
means by which the weight on them can be reduced will be a gain to him 
in a pecuniary point of view. M. Baucher placed a horse with his fore 
and hind legs on separate weighing machines, and found that a hack mare 
when left to assume her own attitude, weighed on the fore scales 210 
kilogrammes, while her hind quarters drew only 174, the total weight of 
the animal being 384 kilogrammes, each of which is equal to 21bs. 
2ozs. 4drs. 16grs. avoirdupois. By depressing the head so as to bring the 
nose to a level with the chest, eight additional kilogrammes were added to 
the front scales, wliile the raising of that part to the height of the withers 
transferred ten kilogrammes to the liindermost scales. Again, by raising 
and drawing back the head, in a similar way to the action of the bearing 
rein, eight kilogrammes were transferred from the fore to the hind scales, 
and this should not be forgotten in discussing the merits and demerits of 
that much-abused instrument of torture. M. Baucher then moimted the 
mare, when it was found that his weight, which was sixty-four kilogrammes, 
was placed in the proportion of forty-one kilogrammes on the fore quarters 
to twenty-three on the hind. A considerable change was of course pro- 
duced by leaning backward, and by using the reins in the manner of the 
bearing rein, the former transferring ten kilogrammes from the fore to the 
hind quarters, and the latter act adding eight more. 



^0 THE HORSE. 

Evert practised torseman knows tliat his horse's fore legs will suffer 
in proportion to the weight which. i{ thrown on them, while their rohef is 
an additional source of strain to the hind legs. The spavined, and more 
especially the curby-hocked horse, i eUeves these parts by using his fore 
legs to carry more than their pre per proportion of weight, while the 
animal affected with any painful disease of the fore limbs carries almost 
all the weight of his body on his hind legs, which are advanced under 
him. in the most peculiar manner. The value of artificially changing the 
natural carriage of the horse, so as to make his hind legs come forward 
and carry more than their OAvn share of weight, is chiefly felt in chargers, 
hacks, and harness horses, while, on the contrary, it is injurious to the 
hunter and the racehorse, whose hind quarters bear the greatest strain. 



THE ATTITUDE ASSUMED IN STANDING. 

Standing may be considered under two heads, the first comprising the 
attitude naturally assumed by the horse when inclined to rest himself, and 
the second that forced upon him by education, for the sake either of 
appearances, or to keep him ready to start at a moment's notice, as in the 
cavalry horse. When standing free or naturally the horse always rests 
one leg, and that generally a hind one, changing from one to the other as 
each becomes tired in its turn. In the forced attitude all four are on the 
ground, and each supports its share of the superincumbent weight. In. 
either case the different joints are kept from bending, by the almost 
involuntary combined action of the flexor and extensor muscles, which will 
keep him standing even in sleep, in which respect he difi'ers from the 
human subject. The oblique position of the pasterns affords a considerable 
aid, but without the semi-involuntary support aff'orded by the muscle?, the 
stifle and hock joints behind, and the shoulder and elbow before, w 'Juld 
inevitably give way. 

MODE OE PEOGEESSION. 

In moving forward, whatever the pace may be, the hind quarters are 
the main propellers, and thrust the body forward on the fore legs, which 
serve as imperfect segments of wheels, each in its turn making a revolution 
forwards and backwards through a segment of a circle, like a pendulum. 
This forward motion is either eff'ected by one hind leg at a time, as in the 
walk, trot, amble and rack, or by the two, nearly if not quite synchronously, 
as in the canter, gallop, and leap. In any case, the hind legs (or leg) must 
be drawn forwards under the body, or the body thrust backwards upon 
them, when a contraction of various muscles tends to straighten them, and 
as they are fixed upon the ground, which acts as a fulcrum, the body 
must give way, and thus passes forward with a speed and force propor- 
tionate to the muscular power exerted. In the various paces this mecha- 
nical action is differently efiected in detail, but the principle is the same 
in all those contained in each class to which I have alluded. In the first, 
the weight is borne by the hind and fore quarters between them, while 
propulsion is efiected by one side of the former ; but in the second, it is 
taken at intervals by the fore and hind limbs, the latter propelling it with 
great force, and the former serving as props to it when it comes to the 
ground from the air, and also causing it to rebound for another interval of 
time. 



THE WALK. 12> 



THE WALK. 



There are two questions invol-ved in this pace which have led to dis- 
cussions "without end. Firstly, there is that connected "with the order of 
sequence in which the feet are moved. Secondly, that relating to the part 
of the foot which first touches the ground. Of each of these, therefore, 
I must enter into a particular description. 

In examining the order op sequence in which the feet are taken off 
the ground, it appears to me that a very simple matter has heen converted 
into a complicated one. No one with a grain of observation can dispute 
that all the four legs in this pace move separately, and not, as in the trot 
and amble, by twos of opposite or the same sides. Solleysell, however, 
says that " in a walk the horse lifts the near fore leg and far hind leg 
together," and PercivaU, in quoting this passage, calls him "this true 
observer of K"ature ;" but, nevertheless, the latter author goes on to 
disprove the correctness of the very passage he has just quoted, though 
he does not seem very clear upon the subject. His description is as 
follows : — " At the mandate of the will to move forward, the fore leg is 
first put in motion, the order of succession in the walk appearing to be 
this : — supposing the right or off fore leg to move first, that is no sooner 
carried off the ground than the left or near hind foot is raised, the former 
being placed upon the ground prior to the latter. The two remaining feet 
move in respect to each, other, in the same order of time, the left or near 
fore after the off hind, the right or off hind after the near fore ; it being 
observable that as each hind foot follows in the line of movement of its 
corresponding fore foot, the latter would very often get struck by the 
former, did it not quit its place immediately prior to the other being 
placed upon, partly or entirely, the same ground." Can anything be more 
confused than this jumble of words, which is solely so because it is desired 
to make the horse begin with a fore foot in preference to a hind one. 
Any one who examines the action of the feet of one side only will have no 
difficulty in perceiving that the hind foot is raised from the ground and 
moved forward for half its stride before the fore foot is disturbed, the 
same order being observed on the other side in succession. Hence, if the 
horse is started from the standing position with all the feet on the ground, 
it follows that he must begin with a hind foot, because with whichever of 
the sides he starts he lifts the hind foot half a pace before the fore foot, as 
is admitted by PercivaU himself, for he says, " the latter (fore foot) would 
often get struck by the former (hind foot) did it not quit its place imme- 
diately prior to the other being placed upon, partly or entirely, the same 
ground." It is very diflficult to convey a correct idea of this fact by 
illustration, because the eye has become accustomed to the erroneous view 
which is conventionally received by artists. However, with the assist- 
ance of Mr. Zwecker, who has himself studied the subject carefully, I am 
enabled to present the following engraving, which, though apparently 
awkward and ungraceful, is literally correct. Here the near hind foot (1) 
is just about to be placed on the ground, on the spot which the near fore 
foot (2) has just left. The off hind foot (3) will foUow next in succession, 
and lastly the off fore foot (4) will complete the cadence. But if each 
fore foot leaves the ground just as the corresponding hind foot is finishing 
its stride, it follows as a matter of necessity, if the action is carried on 
throughout in the same way, that in starting from a point of rest the hind 
foot of one side or other is the one to begin the walk. Next follows the 



122 



THE HORSE. 




STARTING FOK THE WALK. 



fore foot on the same side, then the opposite hind foot, and lastly the fore 
foot of the opposite side. The order of progression, be it observed, is the 
same, whether the description coramences with the hind or fore foot, and 




2 4 1 

EKOEIVED INTERPRETATION OY THE WALK. 



THE WALK. 



123 



the argument is after all of little consequence ; but the truth is really, aa 
was observed by BoreUi, that the hind foot is the first to move when the 
horse starts into a walk from a state of rest in which all four feet are 
placed as in ordinary standing. There may be positions in grazing where 
the fore foot advances first ; but then the pace cannot be considered as 
the customary walk. 

In the accompanying outline the horse is represented in the manner 
nsually accepted by artists, with the near fore foot (2) in the air, and 
apparently leading off. But if, as I have endeavoured to show, the hind 
foot must of necessity start first, although this engraving affords to the 
eye of the observer the most graceful and striking position which is taken 
up in the walk, yet it is not the one with which the horse commences 
that pace. Here the near hind foot (1) has already been brought forward 
and placed on the ground, on or near the spot occupied by the fore foot, 
which is in the air ; the off hind foot (3) is just about to leave the ground, 
having expended its share of progressive force, and the weight of the body 
is borne by the off fore foot and the near hind one. "Whenever a fore foot 
starts first (which, as I have already remarked, may occasionally occur, as, 
for instance, in grazing, or when the weight is unnaturally thrown upon 
the fore quarters), the attitude is most constrained, and the proper 
sequence, or cadence, if the animal is forced into a quicker pace, is not 
fallen into without a most grotesque degree of rolling, which conveys to 
the eye a full idea of the forced nature of the pace, Mr. Zwecker has 
endeavoured to fix this upon paper in the annexed engraving, but though 
I fully admit that the drawing is correct, I confess that I am not satisfied 
with the result of his labours. However, it may serve to convey to my 
readers, the fact which I wish to impress upon the mind, viz. that a walk 
in which either fore leg commences the cadence is unnatural, or, at all 
events, exceptional. 











EXCEPIIO^'AL MODE OF STARTING. 



124 THE HORSE. 

I HAVE THUS ENDEA.VOUIIED TO SHOW (and it may, I tliinlc, be considered 
as the most simple mode of describing the pace) that, as a rule, when the 
horse is starting from a state of rest into a walk he commences with one 
of the hind feet, the particular one chosen being that which at the time 
bears the least weight of the body upon it. l^ext follows the fore foot of 
the same side, then the opposite hind foot, and lastly the fore foot also of 
the opposite side. When once it is shown that the hind foot almost 
touches the heel of the foot which precedes it, before the latter is raised, 
of which a moment's observation will satisfy any careful observer, the 
order of sequence becomes clear enough, and, as I set out with observing, 
a subject which is generally made extremely complicated becomes as simple 
as possible. In nine hundred and ninety-nine cases out of a thousand the 
horse starts on the walk with a hind foot, and the only exception is when 
he is, from circumstances, at the time in an unnatural attitude. 

The second question in dispute to which I have alluded is that involv- 
ing the part of the foot which first touches the ground in this pace. In 
this country veterinary writers have generally considered that in the 
sound foot the toe first reaches the ground, and undoubtedly Mr. Percivall 
is no exception, for he says at page 143 of his Lectures, "To the eye of 
the observer there is the slightest perceptible difference between the toe 
and heels coming to the ground in favour of the former, a difference that 
need not disturb the horseman's good old rule, that a horse in Ms walk 
should place his foot fairly and flatly downy This theory has, as far as I 
know, never been admitted by practised horsemen, and in the year 1855, 
in describing the perfect hack, at page 526 of " British Eural Sports," I 
wrote as follows : " The walk should be safe and pleasant, the fore foot 
well lifted and deposited on its heel." The first veterinary surgeon, 
however, who combated the opinions of his brethren, was Mr. Lupton (a 
disciple of Mr. Gamgee), who, early in the year 1858, inserted in the Edin^ 
hurgh Veterinary Review the following " Physiological Reflections on the 
Position assumed by the Pore Foot of the Horse in the varied Movements 
of the Limb " :— 

" 1. The foot of a living horse in a state of rest remains firmly on the 
ground, that is, the toe and the heel are on the ground at one and the 
same time; but if during this position the extensor muscles were to 
contract, then the toe would be raised from the ground ; and if, on the 
other hand, the flexor muscles were to contract, then the heel would be 
raised from the ground. IS'ow, during progression, the first movement 
'vhich takes place is the contraction of the flexor muscles, by which 
(together with the muscles of the arm) the foot is raised, the toe being the 
last part of that organ raised from the ground. The foot is now in a 
position to be sent forward, which is brought about by the contraction of 
the extensor muscles ; the foot is then thrown out as far as the flexor 
muscles will admit, and when at the greatest allowable point of tension, 
the heel is brought in apposition with the ground. The flexors now in 
their turn contract, the heel is first raised from the ground, and lastly tha 
toe, which brings me back to the point I started from. 

" 2. Viewing the leg of a horse as a piece of mechanism (allowing the 
leg to be even in a state of anchylosis), and comparing it to the spoke of a 
wheel, during the revolutions of which the posterior part of the inferior 
extremity, or, in other words, that part which is attached to the tier,, 
comes in contact with the ground first ; if in the place of the spoke 
the above-mentioned leg of the horse were there placed, the heel in that 
case would come in contact with the ground first, and the toe last. 



THE WALK. 125 

" 3. As to the anatomy of the foot. 

" The foot is composed of the os pedis, os naviculare, and a small portion 
superiorly of the os corona. Between the alee of the os pedis we have the 
frog and the fibrous frog, in fact, a beautiful elastic cushion ; and postero- 
laterally the lateral cartilages, readily yielding on the application o\ 
pressure. Seeing this arrangement, I naturally seek to find the cause of 
its existence, and I suggest that it is there in order, by coming in contact 
with the ground, first to break the concussive effect, likely, if being hard 
and unyielding as the formation at the toe, to be productive of much cost 
to the animal frame. 

" 4. The progress of action is from the heel to the toe. For example, 
man, dicing progression, puts his heel to the ground first ; the ox also 
places his heels similarly on the ground first, and dogs bring their pads in 
contact with the ground first ; does it not, then, seem undeniable, when 
reasoning by analogy, that the horse similarly brings his heels to the 
ground first 1 

" During progression, the body moves forward ; during which movement 
the toe, as evident to every observer, leaves the ground last, that is, when 
the flexors are contracting. If such be the case, then, for the toe to come 
in contact with the ground first, as some afi6a:m, and the heel last, is a 
retrograde and impossible movement. 

" Three principal impressions are made on the foot during progression, 
namely : 

" 1. On the heel, when great expansion and yielding takes place, owing 
to the pressure on the frog, which is forced upwards, causing the ultimate 
expansion of the walls of the hoof, &c. 

" 2. On the middle part of the foot, when the bones bear the weight of 
the body. The flexors and extensors being, for the instant, in a state of 
quietude, i. e. neither of them are extending or contracting. 

" 3. On the toe, when the animal gives a push, by which an impetus is 
given to send the body forwards. 

" The foot comes on the ground nearly flat, I admit, but the heel is for 
an instant on the ground before the toe. 

" I humbly assert, in conclusion, that the progress of action is from the 
heel to the toe, and not from the toe to the heel" 

It appears to me that argument is here thrown away, for as it is 
admitted by both sides that the toe and heel are each in certain cases 
placed on the ground first, it is manifest that either ma^/ be in all 
Observation, therefore, and not theoretical argument, must determine 
under what circumstances the foot is deposited with its toe on the ground, 
and vice versd. Mr. Spooner, and nearly the whole of the London school, 
say that the toe touches first in all cases but in the disease known as 
laminitis ; Mr. Lupton, Mr. Gamgee, and the Edinburgh new school, 
assert, on the contrary, that, as a rule, the heel touches the ground a 
shade the first. Their assertions reach to aU paces ; but here I think a 
mistake is committed, for I am confident that in trotting the toe touches 
the ground slightly before the heel in a large proportion of cases. In the 
walk I am quite satisfied that Mr. Lupton and his followers are right, and 
that the heel is presented to the ground in all good walkers, but so slightly 
first as to escape the notice of careless observers. If the toe is not raised 
it is apt to tip the inequalities of the ground, and we have that disagreeable 
sensation of insecurity in the walk which a bad hack invariably gives. 
Many horses go very close to the ground, but if the extensors turn the toe 
well up in bringing the leg forward, however closely to the ground it ia 



126 THE HORSE. 

carried, it is safely deposited on it. On the contrary, a high action, with 
the heel raised, is never safe, either on the walk or the trot. It is quite 
contrary to the experience of horsemen out of the veterinary profession to 
assert that either toe-action or heel-action is invariably met with in sound 
horses, and I believe the facts to be as I have stated them. That in 
laminitis the toe is raised in an exaggerated form no one will deny, but 
the extent is far greater than any one supposes to exist in a healthy foot. 
I have possessed one or two horses which, though perfectly sound, would 
wear out the heels of their shoes before their toes, and one of them was a 
high-stepping mare with remarkably good feet. Now the friction in aK 
cases after the foot is put down must be greater on the toe than the heel, 
because it scrapes the ground, more or less, as it leaves it. When, there- 
fore, the heel is worn out first, it proves that this part touches the ground 
first, though the converse does not hold good, for the reason which I have 
given. 

Having discussed these two questions, I come now to examine what is 
done in each movement of the legs, independently of the order of their 
going, and of the above toe and heel controversy, and shall proceed to 
consider in what the good walk differs from the bad. 

Weiters on the horse divide each movement of the leg into three acts, 
consisting of the lift, the swing, and the grounding. In the first act, the 
foot is raised ; in the second, it is thrust forward ; and in the third, it is 
firmly but lightly deposited on the ground. But these may severally be 
well performed, and yet the horse be a bad walker, because his body is 
not well balanced on the legs in contact with the ground while the other 
or others are moving. A good walker should take short quick steps, with 
his hind legs well under him, and then he will be able to plant his fore 
feet firmly but lightly on the ground in succession. If his stride is too 
long, his hind legs cannot be always well under hiin, because they must 
be wide apart when both are on the ground ; and the body cannot then 
be balanced securely, because there is too long an interval elapsing while 
the one hind leg is passing the other. Hence, in such a horse, there is a 
waddling movement from side to side, so often seen in the thoroughbred 
horse, whose full tail shows it very manifestly, but whose rider feels the 
inconvenience much more clearly than it is seen by the uninterested 
looker-on. The clever hack, on the contrary, moves forward without his 
body deviating a hair's breadth from the line in which it is progressing, 
neither undulating to the right and left nor up and down. The rider of 
a first-rate hack should be able to carry a full glass of wine in his hand 
for any distance without spilling a drop ; and if the action on the walk is 
not smooth enough for this, it cannot be considered as approaching to per- 
fection. Many horses step short and quick, and yet do not walk well, 
because their shoulders have not liberty enough to thrust their arms 
forward during the act of swinging the leg ; and hence the pace is slow, 
for the foot is put down very near to the spot from which it was lifted. 
In choosing a good walker, therefore, see that his feet are lifted smartly, 
that they are well thrust forward, and placed firmly but lightly on the 
ground. Look at him. well from behind, and observe whether he hits 
himself on the fetlock joints as one foot passes the other; and at the 
same time examine whether, as he lifts his fore feet, he turns them out, or 
" dishes," which is a very serious fault, in consequence of the loss of time 
which it occasions. In most horses the hind foot oversteps the place from 
which the corresponding fore foot has been removed ; but in a good hack 
jhis should not exceed an inch, or the pace will not be smooth and smart, 



THE TROT. 127 

as I have already observed. Very few walkers actually tovicli one foot with 
the other, as in the trot, nor do they overreach with violence so as. to 
injure their heels ; the only objection, therefore, is to the length of stride, 
which I have shown to produce an uneasy effect upon the rider. But 
whenever the horse appears to move as if his fore feet are in the way of 
the hind, he will rarely, even with the best tuition, become a pleasant 
and safe hack. 

The rate op walking is very seldom quite five miles an hour, though 
horses are to be found which will accomplish the distance ia that time, or 
even less. Many will do a mUe in twelve minutes and a half ; but to get 
beyond this is a very difficxxlt task. Indeed there are few horses which in 
their walk will bear pressing to the utmost speed of which they are capable, 
without breaking. It may, I think, be assumed, that the average pace of 
good walkers is about four miles and a half to four miles and three-quarters 
per hour. 

THE TEOT. 

This pace may be described under three heads, namely, the jog trot, 
the true trot, and the flying trot. In all three the diagonal limbs move 
exactly together, but in the first the time during which each foot is on 
the ground is much greater than that in which it is in the air. In the 
second the contrary is the case ; while, in the third, the horse is carried 
completely off his legs for a considerable space of time, between the 
several bounds which are made by the two feet of opposite sides as they 
touch the ground in succession. The jog trot seems to come naturally to 
ihe horse when he is first mounted ; and, as long as he is fresh and fiery, 
the colt will maintain this pace, unless he is permitted to exceed it. He 
will prefer it to the walk for a long time ; and it is only by good hands, 
combined with patience, that a spirited colt can be made to walk ; for he 
can generally jog quite as slowly, and often much more so. Farmers are 
very apt to accustom their young horses to the jog trot, because they find 
by experience that it does not injure their legs or feet ; but to a rider un- 
accustomed to this pace it is by no means an easy one. In the true trot, 
as exemplified below, the feet are on the ground a comparatively short 
space of time, the body being carried so rapidly forward that they are moved 
off almost as soon as they are deposited on it. By examining this outline, it 
will be seen that the position of the fore and hind limbs of the two oppo- 
site sides exactly corresponds, and this wUl be the case, whatever may be 
the period of the action in which the observation is made. As in the 
walk, each step may be divided into three acts ; but I see no advantage 
in thus attempting to separate or analyse what must be considered in its 
totality, if it is to be regarded with any advantage to the observer. In 
the flying trot, which is well shown in the portrait of Flora Temple, at 
page 34, all the legs are for a very short period of time off the ground, as 
is there delineated, but stiU there is always an exact correspondence 
between the position of the fore and hind legs of opposite sides. The 
chief difference between these three varieties of the trot consists in the 
rapidity of the propulsion which is going on. This in the first is very 
slight ; and the more elastic the fetlock joints, the better and softer is 
this pace. The feet are raised, and the legs are rounded or bent ; but the 
body is not thrust forward, nor are the shoulders moved in the same 
direction to any appreciable extent. The consequence is, that the feet are 
deposited again very close to the spot from which they are taken, and the 
pace is as slow as the walk. In the true trot, if it is well performed, the 



128 



THE HORSE. 



hind legs must be moved as rapidly as, and with, more force than, the fore 
legs, because they have more work to do in propelling the body, the latter 
having only to sustain it during the operation. Good judges, therefore, 
regard the hind action as of even more importance than that of the knees 
and shoulders ; for if the former do not drive the body well forward, good 
pace cannot be obtained, nor wiU it be easy and rhythmical. In this kind 




ACTION IN THE TRUE TROT. 



of trot elastic ffetlocks are fatal to speed, as they prevent the instantaneous 
eflPect upon the body of the muscular contractions of the hind limbs, and 
cause the action to be dweUing and slow. Very fast trotters are, therefore, 
rough in their " feel " to the rider, and are not suited for the purposes of 
pleasure. Indeed, no one would mount one of them from choice; but 
when they possess good mouths, they are pleasant enough to drive. In 
examining trotting action, regard should be paid to the plane through 
wliich each limb passes, for if this is not parallel with that of the median 
line of the body the action is not true and smooth, and there is great risk 
of one limb cutting the other. This is best seen by watching the trot 
from behind as well as before, which gives an opportunity of investigating 
the movements of both pairs of limbs. Every horse shoxild be so made 
that, when he stands, his fore canna bones should be quite parallel ; 
but in order to be so, as they stand closer together than his elbows, they 
must form a slight angle with the arm at the knee ; and hence, as thi 
part is bent, there is always a slight tendency to turn out the foot, the 
exaggerated form of which is called " dishing." The observer will, there- 
fore, do well to ascertain the extent to which this should be carried, or 
he will be apt to condemn a perfect goer as a " disher," from finding that 
he turns out his toes in bending the knee, though only in the trifling 
degree ordained by nature. If, in bending by the hand the fore foot to 
the elbow, the inner heel of the shoe is in contact with the outside of the 



THE CANTER. 129 

arm, there will not be too much turning out of the foot, and the purchaser 
need not be afraid of this defect existing in the horse he is examining. 
Provided the fetloclis and canna-bones are not actually touched or 
"hit" in trotting, the fore-legs cannot be moved too closely together; 
but if they pass very near to one another in a fat dealer's horse, it may 
be suspected that when he is reduced in flesh to a proper working condi- 
tion, boots will be necessary. A practised eye is required to judge of this 
correctly, and, if there is any doubt, one had better be consulted. In 
London, for park-riding and driving, very high and round action is the 
fashion, and fabulous prices are given for well-shaped animals which can 
" pull their knees " almost up to their noses. Pace is sacrificed ; and 
many of the most highly-prized London trotters are unable to do ten 
miles an hoi:r. A favourable specimen of this Idnd of trotting action is 
shown in the cab-horse at page 110, in which the shoulders are so well 
formed that although the knee is remarkably well bent and raised, the 
whole limb is well thrust forward, and the action of the hind legs also is 
so propulsive that a faster pace than usual is obtained. 

The ISTorfolk trotter of the present day has very perfect action, inter- 
mediate between the pointed and flying trot of the American horse, and 
the round high knee-action of the London park-horse. Even he, however, 
is not nearly so pleasant to ride as the thoroughbred, when the latter can 
trot at all ; but many of this breed have been so long accustomed to the 
gallop, that their trot is a most imperfect pace. "When they do perform 
it properly, it gives a most delightful feel, and no rider for pleasure, if 
money is at liis command, should "throw his leg" over any but a 
thoroughbred, or one nearly pure in blood. 

THE CANTER. 

The canter is a thoroughly artificial pace, at first extremely tiring to 
the horse, and generally only to be produced in him by the restraint of a 
' powerful bit, wdiich compels him to throw a great part of his weight on 
his haunches. It is very difficult to describe or define this pace, either in 
a pen-and-ink sketch or by the aid of the painter. Indeed it is often 
quite a matter of opinion to decide whether a horse is cantering or 
galloping. Many writers, and among them ]\Ir. Blaine, have attempted 
to draw a distinction, by confining the canter to the pace which is exe- 
cuted without the feet ever leaving the ground altogether ; but this defini- 
tion is not generally admitted and followed, and many a horse whose 
canter would be readily allowed by all horsemen to be true, may be seen 
to leave the ground entkely for a certain interval of time, however small 
it may be. There is so great a variety in the modes adopted by different 
horses for performing the canter, that no single description will suffice, 
nor indeed is it easy, as I before observed, to define any one of them. 
Sometimes the carriage is extremely elegant, the hind legs well under the 
body, and all moving like clockwork, with the head bent on the neck, and 
the mouth playing lightly on the bit. When such a pace is performed 
with the right leg leading, the canter is exactly adapted for the female 
seat, in which the right shoulder is of necessity slightly advanced, and it is 
therefore the object of the breaker to obtain it. But it is only in those 
horses which combine a free use of their limbs with fine temper and good 
mouths, that such a pace can be developed, and if any one of these qiiali- 
ties is deficient it is useless to attempt to teach them. On the other hand, 
the pony or galloway will often canter without throwing any extra weight 

E 



130 



THE HOUSE. 



on his hind legs, with a loose rein and extended neck. This kind of pace 
may be detected by the ear on a turnpike road, by the quick pat-ter-ring 
sound which is evolved. It is extremely easy to the horseman, but is not 
so well adapted to female equestrianism, as it jerks the body in an un- 
graceful manner. The true canter, as adapted for ladies, is indicated below, 




THE CANTER. 

though it is so difficult to represent, that it is not so clearly done as might 
be wished. When the off leg leads off, the near one has to bear more than 
its share of work, and hence, unless a change is occasionally made, the 
fetlock joint of that leg is almost sure to suffer. Ladies should therefore 
either trot for a part of their daily rides, or teach themselves and their 
horses to change the lead from that with the off leg to that with 
the near. 



THE HAND GALLOP. 

Between the canter and Ijie true gallop there intervenes a pace 
which may be easily confounded with either, unless INfr. Blaine's defini- 
tion of the canter is accepted, when the hand gallop can easily bo 
distinguished from it. This pace is merely a slow and measured gallop, 
in which for a very short period all the legs leave the ground, but in 
which the propulsion is steadily given, and not with those snatches or 
jerks which are necessary to develop the high speed of the extended 
gallop. The body also is not nearer the ground than in the act of stand- 
ing, and this may be considered as one of the best distinctions between 
the hand gallop and the extended stride of the faster pace. The French 
writers distinguish between the two by asserting that in the hand gallop 



THE GALLOP. 



131 



there are three beats, while in the flying gallop two only are performed ; 
but in practice there is no such variation. 

THE EXTENDED GALLOP. 

According to most observers, this pace is a succession of leaps, 
smoothly and rhythmically performed, but Mr. Percivall has shown that 
there is a considerable difference between the two actions. He says in 




"-5-: 



RECEIVED INTERPRETATION OP THE GALLOP. 



his lectures, — "In galloping a horse, in hunting, for example, the rider needs 
no person to tell him of the moment when his horse is taking a leap, however 
trifling it may be ; his OAvn sensations inform him of every grip or furrow 
his horse leaps in his course, and should he have occasion to make a 
succession of such jumps, the rider's sensations in his saddle are of a very 
different — very uneasy — kind, compared to such as he experiences during 
the act of galloping. This arises from two causes : from the spring or 
movement of the body necessary to produce the leap being more forcible 
or sudden than that required for the gallop, and from the latter being 
created and continued rather by the successive action of the two hind feet 
at one moment, and of that of the two fore feet at the next moment, 
than from the synchronous efforts of either biped, as happens in the leap. 
The two. great propellers of the animal machine — the hind feet— are in. 
the leap required to act simultaneously, to make one grand propulsory 
effort ; not so in the gallop, that being a movement requiring maintaining, 
not by synchronous exhausting efforts of the hind feet, but in swift 
succession, first by one, then by the other ; and the same as regards the 
office performed by the fore limbs, which latter probably amounts to 
little more in effect than the sustentation of the fore parts of the body. 
The vault into the air required for the leap is only to be effected by 
extraordinary subitaneous effort, but the stride of the gallop, requiring 
frequent repetition, does not exact this effort — amounts, in fact, to no 
more than a sort of lift from the ground, multiplied into a reiteration of 

k2 



132 THE HORSE. 

forcible bearings forward, maintaining, increasing, or diminishing the 
momentum of speed, effectuated by throwing the hind feet as far forward 
underneath the body as possible, plunging them one after the other with 
inappreciable rapidity into the earth, and thus by two strenuous thrusts 
agaiust the ground, one in aid of the other, working the animal machine 
in its fleet — almost flying — course. In the gallop as in the trot, no 
sooner is a certain momentum acquu'ed, than by each successive propul- 
sion of the hind feet the body is sprung or lifted off the ground, flying 
as it appears in the air, and the greater the speed, the more this volitation 
becomes apparent. Hence the appellation given to the pace, manifestly 
the utmost speed, of flying gallop. Even this, however, according to 
my judgment, is an action different from leaping. "When a horse leaps or 
jumps in his gallop, — which he wiU do sometimes when he is beany and 
has but just emerged out of his stable, — ^he is said to buck, because his 
action then resembles that of the deer, in whom the gallop might with a 
great deal more propriety be called a succession of leaps : even the deer, 
however, callnot continue this bucking action after being driven into his 
speed, or in a state of fatigue, showing that in him it is to be regarded 
rather as a gambol than as his proper working onward action. And that 
the hind and fore feet in pairs are not grounded synchronously, I think 
admits of a demonstration m tw^o ways : first, by the position they assume 
one in advance of the other in the gallop ; secondly, by the clatter the 
steps of a horse in the gallop are known to make upon hard or resonant 
ground, and which may be heard either by a spectator or by the rider 
himself. Whence we probably derive the phrase, a rattling gallop." 

But while I agree with Mr. Percivall that there is a difference between 
the act of leaping and galloping, as performed by the horse, I do not 
quite see that it is an abuse of terms to describe the gallop as a " succes- 
sion of leaps " — that they are not precisely similar to those made in over- 
coming an obstacle does not necessarily make them other than leaps. The 
word leap is not defined in our dictionaries so as to confine its meaning 
beyond that appertaining to its synonym, spring, and probably even Mr. 
Perceval would not deny that in the gallop, the horse, as well as the deer, 
makes a succession of springs. The dispute is founded, as is so often the 
case, upon a Avant of agreement as to the meaning of a word, and not on 
a difference of opinion as to the essence of the act itself. Blaine, Perceval, 
and every careful observer of the horse in action, well know that in the 
act of galloping the horse leaves the print of his hind feet one in ad- 
vance of the other, while in leaping he generally, in fact almost invariably, 
makes them opposite one another. There is a contradiction apparent in 
Perceval's remarks about the deer's gallop, which in one place he observes 
" might with a great deal more propriety be called a succession of leaps," 
while in the next sentence he says that this " bucking action" in the deer 
" is to be regarded rather as a gambol than as his proper working onward 
action." The deer's gaUop very closely resembles that of the horse, but 
as he is a stronger and higher leaper, especially in proportion to his size, 
he can continue those bounds with the hind legs opposite each other 
much longer and with more advantage than the horse, who seldom makes 
more than two or tliree in succession. 

To REPRESENT THE GALLOP pictorially in a perfectly correct manner ia 
almost impossible. At all events it has never yet been accomplished, the 
ordinary and received interpretation being altogether erroneous. When 
carefully watched, the horse in full gallop will be seen to extend himself 
very much, but not nearly to the length which is assigned to him by 



THE GALLOP. 



133 



artists. To give the idea of higli speed the liind legs are thrust backward 
and the fore legs forward in a most unnatural position, which if it could 
be assumed in reality would inevitably lead to a fall, and most probably 
to a broken back. It is somewhat difficult to obtain a good view of a 
horse at his best pace, without watching him through a race-glass at a 
distance of a quarter of a mile at least, for if the eye is nearer to him than 
this the passage of the body by it is so quick that no analysis can be made 
of the position of the several parts. But at the above distance it may be 
readily seen that the horse never assumes the attitude in which he is 
generally represented, of which an example is given at the beginning of 
this article. When the hind legs are thrust backwards, the fore feet are 
raised and more or less curled up under the knees, as it is manifest must 
be the case to enable them to he brought forward without raising the 
body from the ground. In the next act, as the hind feet are brought 
under the body the fore legs are thrust straight before it; and so Avhich- 
ever period is chosen for the representation, the complete extension so 
generally adopted must be inaccurate. It may be said that this is meant 
to represent the moment when all the feet are in the air, and theoretically 
it is possible that there may be a time when all the feet are extended ; 
because, as in the fast gallop the stride is twenty-four feet long, while the 
horse only measures sixteen from foot to foot, it follows that he must pass 
through eight feet without touching the ground, and during that time, as 
of necessity his legs must move faster than his body, the fore legs ma^/ 
change their position from the curled up one described above to the 
extended one represented by all painters as proper to the gallop. Obser- 
vation alone can therefore settle this question ; but, as I before remarked, a 
race-glass at a distance of a quarter of a mile enables a careful observer to 
satisfy himself that our received ideas of the extended gallop are incorrect. 
Nevertheless, if a proper interpretation is given, the eye at once rebels, 




^> 



CORRECT VIEW OF THE GALLOP. 



and on examination of such a figure as we here give, fbunded on perfectly 
correct principles, the mind refuses its assent to the idea of great pace, 
which is that which is desired to be given. These facts are well known 



134 THE HORSE. 

to artists, and some of tliem, including the celebrated Leeclij have tiied 
the experiment of drawing the galloping horse properly; but their entire 
want of success shows the impossibihty of the performance. 

As IN THE CANTER SO in the gallop a lead is always made of one leg 
before the other, and as one tires the other changes places with it. A 
good, true, and strong galloper will seldom require tliis relief, but a weak 
one, especially if not completely broken, will effect the change continually. 
Sometimes this causes the loss of a race, for it cannot be done without 
interfering with the action, and consequently with the pace. A good 
horseman prefers that his horse should not confine himself to one lead, 
but he does not like him to change after he has once started, for the above 
reason. The right leg in front is more easy even to the male rider than 
the left, but not materially so, and except fur female equestrianism no 
horse should be taught to lead invariably with the right leg either in the 
gaUop or canter. In the change the truth or harmony of action is often 
disturbed, and the horse jerks himseK and his rider in a disagreeable 
manner, which is another reason why the change of legs should not be 
encouraged. 

There is a great variation in the length of the stride, and in the 
rmmding or bending upwards of the foot under the knee. Sometimes 
even in a fast gallop the distance between the prints of the same feet wiU 
bo no more than sixteen feet, while in others it will measure twenty-four, 
twenty-five, or even twenty-six feet. The first is too short for any 
race-horse ; but a moderately short stride enables the horse to get off with 
a quicker start, and to ascend and descend hills better than a very long 
one. "Where, however, a distance of level ground is to be covered a long 
stride tells, and a horse possessing it has a great advantage over one whose 
gallop is short, however quick and smart it may be. For this long stride 
there must be length of limbs, especially of the two bones meeting at the 
stifle joint ; and this is the perfection of the form of the racehorse, as I 
have already described at page 92. 

THE AMBLE. 

Like the trot, this pace is performed by two legs alternately moving 
in exact correspondence with each other. Listead, however, of these 
being of opposite sides, they are of the same side, and one lateral half of 
the body is moved forward while the weight of the whole is supported on 
the other. The pace is altogether unnatural to the wild horse, but in 
some domestic bi'eeds it has become naturalised, and the foal will in them 
display the amble long before it is taught anything by the hand of man. 
In the cameleopard the amble is the only kind of progression, whether 
the animal goes slowly or fast ; and in dogs, especially in pointers, grey- 
hounds, and Newfoundlands, this pace is occasionally displaji'ed. For- 
merly an ambling palfrey was in great request for ladies' use, but in the 
l)i'esent day the pace is not regarded with favour by any of the inhabitants 
of the British Isles. 

EACKING, OE PACING, AND EUNNING. 

In this country no other paces are recognised than the five which I 
have already described, but in America a fast kind of amble is distinguished 
by the name of racking, or pacing. It is performed by two legs of the 
same side acting synchronously as in the amble, but they are moved with 
much more rapidity, and the result is a speed greater than that of the 



THE MANEGE. 13:; 

fastest trot, by several seconds in the mile. Tliis will be ajjparent on c\.iu- 
suiting the record of the best performances of the American horses, at page 
32, where Pocahontas, a pacer, is set down as doing a mile in 2 minutes I7A 
seconds, wliile their fastest mile trot on record occupied 2 minutes 19| 
seconds. Eunning is an indescribable kind of trot, in Avhich the limbs 
do not move regularly together, but each seems to act independently as 
in the walk. The consequence is that it is impossible for the rider of 
a running horse to rise in his stirrups, but the action being very easy there 
is no occasion for this relief It is not capable of being performed at a 
glow rate, and it is generally produced among horses which are ridden 
without a saddle, and in which as a consequence the riders do not relieve 
themselves and their horses by rising in it. 

THE PACES OF THE MA:N'EGE. 

In the military schools of riding a variety of paces are taught even 
in the present day, but the old riding masters adopted many more, which 
are now discontinued. Some of them are intended to enable the soldier 
to use his sword or spear with double advantage, as the volte and semi- 
volte, but the majority of those still retained are for the purpose of 
carrying out the combined evolutions necessary to cavalry. The " passage," 
for instance, is a side movement, that enables a number of horses to be 
changed from close to open order, which would be a difficult task to per- 
form with horses not taught to perform it. Backing is likewise necessary 
for similar purposes ; but this should always be taught to every horse, 
whether used by the military or by civilians. A minute descrijition, 
however, of the several paces of the manege would occupy too much 
space here, and is only useful to the cavalry soldier, wlio will learn their 
nature much better from practical instruction by the riding-master of his 
regiment. 

leapi:ng, oe jumping. 

The description of this act given by Percivall is most unsatisfactory. 
He says, "The leap is either a sudden spring-into the air, ia which the feet 
quit the ground simultaneously, or else it is an act compounded of an 
imperfect rear and kick in quick or slow succession, according to the 
manner in which it is performed. The leap can hardly be regarded as an 
act of progression ; commonly it being in a forward direction, undoubtedly 
progress is made by it, but it is possible for it to amount to no more than 
a jump or a bound ofl', and upon the same ground, as is the case when a 
horse is said to ' buck ' in his leaping, that is, to come down upon or near 
to the spot from which he arose." 'Now in this sentence, short as it is, I 
maintain that several misstatements are made ; as I shall proceed to show. 
To begin with the latter part. If a horse is properly said to " buck " in 
his leaping, it is evident that the two cannot be synonymous, or there 
wjuld be no occasion for the distinction, and therefore if "bucking" 
means jumping up and coming down on the same ground, which is the 
general acceptation of the term, leaping cannot mean the same, which it 
is said sometimes to do by Mr. Percivall in the quotation which I have 
adduced. When a horse simply " bucks " in his play he does not leap 
forward, but springs into the air, and even then he generally makes some 
progression. When he " bucks " in his leaps, he must progress, because 
he begins on one side of the obstacle to be overcome and finishes on the 
other. It is not meant that he then acts exactly as he does in play, or 



136 THE HORSE. 

when viciously trying to dislodge his rider, but that his action resembles 
to a considerable extent this true bucking, in which little or no progression 
is made. I therefore hold that Percivall's exception is not founded in 
truth ; and that the act of leaping necessarily implies progression, for 
without it the perpendicular spring into the air is properly distinguished 
by the term bucking, as admitted by Percivall himself. Then, turning 
back to the first sentence, I think every careful observer will admit that 
in the leap, whatever may be its kind, the feet do not quit the ground 
simultaneously. Manifestly in the standing or slow leap the fore feet rise 
first, unless the horse "bucks," when all rise almost but not quite at the 
same moment. A careful examination of the mechanism of the horse 
will show that this must be the case, because, as the fore legs are straight 
to the last, there is no spring in them, and if they were not first raised by 
the action of the loins and haunches, as in rearing, they would remain on 
the ground until they were dragged by the hind quarters turning a 
somerset over them. In the human body, as the legs are ordinarily kept 
straight, they must be bent before a spring can be taken, for even the 
angular ankle joint requires a bent knee to enable it to act upon the toes. 
In the horse the fore leg resembles that of man in this respect, but the 
hind leg in the standing position is bent at the stifle and hock, and is 
then exactly like a man's when he is prepared to take a standing jump. 
As a consequence of this the fore quarter of the horse when he is standing 
must be raised by the hind, since it has no angles to give a spring with, 
and if so it must leave the ground first, as I have already shown. The 
flying leap may readily be seen to be accomplished by the fore feet leaving 
the ground first, and no one I believe disputes this, so that it is unneces- 
sary to discuss it. 

It may, therefore, I think, be asserted with truth that the leap is always 
made by the horse raising his fore quarter, and then suddenly and power- 
fully straightening his hind limbs ; with the ground as a fulcrum he propels 
his whole body forwards, and more or less upwards, according to the 
height of the obstacle to be overcome. In descending from the height to 
which the whole body has been raised, there is a considerable variation in 
the relative periods of time at which the fore and hind feet touch the 
ground. Sometimes the fore feet come down almost perpendicularly, and 
so far before the hind that they have to bear the whole force of the united 
momentum and gravity before the hind ones reach the ground, and then 
a very slight mistake will occasion a fall. At others they come down "all 
fours," that is, all the feet touching the ground at the same moment, 
occasioning a great shock both to horse and rider, and also a considerable 
loss of time in getting away again into the stride. In the best style the 
horse touches ground with his fore feet first, but being well extended they 
are in a position to do no more than act as a spring to break the shock, 
and the hind legs coming down immediately afterwards bear nearly the 
whole force of momentum and gravity, which the fore legs are unable to 
do safely, as I have already shown. 

Mr. Percivall is also in error as to the width of ground which horses 
have been known to clear ; for he gives twenty-two feet as an extraordi- 
nary effort in a steeplechase, whereas such a distance is covered by any 
hurdle-jumper in ordinary practice, as I have twenty times proved by 
carefid measurement. I have myself seen thirty-two and thirty-three feet 
cleared by steeplechasers, and it is well known that Proceed and Chandler 
covered respectively thirty-seven and thirty-nine feet in two separate 
steeplechases. So a jump six feet in height is a very great performance, 



THEORY OF GENERATION. 137 

being eight inches higher tlian the withers of a horse of sixteen hands. 
Something more than this has however been done, and I myself once saw 
a hoTse clear a stone wall two or three inches above six feet high, with 
the slightest possible touch of one stone with a liind foot, but sufficient to 
dislodge it. Very few horse's, however, can be relied on to cover more 
than twenty- five feet in -width, and four feet, or four feet six inches in 
height, and an average hunter will not often do so much, especially if at 
aU tii-ed by a long run, or if without the excitement attendant on the 
chase. 



CHAPTER X. 

THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING APPLICABLE TO THE HORSE. 

THEORY OP GENERATION — IN-AND-IN BREEDING — CROSSING, ADVANTAGES AND DISAD- 
VANTAGES ATTENDING ON EACH PLAN CAUSES OF A "HIT" — IMPORTANCE OP HEALTH 

OR SOUNDNESS IN BOTH SIRE AND DAM — BEST AGE TO BREED FROM — TIME OP YEAR 

BEST SUITED TO EACH VARIETY OP THE HORSE INFLUENCE OP SIRE AND DAM 

RESPECTIVELY CHOICE OF SIRE AND DAM — SELECTION OF BLOOD IN EACH CLASS 

THE KIND OF HORSE MOST LIKELY TO BE PROFITABLE TO THE BREEDER — CON- 
CLUDING REMARKS ON BREEDING. 

THEORY OF GE:N'ERATI0K 

The IMPORTANCE of understanding the principles upon which the 
breeding of the horse should be conducted is so great that every one who 
Buperintends a stud, however small, should study them carefully. To do 
this with advantage, he must investigate the changes which take place 
after the union between the sexes, and must endeavour to ascertain the 
influence which the sire and dam respectively exert upon their offspring. 

In the year 1855, while engaged in preparing the article on the breeding 
of the horse in " British Rural Sports," I carefully drew up the following 
epitome of the laws which govern the generation of the mammalia. Since 
then, the subject has constantly been before me; but, in spite of the 
numerous investigations carried on by other observers, I have seen no 
reason to modify, in any material degree, what I then wrote; and I shall, 
therefore, to prevent confusion, insert it entire, what shght additions may 
be necessary being iacluded within parentheses. 

1. The union of the sexes is, in all the higher animals, necessary for 
reproduction ; the male and female each taking their respective share. 

2. The office of the Male is to secrete the semen in the testes, and 
emit it into the uterus of the female, (in or near which organ) it comes in 
contact with the ovuin of the female — wliich remains sterile without it. 

3. The Female forms the ovu^n in the ovary, and at regular times, vary- 
ing in different animals, this descends into the titerus, for the purpose of 
fructification, on receiving the stimulus and addition of the sperTn-cell of 
the semen. 

4. The Semen consists of two portions — the spermatozoa, which hxve 
an automatic power of moving from place to place, by which quality it is 
believed that the semen is carried to the ovum; and the sperm-cells, Avhich 
are intended to co-operate with the germ-cell of the ovum in forming the 
embryo. 



138 THE HORSE. 

5. The Ovum consists of the germ-cell, intended to form part of tho 
emLryo, — and of tlie yolk, wliich nourishes hoth, until the vessels of the 
mother take upon themselves the task; or, in oviparous animals, tiU 
hatching takes jDlace, and external food is to be ohtained. The ovum is 
carried down by the contractile power of the fallopian tubes from the 
ovary to the uterus, and hence it does not requii'e automatic particles like 
the semen. 

6. The Embryo, or young animal, is the result of the contact of the 
semen with the ovum, immediately after which the sperm-cell of the former 
is absorbed into the germ-cell of the latter. Upon this a tendency to 
increase or " grow " is established and supported at first, by the nutriment 
■contained in the yolk of the ovum, until the embryo has attached itself to 
the walls of the uterus, from which it afterwards absorbs its nourishment 
b}' the intervention of the placenta. 

7. As THE ]\iALE AND Female each furnish their quota to the forma- 
tion of the embryo, it is reasonable to expect that each shall be repre- 
sented in it, which is found to be the case in nature ; but as the food of 
the embryo entirely depends upon the mother, it may be expected that 
the health of the ofi'sjDrmg and its constitutional powers will be more in 
accordance with her state than with that of the father ; yet since the sire 
furnishes one-half of the original germ, it is not surprising that in exter- 
nals and general character tliere is retained a facsimile, to a certain 
extent, of liim. 

8. The Ovum of Mammalia diifers from that of birds chiefly in the 
greater size of the yolk of the latter, because in them this body is intended 
to support the growth of the embryo from the time of the full formation 
of the e<f^g until the period of hatching. On the other hand, in raammalia 
the placenta conveys nourishment from the internal surface of the uterus 
to the embryo during the whole time which elapses between the entrance 
of the ovum into the uterus and its birth. This period embraces nearly 
the whole of the interval between conception and birth, and is called 
liter o-gestation. 

9. In all the Mammalia there is a Periodical " Heat," marked by 
certain discharges in the female, and sometimes by other remarkable 
symptoms in the male (as in the rutting of the deer). In the former it is 
accompanied in all healthy subjects by the descent of an ovum or ova into 
the uterus; and in both there is a strong desire for sexual intercourse, 
which never takes place at other times in them (with the single exception 
of the genus Dimana). 

10. The Semen retains its fructifying power for some days, if it is con- 
tained within the walls of the uterus or vagina, but soon ceases to be 
fruitful if kept in any other vessel. Hence, although the latter part of 
the time of heat is the best for the union of the sexes, because then the 
ovum is ready for the contact with the semen, yet if the semen reaches 
the uterus first, it will still cause a fruitful impregnation, because it 
remains there (or in the faUopian tubes) uninjured until the descent of 
the ovum. 

1 1 . The Influence of the Male upon the embl-yo is partly dependent 
upon the fact, that he furnishes a portion of its substance in the shape of 
the sperm-cell, but also in great measure upon the effect exerted upon the 
nervous system of the mother by him. Hence, the preponderance of one 
or other of the parents will, in great measure, depend upon the greater or 
less strength of nervous system in each. No general law is known by 
which this can be measured, nor is anything known of the laws which 



THEORY OF GENERATION. 139 

rorrulate the teniperameiit, bodily or mental power, colour or conformation^ 
of the resulting offspring. 

12. Acquired Qualities are transmitted, whether they belong to the 
sire or dam, and also both bodily and mental As bad qualities are quite 
{;s easily transmitted as good ones, if not more so, it is necessary to take 
care that in selecting a male to improve the stock he is free from bad 
] :oints, as well as furnished with good ones. It is known by experience 
that the good or bad points of the progenitors of the sire or dam are 
almost as likely to appear again in the offspring as those of the immediate 
])arents in whom they are dormant. Hence, in breeding, the rule is, that 
like produces like, or tlte likeness of some ancestor. 

13. The purer or less mixed the breed the more hkely it is to be 
transmitted unaltered to the offspring. Hence, whichever parent is of the 
purest blood will be generally more represented in the offspring; but as 
the male is usually more carefully selected and of purer blood than the 
female, it generally follows that he exerts more influence than slie does ; 
the reverse being the case when she is of more unmixed blood than the 
sire. 

14. Breeding "In-and-in" is injurious to mankind, and has always 
been forbidden by the Divine law, as well as by most human lawgivers. 
On the other hand, it prevails extensively in a state of nature with all 
gi'egarious animals (such as the horse), among whom the strongest male 
retains his daughters and grand-daughters until deprived of his harem by 
younger and stronger rivals. Hence, in those of our domestic animals 
which are naturally gregarious, it is reasonable to conclude that breeding 
" in-and-in " is not prejudicial, because it is in conformity with their 
natural instincts, if not carried farther by art than nature teaches by 
her example. Now, in nature, we find about two consecutive crosses of 
the same blood is the usual extent to wliicli it is carried, as the life of the 
animal is the lunit ; and it is a remarkable fact that, in practice, a conclu- 
sion has been arrived at which exactly coincides with these natural laws. 
" Once in and once out " is the rule for breeding given by Mr. Smith in 
his work on the breeding for the turf ; but twice in wUl be found to be 
more in accordance with the practice of our most succe'ssful (early) 
breeders. 

15. The influence of the first impregnation seems to extend to the 
subsequent ones ; this has been proved by several experiments, and is 
especially marked in the equme genus. In the series of examples 
preserved in the museum of the College of Surgeons, the markings of ihe 
male quagga, when united with the ordinary mare, are conthiued clearly 
for three generations beyond the one in Avhich the quagga was the actual 
sii'e; and they are so clear as to leave the question settled without a 
doubt. 

IG. "When some of the elements of which an individual sire is com- 
posed are in accordance with others making up those of the dam, they 
coalesce in such a kindred way as to make what is called a " hit." On 
the other hand, when they are too incongruous, an animal is the result 
wholly unfitted for the task he is intended to perform. 

These principles, together with the observations following upon them, 
have been quoted verbatim, at great length, by the late Mr. Herbert, ia 
his elaborate quarto work on " The Horse of America," with the very 
flattering testunony that he had done so " not for the purpose of avoiding 
trouble, or sparing time, but because he conceives the principles laid down 
to be correct throughout, the reasoning logical and cogent, the examples 



140 THE HORSE. 

well taken, and tlie deductions such as can scarcely be denied." In 
support of this opinion, he adduces several instances in which a "hit" 
lias occurred in America by carrying out the last axiom in the preceding 
list. Thus he says, at page 260 of his second volume, " I think myself 
that it is made clear by recent events, and that such is shown to be the 
case by the tables of racing stock given at the close of the first volume,* 
that, previous to the last quarter of a century, the American turfman was 
probably breeding in too much of the old Vu'ginian and South Carolina 
ante-revolutionary stock, and that the American racehorse has been 
improved by the recent cross of modern EngHsh blood. It is also worthy 
of remark, that every one of the four most successful of modern English 
stallions in this country which have most decidedly hit with oux old stock 
— Leviathan, SarJDedon, Priam, and Glencoe — all trace back to several 
crosses of Herod blood ; Glencoe and Priam not less than three or four 
several times each to crosses of Partner blood, and directly several times 
over to the Godolphin Barb, or Arabian, which are the very strains from 
which our Virginian stock derives its peculiar excellence. It is farther 
worthy of remark, that two stallions have decidedly hit with the imported 
English mare Eeel, as proved by her progeny, Lecompte and Prioress, 
respectively to Boston and Sovereign. ISTow Eeel, through Glencoe, 
Catton, Gohanna, and Smolensko, has herself no less than seven distiact 
strains of Herod blood. Boston, as every one knows, traces directly 
through Timoleon, Sir Archy, Diomed, Elorizel, to Herod. Sovereign, 
also, through EmUius, his sire, has Herod on both lines as his paternal and 
maternal gg.g- sire ; and Tartar, the sire of Herod, a third time, in one 
remove yet farther back. JSTow this would go to justify Stonehenge's 
opinion that the recurrence to the same original old strains of blood, when 
such strains have been sufficiently intermixed and rendered new by other 
more recent crosses, is not injurious, but of great advantage ; and that, on 
the whole, it is bettor, cceteris paribus, to do such than to try experiments 
with extreme out-crosses." 

IN-Al^D-IJS" BEEEDLN"G. 

When any new breed of animals is first introduced into this country, 
in-and-in breeding (by which is to be imderstood the pairing of relations 
within the degree of second cousins twice or more in succession) can 
scarcely be avoided ; and hence, when first the value of the Arab was 
generally recognised, the breeder of the racehorse of those days could not 
well avoid having recourse to the plan. Thus we find, in the early pages 
of the Stud-book, constant instances of very close in-breeding, often carried 
to such an -extent as to become incestuous. The result was our modern 
thoroughbred ; but it does not follow that because the plan answered iu 
producing that celebrated kind of animal, it will be equally successful in 
keeping up the breed in its original perfection. In " British Eural Sports," 
I have given a series of exam-pies of success resulting from each plan, 
which I shall not now repeat, merely remarking that the opinion which 
I formed from an attentive examination of them remains unchanged. This 
opuiion was expressed in the following words : — 

" If the whole of the pedigrees to which I have drawn attention are 
attentively examined, the breeder can have no hesitation in coming to the 
conclusion, that in-breeding, carried out once or twice, is not only not a 

• These tables I have extensively drawn upon at pages 37 et seq., correcting them 
where they required it. 



OUT-CROSSING. 141 

bad practice, but is likely to be attended with good results. Let liiiu ask 
what horses have been the most remarkable of late years as stallions, and, 
with very few exceptions, he will find they were considerably in-bred. It 
has been remarked, that the Touchstone and Defence blood almost always 
hits with the Selim ; but it is forgotten tliat the one was already crossed 
with that horse, and the other with his brother Eubens. On the other 
hand, the Whisker blood in the Colonel has not succeeded so weU, it 
being made up of much crossed and more distantly related particles, and 
therefore not hitting with the SeUm and Castrel blood, like his cousins, 
Touchstone and Defence. It has, however, partially succeeded when 
in-bred to the Waxy and Buzzard blood, as in Chatham and Fugleman, 
who both reunite these three strains. The same applies to Coronation, 
who unites the Whalebone blood in Sir Hercules with that of Eubens in 
Ruby ; but as Waxy and Buzzard, the respective ancestors of all these 
horses, were both grandsons of Herod, and great-grandsons of Snap, it 
only strengthens the argument in favour of in-breediug. This conclusion 
is in accordance with the 14th and 15th axioms, which embody the state 
of our present knowledge of the theory of generation ; and if they are 
examined, they will be seen to bear upon the present subject, so as to lead 
one to advise the carrying out of the practice of in-and-in breeding to the 
same extent as has been found so successful in the instances which I have 
given. Purity of blood is intimately connected with the practice, because 
the nearer it is to one standard, the more unmixed it is, and by con- 
sequence the more fidly it is represented in the produce. Hence, it is 
doubly needful to take care that this pure blood is of a good kind ; because 
if bad, it will perpetuate its bad qualities just as closely as it would the 
good, or perhaps still more so." 

I have nothing to add to these remarks ; and if I were to adduce the 
few instances in their support which can have occurred since 1855-6, 
when they were written, I should add little to the mass of evidence which 
I have already collected. An appeal to the past c-an only be answered in 
the way which I have recorded ; for the evidence of repeated success in 
resorting to the practice of in-breeding is too strong to be gauisaid. We 
will now consider whether the effects of an out-cross are of superior or 
equal value. 

OUT-CROSSING. 

Between in-and-in breeding, which I have defined as the pairing of 
animals within the relationship of second cousins, and the opposite 
extreme of uniting those which are not at all allied in blood, there are 
many degrees j but as, in the thoroughbred horse, there are scarcely two 
in the Stud-book which cannot be traced back to the same stock in one 
or more lines, we do not generally understand " a cross " to demand abso- 
lute distinctness of blood. For instance, Teddington is generally con- 
sidered as the result of as marked a cross as we ever meet with in the 
modern Stud-book. For five generatiorrs, the same name never appears 
in the pedigree tables of his sire and dam ; but in the sixth, we find the 
name of Sir Peter occur three times on the side of his sire, and twice on 
that of his dam, besides six other lines of Hei-od blood on the part of the 
sire, and eight on that of the dam. Here, therefore, there was a return 
to the original lines of blood, which had been in-bred twice each, after five 
successive departures from them as far as could be eff'ected in this par- 
ticular kind of horse. These last are called " crosses," though not being 
exactly the reverse of in-breeding, for the reason, as I before remarked, 



142 THE HORSE. 

that an absolute freedom from relationship is not to be found, or, if so, 
extremely rarely. Breeders very often fancy that they put two animals 
together which are without any corresponding lines or strains of blood in 
their composition ; whereas, in point of fact, the relationship exists onl y 
four or five degrees off. The horse and mare are, perhaps, fourth or fifth 
cousins, often second or third ; but, in exandning the Stud-book, the 
blood of the sire, grandsire, and great-grandsire is apt to be forgotten, 
because it is not given, the name only being mentioned. In the book to 
which I have already alluded, I have inserted a long series of pedigree 
tables, drawn out to the sixth generation, with a reference also to the 
earlier pedigrees ; by which, at one glance, the breeder may see how con- 
stantly, in going back, the same names occur in every table. Eclipse, 
Herod, and Conductor, the three contemporary descendants of the Darley 
Arab, the Byerley Tm'k, and the Godolphin Barb, or one of their imme- 
diate descendants, wdl be seen in the fifth, sixth, or seventh remove of all 
our thoroughbred horses, and often the names of all three will be found 
repeated four, five, or six times apiece ; yet the horse itself whose pedigree 
is being examined, as in the instance of Teddington, is considered to be 
the produce of a cross, and is not, therefore, said to be in-bred. 

ADVAIS'TAGES AND DISADVA:NTAGES OF EACH PLAlf. 

Having thus explained the meaning of the two terms, and having, ia 
" British Eural Sports," collected a series of examples of success in cross- 
ing nearly equal in number to those adduced in which in-breeding had 
been resorted to advantageously, I shall now proceed to say a few words 
upon the probable advantages to be derived from each plan. In the first 
place, it may be laid down that nearly an equal number of good horses 
have lately been bred by adopting either mode of proceeding ; but no 
first-rate horse has appeared whose parents were incestuously allied. In 
the second place, it may be gathered from experiments with horses and 
other domestic animals, that very close in-breeding, continued for any 
length of time, is apt to develop the weak points in the constitutions of 
the breed in which it is adopted. The cautious breeder, therefore, will 
do well to avoid running this risk, and will strive to obtain what he want;* 
without having recourse to the practice, though, at the same time, he will 
make up his mind that it is unwise to sacrifice a single point with this 
view. Experience tells us that it is useless to expect to develop a new 
property or quality in the next generation, by puttiiig a female entirely 
deprived of it to a male which possesses it even in a marked degree. 
Some instances of success will attend the adoption of tliis course, but as a 
rule it cannot be relied on in the majority of instances. Thus, a slow, 
stout mare, containing no lines of fast blood in her pedigree, will not b:3 
likely to breed a fast colt, though put to a flying stallion, whose blood is 
not stout in a considerable proportion of his ancestry. Two or threo 
consecutive crosses with the same or similar blood will almost of a surety 
eflFect the object; but the first will rarely do so. Again, we know, if we 
put two animals together, equally in-bred or equaUy crossed, the produce 
is, on the whole, as likely to resemble the one paretit as the other, though 
there may be a difference of opinion as to particular points. But, if nob 
thus equally composed of similar elements, the more in-bred parent will 
be represented in a greater proportion than the crossed one ; and hence it 
follows, that if it is desired to keep up the qualities of the horse or maro 
in his or her descendant, the mate must be selected, if possible, less 



CAUSES OF A "HIT." 143 

in-bred than he or she is. West Australian himself and his stock are 
excellent examples of this theory. His sire, Melbourne, -n-as the result of 
a series of crosses ; while his dam, Mowerina, was in-bred to Whalebone 
and AVhisker, own brothers ; and her sire and dam were second cousins. 
The result has been, that iDoth in "The West" and in his stock the 
Whalebone element has been universally manifested, and not the slightest 
trace of Melbourne has ever appeared, as far as my knowledge of his 
stock allows me to judge. This is in perfect accordance -w-ith the 13th 
axiom in the epitome of the laws which govern the breeding of our 
domestic animals. (See page 139.) 

CAUSES OF A " HIT." 
A " HIT," in breeding, is understood to mean an instance of success ; 
but though it often occurs, the reason for it is not always very clear. My 
own belief is that it generally results, as I have laid down in the 16 th 
axiom, from the reunion of lines which have been often kept separate for 
several generations. Thus, it is a fact (so patent that every T\Titer on the 
breeding of the horse, of late years, has admitted its truth), that the 
Touchstone and Sultan blood have almost invariably hit. The reason, 
granting the premises which I lay down, is plain enoughs-each goes back 
to Selim, the former through the dam of his sire. Camel, and the latter 
being son of that horse. ]\Iany other examples of a siuiilar nature might be 
adduced, though not observed so extensively as in the case of Touchstone, 
because few horses have been put to so many mares as he has. I do not 
mean to assert that no hit can occur without such a reunion of previously 
separated Hnes, but I beheve that, under other circumstances, it will rarely 
be found to show itself ; and if, as I before observed, there is a relation- 
ship between aU thoroughbred horses, either remote or near, there must 
be this reunion to some extent. Tliis, however, is not what I mean ; the 
return must be to a line only removed two, three, or four generations, 
in order to he at all marked ; and if more than these intervals exist, the 
hit cannot be said to depend upon the reunion, since this must occur iu 
all cases ; and what is common to aU cannot be instanced as a particular 
cause of any subseqiient resiUt. 

The fact really is, as proved by thousands of examples, that by 
putting A and B together, the produce is not necessarily made up of half 
of each. Both parents have qualities belongiiig to the several members 
of a long line of ancestors, and their son (or daughter) may possibly be 
made up of as many as seven proportions of one parent, and one propor- 
tion of the other. It generally happens, that if there is any considerable 
degree of consanguinity, or even a great resemblance in form, to some ot 
the ancestiy on each side, the produce will draw together those elements, 
and will be made up of the characteristics peculiar to them in a very large 
proportion. This accounts for the preponderance of the Touchstone form 
in the West Aiistralian stock ; while the same horse is overpowered iu 
Orlando and his stock, by the greater infusion of Selim blood in the dam 
Vulture, who is removed exactly in the same degree as Touchstone from 
Selim and his brother Castrel ; and the two latter, therefore, have more 
influence on the stock than the former. Here, then, we have two remark- 
able instances, which each show a hit from the reunion of strains after two 
out-crosses; wliile, at the same time, they several]}' display an example of 
two lines overpowering one in the stock of the same horse. It may be 
argued, that in each case it is the blood of the dam which has overpowered 
that of the sire, — West Australian being by ]\Ielbourne, out of a dau'^hter 



144 THE HORSE. 

of Touchstone ; while Orlando is by Touclistoiie, out of a mare descended 
from two lines of Selim and his brother Castrel. Now, I am myself a 
great believer in the influence of the dam over her progeny, and therefore 
I should be ready to accept this argument, were it not that, under ordi- 
nary circumstances, both Melbourne and Touchstone have been sure to 
reproduce their likenesses in their several sons and daughters. Every 
racing man who has been on the turf whUe tlie Melbournes and Touch- 
stones were in their glory, Avas able, in almost all instances, to say at the 
first glance, " That is a Melbourne or a Touchstone colt or filly." But, in 
the cases of Orlando and West Australian, the resemblance to their re- 
spective sires was not apparent; and, as I before observed, it is still less 
visible in their stock. In the language of the stud, this is called " going 
back" to a particular strain; and it is so constantly observable, that there 
is no necessity for dwelling further upon it. 

IMPOETAI^CE OF HEALTH AND SOUl^DXESS IN BOTH 
SIRE AND DAM. 

Our present breed op horses is undoubtedly less healthy than that 
of our ancestors ; and this tendency to unsoundness is not marked in any 
particular department of the animal economy, but the defect shows itself 
wherever the strain is the greatest from the nature of the work which the 
animal has to perform. Thus, the racehorse becomes a roarer, or his legs 
and feet give way. The hunter fails chiefly in his wind or his hocks, 
because he is not used much on hard ground, and therefore his fore legs 
are not severely tried, as in the case with the racer, who often has to 
extend himself over a coiirse rendered almost as hard as a turnpike-road 
by the heat of a July or August sun. The harness-horse often becomes a 
roarer, from the heavy weights that he has to draw, especially if his wind- 
pipe is impeded by his head bemg confined by the bearing-rein. The 
hack, again, suffers chiefly in his legs, from our hard Macadamised roads ; 
while the cart-horse becomes unsound in his hocks or his feet, the former 
parts beiiig strained by his severe pulls, and the latter being battered and 
bruised against the ground, from having to bear tlie enormous weight of 
his carcass. But it is among our well-bred horses that iinsoundness is the 
most frequent; and in them, I believe, it maj^ be traced to the constant 
breeding from sires and dams which have been thrown out of training, in 
consequence of a break-down, or " making a noise," or from some other 
form of disease. It is quite trae, that roaring is not necessarily transmitted 
from father to son; and it is also manifest that there are several causes 
which produce it, some of which are purely accidental, and are not likely 
to be handed down to the next genei'ation. The same remarks apply to 
the eyes ; but, in the main, it may be concluded that disease is hereditary, 
and that a sound horse is far more likely to get healthy stock than an 
unsound one. In the mare, probably, health is still more essential ; but 
if the breeder regards his future success, whether he is establishing a stud 
of racehorses, or of those devoted to any kind of slower work, he will 
larefully eschew every kind of unsoundness, and especially those which 
ire of a constitutional character. If a horse goes blind in an attack of 
influenza, or if, without any previous indications of inflammation, he 
breaks down from an accidental cause, the defect may be passed over, 
perhaps ; but, on the contrary, when the blindness comes on in the form 
of ordinary cataract, or the break-down is only the final giving-way in 
a log which has been long amiss, I should strongly advise an avoidance of 



BEST AGE TO BREED FROM. 145 

the horse whicli has displayed either the one or the other. I believe that 
a Government inspection of all horses and mares used for breeding pur- 
poses would be a great national good; and I look forward to its establish- 
ment, at no distant time, as the only probable means of insuring greater 
soundness in our breeds of horses. I would not have the liberty of the 
subject interfered with. Let every man breed what he Hkes, but I would 
not let him foist the produce on the public as sound, when they are 
almost sure to go amiss as soon as they are worked. Ships must now all 
be registered at Lloyd's, in the classes to which they are entitled by their 
condition ; and horses, as well as mares, should be registered in the same 
way, according to the opinion which the Government inspector may form 
as to their health and the probability of getting or producing sound and 
useful foals. The purchaser would call for the registration-mark, when he 
asked for the pedigree of the horse he was about to buy ; and if it was not 
a favourable one, he would, of course, be placed upon his guard. If this 
plan could be carried out in practice, as well as it looks on paper, much 
good might be done, I am assured ; but we all know that inspectors are 
but mortals, and that they are liable to be biassed in more ways than one. 
Stm, I believe that the evil is becoming so glaring, that something must 
soon be done ; and I see no other mode so likely as this to be advan- 
tageous to the interests of the purchaser and user of the horse, 

BEST AGE TO BREED EEOM. 

The general opinion throughout England is, that one or other of the 
parents should be of mature age ; and that if a very young mare is chosen, 
the horse should not be less than eight, ten, or twelve years old. If both 
are very young, or very old, the produce is generally small and weakly ; 
but by adopting the plan above-mentioned, the services of young and old 
may be fully utilized. A great many of our very best performers on the 
turf have been got by old stallions ; as, for instance, Whisker, son of 
Waxy, in his twenty-second year ; Emihus, son of Orville, in his twen- 
tieth ; Voltigeur and Newminster, whose sires were respectively twenty- 
one and seventeen ; Blink Bonny, who was got by Melbourne, in his 
twentieth year ; and Wild Dayrell, by Ion, when seventeen years old. To 
these may be added. Gemma di Vergy, Lifeboat, and Gunboat, three cele- 
brated sons of Sir Hercules, and all got by him after he was twenty years 
old — the last named when he was twenty-five years of age. So, also, 
many were out of old mares ; including Priam, whose dam was twenty 
when she dropped him ; Crucifix, the daughter of Octaviana, when twenty- 
two years old ; Lottery, out of Mandane, in her twentieth year; and Bru- 
tandorf, produced by the same mare when she was twenty-two. From 
these instances, the breeder may conclude that age is no bar to success, if 
matched with youth on the other side ; but the instances of success in 
breeding from two aged parents are rare indeed. It is next to be ascer- 
tained what is the earliest age at which this animal can be relied on for 
breeding ; and here, again, example is better than theory. The most 
remarkable instance of moderate success in adopting this plan is in that of 
The Ugly Buck, whose dam. Monstrosity, was put to Venison when only 
a two-year-old. The horse, also, was not more than seven, and the dam of 
Monstrosity bred her in her fourth year. But though Ugly Buck pro- 
mised well as a two-year-old, he failed in his subsequent career, and his 
example is not, therefore, to be considered as at all conclusive. Still, his 
is a most extraordinary instance, and as such it should not be lost sight of. 

L 



146 THE HORSE. 

There are many cases in wliicli the first produce of a mare has been her 
best; such as, in former tiuies, Murk Anthony, Conductor, Shuttle Pope, 
Filho da Puta, Sultan, Pericles, Oiseau, Doctor Syntax, Manfred, and 
Pantaloon. Nevertheless, these may be considered to be exceptions, and 
a large majority of the brood mares in the Stud-book are credited with 
their most successful produce subsequently to their first. The rule 
•Tenerally adopted is to wait till the mare is three years old before breeding 
from her, and then to put her to a horse of at least full maturity — that 
is to say, seven or eight years old. 

THE INFLUENCE OF THE SIEE AND DAM EESPECTIYELY. 

I HAVE ALREADT at page 23 alluded to this question as relating to the 
breeding of the Ai-ab borse in his native country, and have there shown 
that the opinions held by Abd-el-Kader in modern days do not coincide 
with those which have long been supposed to be general in Arabia. In 
tlie piassage which I have there quoted, this celebrated chief attempts to 
define the exact part which each parent takes in producing the foal, but 
he goes still farther in subsequent answers to the questions asked by 
General Daumas, in relation to the value put by the Arabs on their 
stallions and mares respectively. To these Abd-el-Kader replies as 
follows : " It is true that Arabs prefer mares to horses, but only for the 
following reasons : the first is that they look at the profit which may 
arise from a mare as very considerable. Some Arabs have realized as 
much as 20,000 dollars from the produce of one mare. They have a 
proverb that ' the foimtainhead of riches is a mare that produces a mare.' 
This is corroborated by the Prophet Mahomet, who says ' Let mares be 
preferred, their bellies are a treasure, their backs the seat of honour.' 
'The greatest blessing is an intelligent wife or a mare that produces 
plenty of foals.' These words are thus explained by commentators. 
Their bellies are a treasure because the mare by her produce increases the 
riches of her master ; and their backs are the seat of honour because the 
pace of a mare is easier than that of a horse ; and there be those that say 
it is sufficiently so as in time to render a horseman effeminate. The 
second reason is that a mare does not neigh in war, that she bears hunger, 
thirst, and heat better than a horse, and that therefore she is more useful 
to people whose riches consist in camels and sheep. Now all the world 
kncJws that our camels and sheep thrive only in the desert, where the soil 
is so arid that Arabs drinking chiefly milk find water seldom oftener than 
3very eight or ten days, in consequence of the distances between the 
pasturages, which are only to be found in the neighbourhood of wells. 
The mare is like the serpent, their powers increase in hot weather and in 
arid countries. Serpents which live in cold or watery countries have 
little venom or courage, so that their bite is seldom mortal, whereas those 
that hve in hot countries are more irritable, and the virulence of their 
poison is increased. Whilst the horse can less easily bear the heat of 
the sun, the mare, doubtless from constitutional causes, finds her energies 
increase with the greatest heat. The third reason is that the mare 
requires less care and less nourishment. The owner can lead and turn 
her out to graze with the sheep and camels, and he is not obliged to have 
a person constantly watching her ; whereas a horse cannot do without 
being highly feu, and he cannot be turned out without an attendant for 
obvious reasons. These are the true reasons of an Arab's preference for 
mares. It does not arise from the foal inheriting the qualities of the dam 



INFLUENCE OF SIRE AND DAM. 147 

rather tlian those of the sire ; it does riot proceed from its being better at 
all times and under all circumstances to ride a mare rather than a horse ; 
but it is based upon material interests, and on the necessities enforced 
by the description of life which Arabs lead. It must, however, be 
admitted that a horse is more noble than a mare. He is stronger, more 
courageous, and faster, That a horse is stronger than a mare is thus 
proved. If both were struck by the same mortal wound a mare would 
fall at once, but a horse would seldom drop until he had carried his rider 
into safety. I saw a mare struck by a ball on the leg ; the bone was 
broken ; unable to bear the pain she fell immediately. A horse was hit 
in the same manner ; the broken limb hung only by the skin ; he con- 
tinued his course, supportii% himself on his sound leg, until he bore his 
rider from the battle-field and then fell. The AralDS prefer mares to 
horses for the reasons I have given, and those reasons are sufficient to 
show why amongst us the value attached to the possession of a mare is 
greater than that they attach to the possession of a horse, even though 
the breeding of each were the same ; for whilst on the one hand the foal 
takes more after the sire than the dam, on the other the proprietor of a 
horse cannot gain in many years as much as the proprietor of a mare can 
gain in one year if she throw a foal. However, when a horse has dis- 
played any extraordinary qualities, it often happens that he will not be 
parted with, probably producing to his master in the way of booty or 
otherwise as much as the most valuable mare. I saw amongst the 
Annazas, a tribe extending from Bagdad to Syria, horses so beyond all 
price that it was almost impossible to purchase them, and certainly 
impossible to pay ready money for them. These animals, of a fabulous 
value, are sold only to the highest personages, or to rich merchants who 
pay for them by thirty or forty instalments, or by a perpetual rent settled 
on the vendor or his descendants. The birth of a horse can never be 
considered a misfortune by an Arab, however much he may prefer a mare 
for the material advantages which they procure. Mares almost always 
produce, and it is on that account principally that they are preferred. I 
repeat it — the birth of an animal that guarantees its master against humilia- 
tion can never be considered a misfortune. A poet says : * My brothers 
reproach me with my debts, yet I never contracted one but for an 
honourable purpose. In giving the bread of heaven to all, in purchasing 
a horse of noble race, and buying a slave to attend upon me.' — Bailey" i 
Magazine of Sports, June, 1860. 

My own belief in this matter, founded upon observations made during 
a long series of years on the horse as well as the dog, is that no rule can 
be laid down with any certainty. Much depends upon the comparative 
physical power and strength of constitution in each parent, even more 
perhaps than the composition of the blood. There have been many 
instances of two brothers being used in the stud, both among horses 
and greyhounds, in which one has almost invariably got his stock 
resembling himseK in all particulars, not even excluding colour, while 
the descendants of the other have rarely been recognisable as his. Thus 
among horses the Touchstones have been mostly brown or dark bay, and 
as a lot have shoAvn a high form as racehorses, while the Launcelots have 
been of all colours, and have been below mediocrity on the turf. Several 
examples of the same nature may be quoted from among greyhounds, 
such as Ranter, Gipsey Priace, and Gipsy Eoyal, three brothers whose 
stock were as different as possible, but the fact is so generally recognised 
that it is not necessary to dwell upon it. Now surely this difference in 

l2 



U8 THE HORSE. 

the power of transmitting the likeness of the sire, when the blood is 
exactly the same as it is observed to extend over large numbers, can 
only depend upon a variation in individual power. Not only does this 
apply to the males, but the females also show the same difference. Some 
mares have gone on producing foals which afterwards turned out first-class 
whatever horse they were put to, as, for instance, Phryne (dam of winners 
by Pantaloon, Melbourne, and The Flying Dutchman), Barbelle, who 
produced Van Tronip by Lanercost, De Witt by The Provost, and The 
Flying Dutchman by Bay Middleton. Alice Hawthorne, successively as 
well as successfully put to Birdcatcher, Melbourne, Touchstone, "VVind- 
hound, Melbourne or Windliound, and Sweetmeat ; and lastly, Ellerdale, 
dam of Ellington and Ellermere, and Gildefmire by Flying Dutclmian, 
Summerside by West Australian, and Wardersmarke by Birdcatcher. On 
appealing to the greyhound, also, we see some remarkable instances within 
the last few years, of which Mr. Jardine's Ladylilce and Mr. Eandell's Riot 
may be considered as very strong cases in point. The latter bitch also may 
be instanced as having been extremely successful in tlie stud, while her 
own brother, Ranter, in the same kennel, was a total failure. There must 
consequently be something more than mere breeding to produce a successful 
result, and this I am inclined to think resides in the strength of the 
constitution possessed by the individual, * •^ 

But even supposing the horse or mare displays this constitutional 
power, there is a something which controls it, as we have seen in the two 
cases already instanced of Orlando and West Australian. In the former 
horse the \n(luence of the sire, great as it usually has been shown to be, was 
compelled Jo succumb to the combination of the three lines traceable to 
Selini and his brother Castrel, while in the other this same horse Touch- 
stone prevailed (still, however, on the side of the dam) apparently only 
because there was a combination of two very recently separated lines of 
Waxy blood through his sons Whalebone and Whisker. The second of 
these examples is the more worthy of note, because in tracing back the 
lines of the sire and dam, the name of Trumpator from whom Melbourne is 
lineally descended is met with three times in the pedigree of the former, 
and four times in that of the latter. Here then but foj^the nearness of 
the two lines of Waxy I should have expected the produce to follow the 
Trumpator strain through. Melbourne, but as I have already observed, 
beyond the third remove this influence is very much weakened. We 
may therefore come to the conclusion that it is not always superior 
strength of constitution, nor the greater purity or antiquity of the blood 
which determines the influence to be expected by either parent, but that 
sometimes the one and sometimes the other is the cause. And as the 
former cannot well be determined, the latter is the foundation for the 
plans of the breeder, who will on the whole do well to follow the maxims 
first laid down by that celebrated breeder of horses and cattle, the second 
Earl Spencer, whose opinions were in conformity with the 13th axiom 
for breeders which I have inserted at page 139. 

CHOICE OF SIRE AND DAM. 

The necessity for health in each parent has already been insisted on, 
but beyond this point, which is generally admitted, there are several 
others to be attended to. Thus, since the preponderance of either over 
the form and temper of the progeny will, in all probabQity, fall to that 
one which has the superior purity of blood, it follows that if the breeder 



CHOICji OF SIRE AND DAM. 149 

wishes to alter in any important particular the qualities possessed by his 
mare, he must select a horse which is citliei' better bred or some of whose 
lines will coalesce with those of the dam's which it is desired to per- 
petuate, Thus, supposing a mare to be made up of four lines, two of 
which are decidedly bad, and one which is so good as to attract the notice 
of her owner, then let him look around and select some horse in whose 
pedigree is to be found a similar strain, taking care that the relationship 
is not so close as to lead to disappointment on the score of the bad effects 
attributable to in-brecding. But there are many brood mares not in tlie 
Stud-book, whose pedigrees are not ascertainable, and in their case this 
rule will not apply. Here a different plan must be pursued, and a horse 
must be chosen whose shape, action, or temper coincides with the particular 
qualily which it is desired to perpetuate. I am strongly inclined to 
believe that it is comparatively of little use to look about for sires who 
possess those qualities in which .the dam is deficient. Such a course of 
proceedmg has so constantly ended in disappointment, within my own 
knowledge, that I beheve 1 am justified in condemning it. A stalhon 
(whether horse or greyhound, the same is observable) is known to have 
been very fast, or very stout, as the case may be, and having obtained the 
one character or the other, breeders have supposed that thej^ have only to 
send mares deficient in either quality, and they Avould insure its develop- 
ment in the produce. If the mare or bitch happens to possess among her 
ancestry stout or fast lines of blood, the produce will display the one or 
the other, if she is put to a horse possessing them ; but, on the contrary, 
if the lines of the dam are all fast, or all stout, no first cross with a sire 
] tii-sessing the opposite qualities will be likely to have any effect, though 
no doubt there are some few exceptions to this, as to all other rules. The 
instances in support of this position are so numerous within my own 
knoAvledge, that I should scarcely be able to make a beginning, and every 
one who draws upon his own experience, or who will examine the " Stud- 
book " and the " Coiasmr/ Calendar," will find examples without end 
throughout every volume of each. It would be invidious to select any 
stallion now in this country, but among those which have been well tried 
here in the stud, and are here no longer, may be mentioned the Flying 
Dutchman. This horse was well known to have been himself not only 
fast, but stout, and, as a conseqiience, even those breeders who are aware 
of the necessity for regarding both of these qualities were induced to 
breed from him, expecting that the result would be to give them similar 
stock in the next generation. The contrary, however, was the case. In 
many cases speed was developed, but in almost every instance, Avithout an 
exception, that speed was not allied Avith staying power. The unlooked- 
f )r result has been attributed to his sire. Bay Middleton, whose stock have 
been notoriously flashy; but if the pedigree of Barbelle, his dam, is care- 
fully examined, a still stronger reason may be assigned. If her lines are 
traced back five generations, it wUl be seen that out of her thirty-two 
progenitors in that remove fourteen are descended from Herod or his sire, 
Tartar, and these in addition to the already overfloAving quantum of the same 
blood in Bay Middleton himself. Noav I am a great admirer of the blood 
of Herod, and I believe him to be one of the chief foundations of the high 
form of our modern horses ; but its peculiar characteristic is speed, not 
stoutness, and it requires a combination with the stouter blood of Eclipse, 
or some other horse of that strain, to make the possessor capable of 
staying a distance. With these fast lines the produce of Barbelle has 
always been fast, but it can scarcely occasion surprise that her stoutest 



150 THE HORSE. 

son, Yan Tromp, should be by Lanercost, nor that Orlando, with his 
double lines of Selim and Castrel blood, should get a mere half-miler like 
Zuyder Zee. The Flying Dutchman was, no doubt, a grand performer 
himself, but his may be regarded as a somewhat exceptional case, and this 
opinion is supported by the failure of his own brother (Vanderdecken) on 
the turf, although cast in a mould which would lead one to expect a still 
greater success. 

In paying attention to the performances of the ancestry of both sire 
and dam, regard must also be had to their size, as this element is consi- 
dered of much importance. Neither a large nor a small sire or dam will 
perpetuate the likeness of himself or herseK unless descended from a breed 
which is either the one or the other. It only leads to disappointment to 
breed from a tall stallion or mare if either is only accidentally so, and not 
belonging to a breed generally possessing the same characteristics. Many 
a small mare or bitch has surprised her .owner by producing him animals 
much larger than herself, but on tracing her pedigree it will almost always 
be found to contain the names of animals of above the average size. 
Moderately small mares are generally of a stronger constitution than very 
large ones, and on that account they wiU often answer the purposes of the 
stud better than larger animals, provided they are of a sort usually cast in 
the mould which is desired. This should never be lost sight of by the 
breeder, and where, as in breeding thoroughbreds, the pedigree can be 
traced far enough for this purpose, there is no excuse for neglecting the 
circumstance. 

The above precautions are sufficient in all those cases where the 
pedigree is attainable, but there are many brood mares, as I before 
remarked, in which nothing is known of their antecedents. Here, the 
breeder can only act upon the general rule that " like produces Uke," and 
caimot take advantage of the addition which I have made to the 12th 
axiom, at page 139, of the words, "or the likeness of some ancestor." In 
such cases, for the reason which I have given, disappointment will con- 
stantly attend upon the first experiments, and until the mare has produced 
her first foal, and he has gone on to his third or fourth year, the value of 
the dam can hardly be ascertained. Breeding is always, more or less, a 
lottery, but when it is carried on with dams of unknown parentage, it is 
ten times more so than it need be. Were I to commence the establish- 
ment of a breeding stud, whether of cart or carriage horses, hacks or 
hunters, I would never introduce a single mare whose dam and gT?and-dam 
as weU as the sire and grand-sire would not be produceable as good 
specimens of their respective kinds. Beyond the second remove there 
would always be some difficulty in going with the lower-bred mares, but 
I would certainly go as far as this in aU cases. If the sire and dam, 
crand-sire and grand-dam, were, on the whole, of desirable form and per- 
formances, I woidd choose the produce as a brood mare, but not otherwise; 
and though, of course, I should be obliged to pass over some important 
defects in individuals, I would not do so if they were common to all, or 
nearly all, of the four. In this way I should expect to do more than by 
simply choosing "a great roomy mare" without knowing her pedigree in 
the belief that she would be sure to reproduce her likeness. 

SELECTION OF BLOOD TS EACH CLASS OF HOESE. 

In the race-horse the choice of blood will always greatly depend upon 
the fashion of the day, if the produce is to be profitably disposed of, and 



SELECTION OF BLOOD 151 

even hj following this plan great risk is incurred, for what is fashionable 
one year is often despised the next. The winner of the Derby, more 
especially if he can also pull off tlie St» Leger, raises the fame of his sire 
from twenty to a hundred per cent; and if the next year his stock go on 
well the value put upon them is still further advanced. These remarks 
especially apply to the choice of a stallion, but at the onset they more 
or less influence every person who is purchasing mares for the stud. 
When, however, these are already procured, the investment must be con- 
sidered in the main to be permanent, as it would be ruinous to be 
constantly changing the blood. But beyond the reach of fashion there 
are several broad lines of demarcation between the strains of blood which 
are prevalent in the present day, and which it is well to notice. It' is 
now idle to go back to the days of Eclipse, Herod, and IMatchera, for their 
descendants are so intermixed that no mare could be found possessing the 
blood of one Avithout that of another also, and generally of all three. Wo 
must, therefore, confine our observations to strains coming much nearer to 
our own times. 

Six tears ago, in "British Rural Sjoorts," I enumerated ten distinct 
strains of blood as those at all likely to be useful in the racing stud. 
Since that time there has been a means of testing the truth of my obser- 
vations, and T shall therefore insert my remarks here entire, adding to eacli 
strain, in a parenthesis, what may occur to me as bearing upon the question. 

" 1. The almost pure, in-bred Waxys, exhibiting, of course, a mixture 
with other strains, but in all cases being chiefly of Waxy blood. These 
are — Cotherstone, The Baron, Chanticleer, Chatham, Chabron, and Idle 
Boy. This strain of blood is admirably adapted as the foundation of a 
general breeding-stud, being likely to turn out stock which wiU serve him 
as hunters or hacks, if they fail as racehorses." 

(Among these The Baron and Chanticleer had previously distinguished 
themselves, the former as the sire of Stockwell and Eataplan ; the latter, 
to a less extent, as having got several good second class horses. The Baron 
has, since that time, been in France; and Chanticleer has gone down in 
public estimation, having only been credited with twelve foals in tho 
"Calendar" for 1860. Cotherstone, Chabron, Chatham, and Idle Boy 
have done little for the turf, but they have fulfilled my expectations as 
sires of hunters, all having obtamed considerable celebrity in that depart- 
ment. In addition to those above-mentioned, Sir Hercules and his son, 
Gemma Di Vergy, should not be forgotten, nor the further descendants 
of the former — Birdcatcher (now dead) and Daniel O'Eourke.) 

" 2, The union of Waxy and Orville, as seen in Retriever, Drayton, 
Ambrose, Eobert do Gorham, The Hero, Mathematician, and Theon. 
These will be almost equally useful as a general breeding-stock with those 
included under !N"o. 1; but I suspect will produce fewer first-class race- 
horses." 

(These remarks have been verified to the letter. Ambrose has certainly 
got a Cynricus, but he is far from first-rate, and the single exception goes 
to prove the rule. On the other hand, Drayton and Theon have been 
celebrated as sires of hunters.) 

" 3. The Buzzard blood, not of course pure, but comparatively so, as in 
Epirus, Bay Middleton, and the Flying Dutchman. Calculated to get 
fii'st-class racehorses rather than general stock." 

(I believe there is no exception to this rule.) 

" 4. The Waxy, Orville, and Buzzard united in the following celebrated 
horses ; — Touchstone, Orlando, Surplice, Windfall, Longbow, The Libel, 



152 THE HORSE. 

Hobbie Noble, Windliound, Assault, and Storm. Here we have the very 
best racing-blood in existence, varying in degrees of excellence, but all 
more or less good." 

(The horses in this list, with their descendants, continue in as high 
favom: as ever. Touchstone is, of course, almost superannuated, being 
now in his thirtieth year, but he is stni credited with 11 foals in the list 
of the past year; Orlando maintains his reputation Tvith 21 ; Surplice has 
4; Longbow, 6; Hobbie Noble, 8; Windhound, 13; and Storm, 3. But, 
in addition, we find Ne"nTaiaster (son of Touchstone) as the sire of 39 ; 
Teddington (son of Orlando) with 33 to his name; Annandale, Flatcatcher, 
Lord of the Isles, De Clare, and Mountain Deer (all sons of Touchstone), 
with 7, 7, 14, 21, and 29 respectively; and, lastly, West Australian (out 
of a Touchstone mare) has 22 foals in the list.) 

" 5. The OrvUle and Euzzard strains together, as inPompey, Cowl, and 
Gleutilt. This is good racing-blood, but not equal to Nos. 3 and 4." 

(The three horses named above have only two foals among them in the 
" Calendar," and there can be no doubt that I was right in ranking this 
strain as inferior to the two aheady alluded to.) 

" 6. The Waxy and Buzzard, as in Coronation, Pyrrhus I., StockweU, 
Safeguard, Newcourt, Pitsford, and Bessus. Very good, stout, and fast 
blood, but requiring the dash of Orville to make it equal to No. 4, and, 
for this reason, suitable for crossing with mares descended from that 
horse." 

(At the time when these remarks were written Pyrrhus I. was at the 
zenith of his reputation, his daughter Virago having just proved herself 
the best of her year. Since then, however, he has verified my prognosti- 
cations, having been generally pronounced to be inferior to many horses 
of the strains numbered under 3, 4, and 5, and latterly he has been esti- 
mated so lightly that he has been among those sold to go abroad, at the 
usual price for that purpose. Coronation has done nothing at the stud. 
Stockwell and his brother, Rataplan, are, however, in high force, the 
former having nineteen and the latter sixteen foals in the list. With the 
single exception of Newcourt, who has one foal, these two horses are the 
only ones of tliis strain which are at all fashionable among breeders.) 

" 7. The Blacklocks, represented by Hetman Platolf, Tearaway, Neasham, 
and Eatan. Tliis strain has been lately quite out of favour; but the 
extraordinary success of WHd Dayrell, a descendant of Blacklock on both 
sides of his pedigree, may possibly restore it to its former position." 

(A mistake was here committed in the pedigree of Wild Dayrell, who 
is descended from Blacklock only through his dam, a great grand-daughter 
of that horse. Voltigeur had also been favourably mentioned at page 435, 
and his stock, together with that of his son, Vedette, as also of his 
brother, Barnton, and Fandango, son of the last-named horse, now rank as 
high as any others in the opinion of breeders. Thus in the " Calendar " 
Voltigeur has 30 foals. Vedette, 26; Barnton, 32; and Fandango, 33.) 

" 8. The Tramp blood, now only to be met with at all unmixed in 
Weatherbit, Lanercost, and CoUingwood, and of doubtful utdity." 

(Of late years Weatherbit (owing to the handicap successes of Weather- 
gage and the Epsom victory of Beadsman, who was, however, out of 
Mendicant by Touchstone) has come into fashion, and last year had 26 
foals to his name. With his exception, however, the blood is not fancied, 
Van Tromp aud CoUingwood being the only horses descended from Tramp 
in the male line who have had much chance allowed them, and they have 
been almost totnl failures.) 



SELECTION OF BLOOD. 153 

" 9. The Partisans and Fillio da Putas, seen in Venison and his sons, 
Alarm, Kiiigston, and Vatican; also in Sweetmeat, Colwich, and Giovanni. 
Nothing can exceed the beauty of form resulting from these combuiations 
of the Waxy and Sir Peter blood ; and it seems to t)e perpetuated in all 
the descendants, which are remarkable for blood-like frames, with Arabian- 
looking heads, fine muzzles, full eyes, light necks, and good shoulders, and 
also for wiry and lasting legs and feet. This latter peculiarity is perhaps 
owing to their light girth, and consequent want of weight for theu" legs to 
carry; but nevertheless they are almost all stout enough, and especially 
the Venisons." 

(Curiously enough, the stock of Kingston and Sweetmeat have been 
remarkable rather for pace than stoutness, but this is probably owing to 
the number of mares put to them which were deiicient in the latter 
quality. Nevertheless they are both still fashionable, Kingston having 
33 and Sweetmeat 19 foals ; Alarm also has 12, but Vatican has only 1.) 

" 10. The Sorcerer blood, now chiefly to be depended on in Melbourne 
(almost worn out in the service), and his sons, West Austrahan, Sir 
Tatton Sykes, and Oulston. The first of the three is more Waxy than 
Sorcerer, the second is mixed with Orville and Cervantes, and the third 
is very much the same combination as that of Sir Tatton. I have fully 
commented on these horses at paragraph 272. Large, fust, and loose, 
they require room to display their pecidiar powers, which are calcidated 
to shine over a flat, or any straight coarse, rather than a small and 
confined one. Few of this blood are neat, and some are peculiarly coarse 
and gaunt, like the Melbournes, but yet so well proportioned and truly 
made as to catch the eye of the connoisseur. With large heads, roomy 
frames, big legs and joints, united to great useful hocks and powerful pro- 
pellers, they are fit for any work but turning corners, where they are 
undoubtedly out of their element. Such were the Soothsayers, Comuses, 
Revellers, Humphrey Clinkers, and Melbournes ; together, also, with the 
last horse's celebrated sons. Sir Tatton Sykes, West Australian, and 
Oulston. All are fast enough for anything, but require time to till up 
theii" fine frames, and should have been reserved till five years of age, if 
justice could have been done them. On the whole, this blood may be 
considered as urferior to none but the three first described strains, in 
which it is surpassed in persistence of good qualities for a series of years, 
though, taking any single horse against him, Melboui'ue will perhaps 
make a good fight for superiority." 

(I have nothing to unsay here, and I may specially call attention to the 
fact that prior to the a^ipearance of West Australian's stock I had 
remarked that he is more Waxy than Sorcerer. Many other descendants 
of Melbourne in the male line are known in the stud, but there are none 
of any great promise at present.) 

Turning now to the blood most suitable for getting hunters, I may 
be pardoned for again inserting what I have already written in " British 
Rural Sjiorts," comprised in the following words, to which I have now 
nothing to add, and in Avhich there is little or nothing which I should 
wish unsaid : — 

" For tMs kind of breeding, nothing answers better than a cross of the 
Waxy, Orville, and Sorcerer blood, or of the two former with any of the 
descendants of Sir Peter or Woodpecker ; but in all cases provided they 
have good shoulders, and are sound. Thus, Drayton has been remarkable 
in this way, as also is Windfall, and Eetriever promises to be equally 
useful. Of all others, the Waxv blood seems to be most telling in hunting 



154 THE HORSE. 

stock ; and if only it is joined to sufficient size, both of bone and frame, is 
almost always produces a hiinter. The temper, constitution, action, and 
heart are all good in this strain, and nothing is wanted but the above- 
named element. Defence is the progenitor of a great number of good 
hunters, both directly, and through Safeguard and Bath, his sons. Chat- 
ham, Cotherstone, Aiinandale, Weathergage, 'lu^ewminster, John o' Gaunt, 
Theon, The Hero, Chanticleer, Harkaway, Connaught Eanger, Footstool, 
Fugleman, Idle Boy, Newcourt, Ravensbone, and Eussborough, are of the 
very best blood for getting hunters, with the chance of an occasional race- 
horse among them, if put to stout, thoroughbred mares of a sort which is 
usually large-boned, and of good-size. Small-boned horses are not to be 
thought of for this purpose ; and hence the Epirus strain is objectionable 
on that score, they being smaller in the bone even than the Waxys, and, 
in addition, less lasting. All the sons of Venison are suitable, but espe- 
cially those crossed with the Orville or Whisker blood — as, for instance, 
the Fallow Buck and Eed Hart ; also Vatican, but that I believe his 
temper is somewhat ungovernable ; and they generally make good hunters, 
but not with very high action. The Lottery and Tramp strains I- have 
also already mentioned as beirrg valuable for the purpose of getting hunters 
and steeplechasers ; and the folloAving stallions descended from them 
should be prized when within reach, especially such as are also crossed 
with Waxy or his descendants — as Birkenhead, Sir Peter Laurie, Foot- 
stool, Meteor, Sweetmeat, Tearaway, and liis son Kingstown. These also 
are almost all likely to get good hacks ; but the Buzzard and Whalebone 
blood seems to suit in this way better than most others, except in the caso 
of the Touchstones, which are by no means good in this respect. Defence, 
on the other hand, who is similarly bred, but without the Orville cross, is 
famous for getting good hacks, and many of his stock have been very fast 
and fine trotters — as, for instance, Safeguard and Eector. The former of 
these horses, though blind, could, when in his prime, bend himself and 
trot with any thoroughbred horse in the world ; and the latter could do 
his sixteen miles an hour, carrying twelve stone." 

I would strongly advise the breeder to select, for the purpose of getting 
hunters, those horses, whether thoroughbred or otherwise, whose action 
before is unexceptionable. So many of our race-horses now are full of 
Touchstone blood, that they are defective in this respect, and are totally 
unfit for any other purpose. 

When Carriage Horses are bred for the special purpose to which 
they are afterAvards devoted, a particular class of stallions is used which 
is generally only to be met Avith in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire. These 
are put to large mares of the same breed, or the latter are sometimes 
crossed vn\h the thoroughbred. Haclcs and light harness horses are bred 
in small numbers only by farmers, and are generally the result of a cross 
between small chance mares and second or third rate thoroughbred 
stalhons, or they are the weeds culled from racing or hunting studs, being 
too small and light for either one or the other purpose. 

THE KIND OF HOESE MOST PEOFITABLE FOR THE 
BEEEDEE TO CHOOSE. 

When a person makes up his mind to bestow his attention on the 
breeding of horses as a speculation, it behoves him to consider what kind 
is best suited to the nature of his land and the length of his purse, as well 
as to his own knowledge of horses. Unless he has plenty ox fine upland 



CONCLUDING REMARKS. 155 

grass and a command of money, it is quite useless for tim to think of tlie 
race-horse; nor will he do well, without these concomitants, to dabble in 
hunters. Cart-horses, now-a-days, pay well when there is work for them 
to do up to their third or fourth year; and carriage-horses are likewise a 
good speculation, Avhen the land is suitable to their development. No one, 
however, should turn his attention to the breeding of hacks on a large 
scale, since they will almost inevitably cost more than they will fetch at 
five years old. The farmer who keeps one or two " nag " mares i-s the 
only person who can be said to rear hacks without loss ; and he only does 
so, because he begins to use them for his own slow work as soon as they 
are three years old. Even in his case, however, I much doubt whether 
the same food which has been given the colts would not have been turned 
to greater profit if given to horned cattle ; and the only thing which can 
be said in favour of the former is, that they eat coarse grass which the 
latter will refuse. To make the breeding of the horse turn out profitably, 
the hack and inferior kind of harness-horse ought to be the culls from a 
lot of colts intended for the hunting-field, and then, the one with the 
other, they may be made to pay. 

CONCLUDING EEMAEKS ON BREEDING. 

The angry discusstons which have taken place in the year 1860, 
between Lord Redesdale and Admiral Rous, indicate plainly what is the 
general opinion on the subject of the diminution in the stoutness of our 
horses. Breeders therefore, should turn their attention to this point, and 
should be doubly careful to avoid weedy or diseased sires and dams. It 
cannot be denied that our modern thoroughbreds possess size and speed ; 
but they certainly do not shine in staying powers, as I have already more 
than once remarked. But there are some strains particularly free from 
this defect, and these I have endeavoured to point out. It should not, 
moreover, be forgotten that though the thoroughbred horse will bear more 
work, especially at high speed, than any other kind, yet he can only do 
this if weU fed and warmly housed. Being a native of a warm and dry 
climate, he requires to be protected from the weather; and the young 
stock must be well reared in all respects, or they will never pay. If, 
therefore, the breeder is not determined to put up warm hovels in every 
paddock, and if he is stingy of his corn, he had far better let his stud of 
mares be composed of lower bred animals. If a thoroughbred horse and 
a donkey are both fed upon the lowest quantity and quality of food which 
will keep the latter in condition, the donkey would beat its high-bred 
antagonist over a distance of ground — that is to say, supposing the expe- 
riment to be continued long enough to produce a permanent eff"ect upon 
the two animals. A cart-horse colt, or one of any kind of low blood, will 
do well enough if reared, till he is put to work, upon grass and hay ; but 
a race-horse or hunter, of high breeding, would show a badly-developed 
frame, and be comparatively worthless for his particular kind of work, 
if he were not allowed his corn from the time that he is weaned. 



i5r> THE iiORsiK. 



CHAPTEE XL 

THE BROOD MARE AND HER FOAL, 

THE HOVEL AND PADDOCK — GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE BROOD MARE— TREATMENT 

WHEN IN FOAL AFTER FOALING EARL? MANAGEMENT OP THE FOAL— WEANING — 

CASTRATION. 

Having already alluded to tlie principles which should guide the 
breeder in the choice of his mares, I need not further allude to them 
beyond the remark, that independently of those which I have indicated, 
he must take care that they are each possessed of a frame suitable to carry 
a foal, and of a constitution hardy enough to sustain the drain upon the 
system caused by the 3'oung animal, both before and after birth. If the 
pelvis and back ribs are not large and deep, the foetus will not have room 
to be developed and brought into the world; and unless the mare is a 
good feeder, and is also furnished with an udder which will give sufficient 
mUk, she will not afford enough nourishment to her foal, which will, 
therefore, be weakly and badly developed in its proportions. The shape 
may be easily detected beforehand, but the constitution and milking 
properties cannot so well be predicated, though the experienced eye and 
hand of the stud -groom wdl enable him to give a tolerably correct guess. 

HOVEL AND PADDOCK. 

If the breeder is about to undertake the production of a number of 
horses of any kind, he must establish a regular stud-farm, which for all 
horses should be on sound upland, with a subsoil of chalk or gravel. The 
presence of fine white clovers is in itself almost sufficient to show that the 
soil will be suitable to the horse; but, if possible, there should be an 
absolute practical knowledge that the situation has agreed with the animal, 
before any heavy investment is made. If the surface fall is good, draining 
may not be necessary, but in most cases the herbage wiU be greatly 
improved by the introduction of tiles. Low, marshy situations may serve 
during the autumn months to freshen up a stall horse, but they are utterly 
unfit for the rearing of young stock, and should be carefully avoided. If 
the stud is highly bred, and the feeding is to be good, the colts will be 
very mischievous, and unless care is taken to make the fences safe, they 
will break bounds, or injure themselves in the attempt. Deep ditches are 
very unsafe, for the mare as well as her foal are very apt to get cast in 
them, with a serious or fatal injury as the result. Posts and rails answer 
well enough, where timber is plentiful, but, in the long run, they are 
expensive from the necessity for constant repairs. Banks with thorn 
hedges on the top are the very best of all means for enclosing the 
paddocks, and are even better than stone walls, which, however, are 
excellent for the purpose if they have the soil raised against their bases, 
without ■which the foal is liable to slip up against their surface, and thus 
sometimes blemish his knees. There is a great difference of opinion as to 
tlie size necessary for the paddocks, and the nimiber of mares which 
should be allowed in each. In some well conducted stud-farms, as, foi 



HOVEL AND PADDOCK. 167 

instance, in that belonging to the Eawcliffe Company, near York, the 
enclosures are very large, and a dozen, or even as many as eighteen, mares 
and their foals are turned out together as soon as the weather permits, 
and the spring grass grows high enough. In others, as at the Hampton 
Court and Middle Park establishments, the paddocks are each only calcu- 
lated to take three or four mares and their foals; and the yearlings, also, 
are never allowed to exceed four ia any one paddock. Mr. Martin, the 
clever and experienced manager of the first-named stud, is of opinion that 
colts should have room enough to gallop, and thus early accustom their 
joints and sinews to bear the strains which they must, sometime or other, 
be subjected to. On the other hand, the argument is held that in a small 
paddock the foal gallops quite as much as in the larger one, and puts his 
joints to the strain in stopping himself at the corners, whilst there is less 
injury from other accidental causes, such as lacks and the jamming of a 
lot together in a narrow gateway. On the whole, I am inclined to believe 
that the latter plan is the best, for experience shows that a well-fed foal 
will gallop daily, for hours together, even in a two-acre paddock. 

At foaling time each mare must have a separate hovel or loose-box, 
but as, practically, it is found that she always gives some few hours' notice 
of her approaching parturition, it is the custom to bring her into the 
close neighbourhood of the house of the stud-groom at night, so that he 
may be at hand to render her assistance, if necessary. Any loose-box 
answers for that purpose, if it does not open to a warm stable, which 
A^uld render it too hot for an animal which has been for months exposed 
to the open air. But after foaling the mare will also require a hovel to 
herself for six weeks or two months, -M^hen the foal will be strong enough to 
take care of itself in running among other mares. Indeed, at all times, 
the mares should at nigbt be in separate hovels, even when during the 
day they run in the same paddock with two or three others. This hovel 
should be about twelve to fifteen feet long, and not less than ten feet 
wide. The height may easUy be too great, because in the early spring the 
Aveather is often so severe that the mare cannot impart sufficient heat to 
a very large volume of air. From eight to nine feet wUl therefore be 
ample, the former being well suited to the larger area which I have given 
above, and the latter to the smaller. It is a very common plan, when 
economy is much studied, to build four hovels back to back, at the angles 
formed by four small runs, by which a saving in the internal walls is 
effected. This, however, necessitates a northerly or easterly aspect for 
two out of the four, either of which is objectionable. Two hovels may 
readily be placed side by side in the most desirable situation, and these 
may be made to open into separate runs. The walls should be built of 
brick or stone, whichever is locally the cheaper material, or where gorse is 
abundant they may be formed from it, being the cheapest of all. In some 
covmties what is called "wattle and dab " is very generally employed for 
outbuildings of this kind, and when they are roofed with thatcli, which 
carries the water well off the sides, it answers very well. It is composed 
of common wood quarterings, Avith the uprights connected together by 
transverse bars Hke the rounds of a ladder, about eight inches apart. 
When the whole framework is put together thus, some soil, which should 
be clay or loam, is well worked together with straw and water into a 
tenacious mixture, Avhich is forked over each transverse bar in succession, 
and the whole smoothed dov/n till it assumes a regular and even surface. 
Cottages and outbuildings are put up in this way in Devonshire and Dor- 
setshire at very little expense, st aw costmg the farmer little or nothing, 



158 THE HORSE. 

either for tlie walls or the roof, and the wood being also the produce of 
his own land. The labour, therefore, is the only part which costs money, 
and that is not paid for at a very high rate, where wages rarely exceed 
nine shillings a week. When gorse is used, it is adopted in the following 
way : — The door-posts and uprights are first fixed, and should be either 
of oak — which is best — or of good sound Memel fir ; they should be about 
six inches by four, and should be fixed six feet apart, with three feet 
sunk in the ground. After thus fixing the framework, and putting on the 
wall-plate and rafters, the whole internal surface is made good by nailing 
split poles of larch, or other timber, closely together across the uprights, 
taking especml care to round off" the ends when they appear at the door- 
posts. Thus the whole of the interior is tolerably smooth, and no accident 
can happen from the foal getting his leg uito any crevice between the 
poles, if care is taken to nail them securely, and to leave no space between 
them. When this internal framework is finished, the gorse is applied 
outside, as follows : It is fixst cut into small branches, leaving a foot-stalk 
to each, about twelve or fifteen inches in length : these branches are 
arranged in layers between the uprights, the stalks pointing upwards and 
inwards, and the prickly ends downwards and outwards. When, by a 
succession of layers of these brushy stalks, a height of eighteen inches has 
been raised, a stout and tough pole, about the size of an ordinary broom- 
stick, and six feet long, is laid upon the middle of the gorse, and so as to 
confine it against the split poles and between the uprights. The workmen 
kneel upon this pole, and by its means compress the gorse into tke 
smallest possible compass, and while thus pressed down, and against the 
internal framework, it is confined to the latter by five or six loops of 
strong copper wire. When this is properly done, the gorse is so firmly 
confined, and withal so closely packed, that neither wind nor rain can 
penetrate, nor can all the mischief-loving powers of the foal withdraw a 
single stalk. After fixing the first layer, a second is built up in the same 
way, and when neatiy done the exterior is as level as a brick wall; but if 
there are any very prominent branches they may be sheared off with the 
common shears, or taken off with the orduiary hedging bill- hook. When 
it is desired to make the exterior look very smooth, a hay-trusser's knife 
is used; but the natural ends, though not so level, are a much better 
defence, and last longer than the cut gorse. In the interior the stalks 
sometimes project, and if so they must be smootlily trimmed off. The 
roof should be covered in with some material, which is cool in summer 
and warm in winter, and for this purpose, therefore, nothing is so bad as 
slate, or so good as thatch. Objections are sometimes made to the latter 
material that it harbours vermin, but if the mares are well fed, I must 
doubt their ever becoming lousy, unless these parasites are introduced by 
some animal from without. In any case, tiles are preferable to slates, and 
on the average they are also cheaper. Pantiles are not easily made proof 
against the wind, but plane-tiles, when properly pointed, are quite air-tight, 
and are far warmer in cold weather than slates, while they are also cooler in 
summer. The door should be at least four feet or four feet six inches 
wide, and seven feet to seven feet six inches high, with all the angles to 
the sides and top of the frame rounded off to prevent accident from 
striking the hip or head. The door, of oak or elm, should be cut in half 
across the middle, so as to allow the lower haK to be shut, while the 
upper, being open, admits a free supply of air. A small window should 
be inserted in the wall, for light and ventilation when the door is closed. 
When straw is abundant it is usual to leave the floor in its natural state. 



GE:NEIIAL management of the brood mare. 159 

the litter absorbing all that falls from the mare and foal, and being 
changed often enough to keep the place dry. In case, however, this 
cannot be done, the flooring should be similar to that for ordinary stables, 
that is to say, laid with bricks or pebbles, clinkers being much too expen- 
sive for such a purpose. Where chalk is abundant, it forms an excellent 
floor, if a di-ain is cut all round the building, and the soil being taken out 
to the depth of nearly a foot, the chalk is filled in to a little above the 
level of the natural surface, and is then well rammed down, a drain and 
trap being inserted in the middle. The last point which requires consi- 
deration is the kind of manger which is best adapted to the use of the 
mare and her foal, if the latter is to be fed in the way proper to thorough- 
bred stock. In any case, a wooden manger of the ordinary kind should 
be fixed, with a staple for the rack-chain to fasten her up. A hay rack 
should be so arranged that it can be filled from the outside without diffi- 
culty ; which is easily managed by building a little wooden excrescence on 
to one of the outer walls, leaving a hole in the latter for the mare to feed 
herself through. A wooden lid, covered with zinc, lifts up and permits 
the introduction of the fodder without the necessity for carrying a fork 
into the hovel, which will sometimes injure the mare or her foal. Well- 
bred young animals of this species are so mischievous that when shut up 
they wUl jump into any place which can possibly hold them, and many a 
broken leg or back has ensued from an open hay-rack, placed near the 
ground, attracting the gambols of a foal. A few wooden bars nailed across 
the opening effectually prevents this, while the addition of a low manger 
in another corner provides for the feeding of the foal with kibbled oats, 
if such should be the plan adopted, and the fourth is occupied by a water- 
tank. External to the hovel the only provision necessary is a yard, which 
may be omitted if the paddock is always dry from, the land being well 
drained. Unless this is the case, however, the yard should always be 
provided, as there are many days throughout the year when the weather 
is fine enough overhead to allow of the foal being turned out of doors Mdth 
advantage, if it can be protected from the wet grass or wetter soil. A 
yard is, therefore, truly valuable i]i the absence of a dry soil, and it should 
be paved with bricks, stones, or pebbles, well covered with a layer of 
litter, to prevent slips and strains. 

GENERAL MAlfAGEMENT OF THE BEOOD MAEE. 

When it has been decided to breed from a mare, if she is not already 
thrown out of work, it will often be necessary to cool her down, by turn- 
ing her out to grass and taking away her corn, before she will become 
stinted. Thorough-bred mares are not, as a rule, allowed to take the horse 
while in work ; but sometimes they are so constantly " in use," that no 
other means will enable the trainer to go on with his work of preparation. 
There is a wonderful difference in this respect : some animals are rarely 
" in use," once or twice a year being the outside ; while others are so 
every nine days throughout the spring, — the average, perhaps, being in 
that state at about intervals of two or three months from the time of shed- 
ding their coats till the beginning of autumn. Again, some are not upset 
in their work by this natural process ; while others refuse to feed, lose 
condition, and cannot be depended on for half their usual exertions. 
Either extreme requires a change of feeding ; for, on the one hand, the 
cool temperament is excited by the freedom of a run at grass, and on the 
other, the warmer one, is benefited by losing the heating qualities of her 



160 THE HORSE. 

corn. At all events, it is found, in practice, that though the majority of 
maiden mares will become stinted while at work, yet that a large nnmber 
require a run at grass before they will become in foal. As I before re- 
marked, thorough- bred mares are generally entirely devoted to the stud 
from the time that they are put to the horse ; but there are many others 
of lower breeding which their owners desire to work on for some months 
afterwards. It is often apparent that the legs of a hack or harness-mare 
are wearing out, and her owner decides upon having a foal from her, but 
wishes to avoid the expense of keep from the spring, when he puts her to 
the horse, till the next January or February, varying, of course, with the 
time of foaling. All mares are the better for slow work up to within two 
months of foaling ; but they should not be ridden or driven so imi as to 
occasion exhaustion. Cart-mares are generally used to within a few days 
of their time, taking care to keep them at light work and to avoid strain- 
ing them. With these precautions, if the legs keep tolerably sound, a 
mare may be made to earn her keep for nine months out of the eleven 
wliich are the duration of her pregnancy. 

The time of sending the mare to the horse wUl vary with the purposes 
for which her produce is intended. If for racing, it is desired that she 
shall foal as soon as possible after the first of January; and as she carries 
her foal about eleven months, the first time of her being " in use " after 
the first of February is the period chosen for her. All other horses take 
their age from the first of May ; and as this is the time when the young 
grass begins to be forward enough for the use of the mare, the breeder is 
not anxious to get his half-bred foals dropped much before that time. As, 
however, mares are very uncertain animals, he will do well to take advan- 
tage of the first opportunity after March, as by putting off the visit to the 
horse, he may be disappointed altogether, or the foal may be dropped so 
late, that winter sets in before it has acquired strength to bear it. These 
remarks apply to maiden mares only ; those which have dropped a foal 
are generally put to the horse nine or ten days afterwards, when almost 
every mare is in season. For this reason, valuable thorough-bred mares 
are often sent to foal at the place where the sire stands who is intended to 
be used next time. The travelling to him so soon after foaling would be 
injurious to both the dam and her foal, and hence the precaution I have 
named is adopted. The mare then remains to be tried at intervals of 
nine days, and when she is stinted, the foal is strong enough to bear 
any length of journey with impunity. Mares and their foals commonly 
travel by road twenty miles, or even more, for this purpose ; but they do 
not often exceed that distance, and about fifteen miles a day is quite as 
much as a nine days' old foal can compass without injury, and that done 
very quietly, the mare being led at a slow pace all the way. 

TREATMENT WHEN; IS FOAL. 

When the mare is in foal, if not intended to be kept at work, she 
should be turned out in good pasture ; but it should not be so rich and 
succulent as to disagree with her stomach, or make her unwieldy from fat. 
The former mistake is a constant cause of miscarriage, the bowels be- 
coming relaxed from the improper nature of the food. On the other hand, 
if it is not sufiiciently good, the mare wUl become thin, and will starve 
her foal in its growth. Mares that have been corned highly all theii 
lives should have a feed or tAVO daily, after they are six months gone, and 
especially if the autumnal grasses are not rich and plentiful. Most half- 



treatme:!{t after coaling. ici 

bred animals, however, do very well till about Christmas ; after which, 
hay and corn, with a few carrots, should be liberally given them, still 
allowing them to pick i;p what grass they can fuid in their j)addocks. 
Excessive fat is a state of disease, and interferes with the due nutrition of 
the foetus, while it is very dangerous at foaling-time, Avhen it not only 
interferes with the process, but also tends to produce fever. Supposing 
the mare to be at Avork, she should have some kind of green food — lucerne 
being the best, and vetches, perhaps, the worst for the purpose, the latter 
being too heating, especially to the organs contained within the pelvis. 
Any of the grasses or clovers ansAver Avell ; and, after they are done, 
carrots form an excellent succedaneum, given sliced in a bran mash every 
night. By adopting these articles of food, the mare is kept free from 
inflammation, and yet the foal is aa'cII nourished, Avliich are the tAA'O essen- 
tial pouats to be considered. 

Excitement of evert kind is a fertile source of "slipping" the foal; 
and everything which is at all likely to have that effect should be carefully 
avoided. The smell of blood is said to have a very prejudicial influence 
in this way; and there is no doubt that one mare miscarrying avUI in 
some mode affect others in proximity to her. Possibly the same cause may 
act on aU ; but it seems to be generally concluded that the act is really 
contagious, either from what is called sympathy, or in some other as 
inexplicable way. If a mare has "shpped" a foal in a previous preg- 
nancy, double care should be taken, as she will be far more likely to do so 
again than another Avhich has hitherto escaped the accident. It occurs 
most frequently about the fourth or fifth month, therefore extra care 
should be taken at that time. The suspected individual should be kept 
quiet by herself; but it is better to allow her the rim of a small retired 
paddock, than to confine her to her hovel, Avhere, for Avant of exercise, she 
AviU become restless and anxious. Purging physic should not be given, 
unless it is absolutely necessary; and if the boAvels are so confined as 
to require some stimulus of this kind, and bran mashes and other changes 
in the food fail to produce any effect, choice should be made of the mildest 
aperient Avhich is hkely to answer the purpose. With regard to the 
management of the mare in parturition, I shall leave its consideration to 
my colleague, who will, doubtless, be of the same opinion as myself, that, 
if assistance is demanded, it is safer to have recoiu-se at once to a properly 
educated \^eterinary surgeon. Stud grooms Avho have had much expe- 
rience Avill sometimes be able to aid Nature with advantage ; but, in the 
long run, they will probably do more harm than good, if they attempt any 
serious interference. 

TEEATMENT AFTER EOALING. 

In a healthy state, the mare A^ery soon recovers the efforts Avhich she 
has made in bringing forth the foal ; and, in fine weather, she may be 
allowed to enter her paddock on the second day afterwards, which is 
generally soon enough to suit the strength of the foal, though occasionally 
the young animal is very active Avitliin six hours after it comes into the 
AA'orld. For a couple of months, or perhaps less in some cases, the mare 
and foal are better kept in a paddock by themselves ; but in a large stud 
this is difficult AA'hen the foals come very quickly; and then several mares 
of quiet temperament are put together, still keeping separate those which 
are shy or vicious. Until the mare can get plenty of grass, she should 
have carrots, bran mashes, and a feed or two of oats, which at first are 

M 



162 THE HORSE. 

better given in tlie shape of gruel — the Avater with which this is made 
having the chill taken off. Eye-grass is cultivated and cut for the mares 
daily by those who have early foals ; but, though it is better than hay, 
it is not equal to good upland clover-grass. Lucerne is excellent, but it 
cannot be grown so early as rye. I have already described, at page 1 60, 
the proper time for again putting the mare to the horse, so that I need 
not enter into that subject here. During the remainder of the time of 
suckling, no special treatment is required, except to see that the mare is 
well fed and protected from the weather. At weaning-time, she some- 
times requires a dose or two of cooling medicine ; but generally she is so 
nearly dry, that no interference is required. 

EAELY TEEATMi^NT OF THE EOAL. 

If the young animal is well formed and healthy, it will require no 
attention beyond that which I have specified as necessary for the dam. 
There are, however, several accidents to wliich it is liable ; such as rup- 
tui'e eitlier at the navel or flank, inversion of the feet, &c. ; all of which 
will be treated of in their proper places. About the time of the mare 
being " in use," the foal is generally purged a good deal, and a warm 
drench will often be required. At the end of a month, or sometimes 
earlier, the foal will eat bruised oats ; and highly-bred young stock are 
generally allowed, from this time, first a single quartern, and then by 
degrees two quarterns of oats. Half-breds, and even cart-horses, would 
be the better for this stimulus to development; but if it is begun, it 
should be continued ; and, unless the foal shows such promise that it is 
expected to turn out extraordinarily well, the extra expense will not be 
reimbursed. The half-peck of oats cannot be put down as costing less 
than six pounds a year ; and thus, at five years of age, the colt will have 
cost thirty pounds more than if he had been fed on hay and grass alone. 
Now, between a racehorse reared on corn, and another confined to hay and 
grass, the difference in value would be a thousand per cent.; and in first- 
class hunters, though not so great as this, it would be very considerable. 
But among inferior horses, on the average, it would scarcely reach the 
sum I have named as the prime cost of the oats ; and, therefore, though 
in the depth of winter a quartern or half a peck is generally given with a 
little bran, yet, when there is good grass, this is neither necessary nor is 
it economical. Shelter from the weather should, however, be afforded to 
colts of all classes during the winter season ; and unless they have this, 
they soon grow out of form and lose flesh, however well they may be fed. 
It is now fully recognised that warmth and protection from the rain 
encourage the growth of all our domestic animals ; but in none are they 
more influential than in the one which I am now discussing. A colt neg- 
lected in its fijst winter never recovers its proper shape, nor does it grow 
into the size and strength of body and limbs which naturally appertain to 
its brood. Independently, therefore, of the cruelty in exposing the young 
animal to a climate for which it is not fitted, the plan does not pay; and 
on the latter account, if not on the former, even the most heartless, who 
consider their own interests, wiU. make suitable provision for protecting 
their young horse-stock from the inclemency of our winter climate. 

The foal should be handled from the very first Aveek of its existence ; 
but there is no occasion to use it roughly iai accustoming it to the pressure 
of the hand on all parts of its body and limbs. If this process is veiy 
gradually commenced, no resistance will at any time be offered, and the 



WEANING. 163 

foal -will allow its feet to be picked up, and its head and ears to be rubbed, 
v/ithout taking offence. Grooms are sometimes in. the habit of showing 
off their powers in this way, by taking the foal up in their arms ; but this 
can do no good, and may possibly lead to injiuy of the walls of the 
abdomen. About the fourth or fifth month, and before weaning is com- 
menced, a light head-collar should be put on ; and after the foal is accus- 
tomed to its pressure, by repeatedly handling the part on successive days, 
a leading-rein should be buckled on, and the young thing enticed to follow 
the groom without any absolute coercion. At the same time, it must be 
made to feel that resistance is useless ; and if it begins to pull, it must on 
no account be allowed to get away, the groom yielding as long as the foal 
pulls straight back, but coercing it gently with a side strain. A carefully 
handled foal will rarely give any trouble in this way; but there is an 
astonishing variation in the power which different men have over the 
animal creation. Some will gain control without using the slightest vio- 
lence, while others will be always fighting with their charge, and after all 
will not be able to do nearly as much with them as their more quiet and 
clever rivals. The latter class should never be allowed to have anything 
to do with young horses ; and though there may be occasional exceptions 
which require severe measures, yet if once a man is found resorting to 
violence with a foal which he has had the maaiagement of from the first, 
he should, in my opinion, be removed from his post; or, at all events, he 
should be carefully watched, and a repetition of the offence ought to be 
considered as a notice to quit. Long before the coming among us of 
Mr. Earey, this was recognised amongst the most extensive breeders of 
horses in this country; and though cruelty was not unknown among 
them, any more than it is now, it was fully recognised as not only an 
unnecessary but an unsatisfactory means of mastering the horse. 

THE WEAN"I1^G AKD AFTEE TEEATMENT OE THE EOAL. 

The usual age for weaning the foal is about the end of the sixth 
month, that time being selected because the dam is generally about 
"half gone" with her next foal, and cannot bear the double drain upon 
her system. ITor does the foal benefit much by the milk after this age, 
the teeth and stomach being quite strong enough to crop and digest the 
succulent grasses that are to be had from August to October, those being 
the months during which the several breeds attain the middle of their 
first year. If the autumn is a dry one, and grass is scanty, a few steamed 
turnips or carrots may be mixed with bran and given to the foal night and 
morning; but, as a rule, unless it is to be highly forced into its growth 
for the purpose of early racing, it wall require only the grass which it can 
pick up when it is turned out. Three or four foals are generally placed 
together in the same paddock for company, and in this way they miss 
their dams far less than if confined by themselves. Care should be taken 
that nothing is left withia their reach which can do injury, every fence 
and gate bemg carefully examined to see that no projecting bolt, nail, or 
rad is likely to lay hold of their bodies or limbs as they gallop about in 
their play. Eoals of all ages are mischievous animals, and the better fed 
they are the more incUned they seem to lay hold of anything which 
attracts their notice. 

Besides the shelter of a hovel, which I have already insisted on, the 
foal requires throughout its first winter good feeding proportioned to ita 
breeding and the purposes for which it is intended. Eacing colts are 

h2 



164 THE HORSE. 

allowed three or four feeds of bruised oats with, steamed carrots or 
turnips, and sometunes steamed hay ; but the general plan is to give as 
much as they will eat of the best upland hay, in its natural state, after 
they have finished their allowance of corn. Young stock intended to be 
sold as hunters and first-class carriage-horses are always allowed half a 
peck of bruised oats, and a few carrots and turnips will not be thrown 
away iipon them. Hacks, and inferior yoruig stock of all kinds, get 
tlu'ough the winter upon hay and barley-straw, part being sometimes cut 
into chaff, and mixed with a quartern of bran, daily ; and if they are very 
low in flesh, a few oats being added. During severe frosts the straw-yard 
is the best place for the foal, on account of the hardness of the ground in 
the fields, and here he will easdy keep himself warm and dry, and he can 
be attended to according to his wants. Let the breeder, however, con- 
stantly bear in mind that a check given to the growth in the first winter 
is never afterwards entirely recovered, and that if the colt which has 
experienced it turns out well he would have been still better without it. 

CASTEATIOl^. 

The opekation for converting the horse into the gelding is usually per- 
formed just before weaning, in the autumn of the first year, upon such 
colts as are intended for any purposes but those of the racecourse. Much, 
however, will depend upon the development of the individual, it being 
ascertained that the longer a colt remains uncut the more is the fore 
quarter developed, and especially the head and neck. If, therefore, these 
parts, as well as the shoulders, are already forward in their growth, the 
operation should be performed early ; while, if the contrary state exists, it 
should be deferred till a later period ; but it is seldom desirable to postpone 
it beyond the age of twelve months. As to the operation itself, the pre- 
paration necessary, and the subsequent treatment, fuU directions are given 
at page 577, et scq. 



CHAPTEE Xll. 

THE BREAKING OF THE COLT. 

MB. RABEY'S PBINCIPLES AND PRACTICE— ORDINABT METHOD OP BREAKING FOR THH 
SADDLE — SUPERIORITY OP THE LATTER WHEN PROPERLY CARRIED OUT — BREAKINO 
TO HARNESS — DR. BUNTING'S BREAK. 

The tear 1858 will ever be memorable in the annals of the English 
stable for the success of Mr. Earey and his partner, Mr. Goodenough, in 
extracting 25,000Z. from the pockets of Enghsh horsemen by the promise 
of a new method of breaking and training the animal which they all loved 
so well, but so often found not quite obedient to their wills. The plans 
by wliich obedience was to be ensured were kept a profound secret, but 
to prove Mr. Earey's poAver, the French coaching stallion, Stafford, the 
English thoroughbred. Cruiser, and a grey colt in the possession of Mr. 
Anderson, of Piccadilly, all notoriously vicious, were privately subdued, 
and afterwards exhibited in public. Subscribers were invited to pay ten 
guineas each, with the engagement that as soon as five hundred names 



MR. RAREY'S MODE OF BREAKING. 165 

were put down, tlie American "would teach them iii classes, each suhscriber 
hinding hmiself, under a heavy penalty, to keep the secret. The result 
was that eleven hundred ladies and gentlemen paid their money, and kept 
then- promise so well that until the appearance of a small shilling volume, 
published by Messrs. Eoutledge and Co., which detailed the- whole process, 
in the very words given to the American pubHc some years before by Mr. 
Earey, no one but the subscribers had any certain knowledge of the secret, 
although it subsequently appeared that it had oozed out, and had been 
propounded in several directions as a rival scheme of much older date. 
However, it is not now my intention to attempt the discovery of the 
inventor of the system generally known as Earey's, my sole object being 
to ascertain its real worth in breaking young stock, and in remedying or 
curing the vices to which older horses are occasionally subject. It will be 
seen hereafter that though I think the plan of great service in some cases, 
I doubt its utility as an aid to the breaker; but, having cost the country 
far more than 25,000^., and having received the approval of hundreds of 
experienced horsemen, it would ill becoine me to pass the subject over 
Avithout giving reasons for the conclusions to which I have arrived. I 
was not one of the original subscribers, but I have seen Mr. Earey exhibit 
his extraordinary jjowers over the horse more than a dozen times, so that 
I am in a position to form an opinion upon the whole process as compared 
with our ordinary Enghsh methods, with which I have also long been 
practically acquainted. 

In his public demonstrations Mr. Earey always commenced by some 
introductory remarks on the natural history of the horse, in which there 
was nothing to impress the auditor \Adth any great respect for his powers. 
At the end of this act, which was evidently intended to kdl time, we were 
put in possession of the three fundamental principles of the new theory of 
the proper management of the horse, namely : — 

First, " That he is so constituted by nature that he will not offer resist- 
ance to any demand made of him which he fidly comprehends, if made in 
a way consistent with the laws of his nature." 

Secondly, " That he has no consciousness of his strength beyond his 
experience, and can be handled accorchng to our will without force." 

Thirdly, " That we can, in compliance with the laws of his nature, by 
which he examines all things new to him, take any object, however 
frightful, around, over, or on him, that does not inflict pain, without 
causmg him to fear." 

1^0 one will, I believe, dispute the first two of these princijjles, which 
have certainly nothing very novel in them. The third, when promulgated, 
was more opposed to our experience, and a demonstration of its truth was 
naturally enough required before it was accepted. To comply with this 
demand horse after horse was submitted to an exhausting and painful 
proof, which I shall presently describe, and then certainly anything which 
did not inflict pain was borne without apparently producuig fear. This, 
therefore, was provmg the letter of the third principle ; but was the spirit 
of it established 1 The words just quoted, if they mean anything, signify 
that it is only necessary to allow a horse to examine the drum and he will 
show no fear of it. But is this the real fact 1 I troAV not. Before a high- 
couraged horse will allow a drum to be beaten on his back he must either 
submit to a long course of training under the old system, or he must go 
through the royal road of Mr. Earey, of which nothing whatever is said 
in the three principles alluded to. Take an ordinary hunter after he is 
exhausted by a long run, and he will bear the noise of a drum, or any 



166 THE HORSE. 

other alarming agent, to ^vliich lie would, when fresh and active, show the 
greatest objection. AVhy, then, should we be astonished that a shorter 
method of exhausting the nervous energy should have the same effect, 
even if it is shown in a still more remarkable manner, as we shall presently 
see it is? As far, therefore, as ]\Ir. Earey's principles are concerned I 
have little to say against them, except that if the third is meant to apply 
to the exhibition of the drum beaten on the backs of his several subjects, 
it is not very ingenuous in the language which is used. 

Before Mr. Earey came to England he had, as I have abeady 
remarked, published in America a little pampldet which described his 
several plans for driving a colt from pasture ; — driving into a stable and 
haltering, and the kind of halter used, &c. It also contained an account of 
an experiment with a robe, showing that the horse, as soon as he discovers 
by his senses that an object has no power or will to hurt him, goes up to 
it, and soon becomes regardless of its presence. AU these remarks, how- 
ever, have no interest for my readers, as they are of no utUity whatever, 
and the sole remaining contents of the pages which were published by 
Messrs. Eoutledge, and received with so much interest in this country, 
were the directions for throwing the horse, and afterwards handling, oi 
'' gentling " him, as the American operator calls the stroking the hmbs, 
which he always puts into practice after the horse is down. If this little 
book had been published a few months earlier it would have entirely 
destroyed the pecuniary prospects of the partners, but coming- late as it 
did, it prevented the payment of any more ten guinea subscriptions, 
and reduced the charge for the sight of the process to guinea and half- 
guinea tickets for seats at the Alhambra. I shall, therefore, proceed 
to describe the casting process, as witnessed by myself, and then 
examine into its nature and effect upon tho horse, whether in breaking 
or taming him. 

The apparatus which is requixed is, first of all, an ordinary snaffle or 
straight bit in the mouth, without which nothing could be done \Yith any 
vicious horse ; and if any animal is to be " Eareyfied," the preliminary 
operation is to get this into tho mouth. Stafford was brought to Mr. Earey 
with the aid of guide-ropes, which were fastened to his head and held by 
grooms on each side. In him, therefore, this first essential point was 
accomplished. Cruiser also had a halter, strengthened with iron, and in 
him also there was a means of laying bold of the head, which was eagerly 
seized by the operator. The plan adopted in his case was to fix an iron 
staple to the door-post, and then running through this a strong leather 
strap, to which a spring hook was attached, the opportunity was seized 
when the horse came open-mouthed to the door, and he was securely laid 
hold of and drawn up to the staple, so as to compel him to allow the 
introduction of a bit. The grey colt at Mr. Anderson's was bitted; but 
the zebra was loose in his cage, and I do not at all know how the gag in 
which he was exhibited was forced into Ms mouth, but I beheve it was 
effected by a rope thro^RTi round his neck and drawn up to the bars of 
his cage. 

The second part of the apparatus is the leg-strap for the near fore leg, 
being very similar to a stirrup-leather, which, Avith the addition of a 
strong loop, can be made to answer the same purpose very well. Before 
applying this strap, which at once makes the horse harmless for offence, 
he must be rendered approachable, which, in ordinaiy animals, is effected 
merely with the aid of tlie bridle. In Stafford, however, as I before 
remarked, guide-ropes were used; and in the case of Cruiser, he was 



THE LEG STRAP. 



167 



enticed up to a waggon loaded with hay, under which was Mr. Earey, and 
through the wheel of which this leg-strap was quietly and cautiously 




earey's leg strap. No. 1. 



buckled on his leg. As soon as this is done the horse is innocent of all 
mischief except with his teeth, for he cannot kick on three legs, and even 
his mouth may be kept away from the operator by drawing on the off 




CRUISER WITH THE LEG STRAP AND SUROINGLH ON. 



rein. To bring him speeddy to submit to the power of the operator, the 
other leg must also be confined, which is effected by first buckling 
on a surcingle, as represented in the last engraving, and then catching 
the off fetlock in the running noose of leg-strap 'No. 2, which is made 
in the annexed form. Provided with this second strap in his pocket, 
and having already applied the leg-strap No. 1, and the surcingle as 
shown above, the subject under manipulation is either induced to drop 
his off foot into the noose, or it is slipped round his ancle, while the 



1G8 



THE HORSE. 



off rein is held by tlie other hand to keep the teeth off the operator. 
As soon as this loop is firmly drawn round the leg, the other end 




MR. raret's strap. No. 2. 



is slipped through the surcingle under the belly, and entire control of 
the horse is only a work of time. The arrangement of these straps is 
well shown in the engraving, where Cruiser is sketched ready for the final 




cruiser in the power of his master. 



struggle. Up to this time, almost every horse will be tolerably quiet and 
unresisting, some squealing when any approach is made to tlieir elbows to 
tighten the surcingle, and others when the strap Xo. 2 is slipped through 
it. Few, however, plimge mi;ch ; and if they are made to hop on three 
legs, they are able to go on for so long a time, without producing the 
necessary amount of fatigue, that tlie operator would be tired before his 



THE HORSE BOUNDING ON HIS HIND LEGS. 



169 



pupil It is at this stage — that is to say, with the use of the leg-strap 
No. 1 — that the predecessors of Mr. Earey stopped, and they consequ.ently 
failed to gain the absolute control which he has invariably obtained with 
the slight, but really important, additions which he has made, and which 
he uses in the ingenious manner which I shall now describe. It may be 
observed that, with a violent horse, it is always better to let him feel his 
want of power for doing mischief with the near fore leg strapped up, and 
the slight degree of fatigue which a few minutes' hopping will produce, 
before the second strap is called into play, especially if the operator has 
not acquired gi-eat skill in the use of the apparatus. When this is done, 
and the second strap is applied, and slipped tlirough the surcingle, as 
shown at page 168, taking care to put a stout glove on the right hand, 
the left rein is taken in the left hand, and gently jerked — using, if 
necessary, the usual slight stimulus with the tongue, to make the horse 




THE HOUSE BOUNDING ON HIS HIND LEGS. 



move, which he can only do by raising the off fore leg off the ground in 
the action known as hopping. The moment this begins, the right hand 
firmly draws the off leg up to the surcingle, and keeps it there, when the 
horse must either bound into the air on his hind legs, or he must go down 
on the ground, supported from falling on his side in the attitude of 
kneeling. To avoid mischief, therefore, the loose-box or yard where the 
operation is carried on should be thickly bedded with straw; for no knee- 
caps are stout enough to protect the joints froin injury on hard ground; 
nor, if they escape being bruised, will the shock to the body on falling 
be at all safe. Even straw can hardly be relied on, if the floor beneath is 
of brick, stone, pebbles, or hard natural soil ; for it is apt to give way 
during the struggles of the horse, and allow the knees to reach it without 
the intended protection. AVhen, therefore, there is no tanned riding- 



170 



THE HORSE. 



school, or otlier similar surface, at command, a good solid bed of manure 
(which is always to be had wherever horses are) should be spread a foot 
thick at least, and over this clean straw may be laid. To return to the 
subject of the operation, whom we left with the alternative of bounding 
in the air on his hind legs, or falling on his knees in the annexed attitude, 
the chief art in managing this part of the process is to keep firm hold of 
the strap attached to the off leg close to the surcingle ; the hand being 
protected by the glove, can easily prevent it from sHpping through during 
the struggles of the horse, and at the same time serves as a point d'appui 
for the operator, so that he can follow the movements of the bounding 
annual in whatever direction he may progress. The operator must on no 
account attempt to stand away from his patient, nor must he advance 
before the girth-place ; but keeping close to this, he is in no danger, pro- 




THE HORSE ON HIS KNEES, ABOUT TO FALL ON HIS SIDE. 



vided he has the sense and the ability to give way if the horse should 
throw himself down towards his side. Tlie rein, being still held in 
the left hand, prevents the horse fallmg away from the operator, and is 
also used by him as a means of guiding the animal, if he happens to pro- 
gress in a direction which is not desired. Nothing else is to be attempted 
till the horse has quite exhausted all his energies, which those possessed 
of high courage will soon do ; but low-bred animals are very apt to turn 
sulky, and, refusing to plunge, remain on their knees, in spite of every 
kind of stimulus Avhich can be given them short of severe punishment 
with the whip, which is to be avoided, as opposed to the principles on 
which the Avliole process is founded. By taking time with these brutes, 
they may always be made to tire themselves, for the kneeling position is 
very irksome to them, and the most stubborn will give a plunge now and 



HINTS TO OPERATORS. 171 

then to relieve themselves, though they will not follow up one with 
another as speedily as a thoroughbred. Sooner or later (the time varying 
from ten minutes to two or tlu-ee hours), the tail hegins to tremhle, the 
flanks heave, and a profuse perspiration breaks out, which are signs that 
the horse of himself desires the recumbent position, and will lie down of 
his own accord, if not pulled over by the right hand of the operator. Mr. 
Earey, in his puhlic exhibitions, has never, as far as I am aware, waited 
for this to take place, hut, perhaps to prevent wearying his audionce, has 
always pulled his patient over on his side as soon as he could accomplish 
the feat. In many cases, this impatience has led to a partial failure ; the 
horse, not heing tired out, has refused to si;bmit, and it has only been 
after repeating the process once or twice that complete control has heen 
ohtained. Those gentlemen, therefore, who wish to try the experiment 
for themselves will do well to avoid any risk of a repetition, wliich they 
may not he ahle to manage with the dexterity of the great American 
tamer. Let them wait till the horse is thoroughly tired, and then onlv 
interfere to such an extent as to keep him leaning towards their side, 
hy laying hold of the right rein instead of the left, as shown in the 
engraving at page 169; and drawing the head away from themselves. 
Mr. Earey generally used the right hand for this purpose, when he wished 
to throw his patient hefore he was exhausted, hecause he could in that 
way employ more force ; and, at the same time, his dexterity was such, 
that, if a hound was made, he was always ready to hold the strap attached 
to the off foot hefore the horse could get fairly on liis hind legs. In 
whichever way the task is accomplished, the effect is apparently the same 
— the horse lies extended on his side, panting and sweating, in the most 
exhausted condition ; but, of course, showing more of these symptoms of 
distress the longer he has heen kept resisting the restraints put upon him. 
JN'ow comes the test of the practical ahility of the operator ; for whereas 
hefore he had only plain directions to carry out, he has at tliis stage to 
judge how far his efforts are successful. If he takes off the straps too 
soon, the patient is patient no longer, hut rises rapidly, and perhaps 
rewards him hy planting a severe hlow on his rihs. It is here that Mr. 
Earey displayed his great skill to perfection. Apparently hy intuition, he 
knew when his pupil was mastered; but, as he was always ready to 
explain, it was really hy two symptoms that he judged whether he had 
gained the mastery or not. One of these was the expression of the eye, 
which it would he difficult to describe, and which experience alone could 
adequately convey to those who wish to understand it ; but the other, heing 
readily tested, is within the reach of every one. This consists in the 
entire flaccidity of the muscles of the neck and limbs ; and until this is 
ascertained to have heen ohtained, the straps should not he entirely 
removed. Mr. Earey's plan of proceeding at this stage was the following. 
A second or two after the horse went down, he let him raise his head, and 
then dragged it down again to the ground by the mane. On rcpeatino' 
this once, twice, or thrice, the animal would give in as far as that part 
was concerned ; and being rewarded with a pat of the hand, the head 
remained still on the ground, and that part was "gentled." Next re- 
moving the leg straps, the fore legs were separately gently rubhed down- 
wards ; and on being lifted, and let fall, as if dead, thsy also were passed 
as in a similar satisfactory state. The operator then going round by the 
hack, proceeded to gentle the hind limhs ; and though, in vicious horses, 
ho sometimes had narrow escapes of being kicked, yet, hy his great activity 
and clever mode of seizing liis opportunity, he always succeeded in keeping 



172 



THE HORSE. 



out of harm's Avay. Finally, the operator passed in front of the legs, 
and performed all the usual " clap-traps " of putting his head between 
them, knocking the hind and fore shoes together, standing on the body, 
&c. Wliile in this state, the horse lies in the attitude and with the 
expression which is very well represented in the accompanying sketch, 
and there he wHl gladly lie as long as he is permitted to do so. But he 
is not to be allowed to recruit his powers ; and as soon as he had gone 
through the tricks which I have described, Mr. Earey made him rise, and 
then showed that the power wliich he had gained was not lost as soon as 
the animal stood on his legs again. Calling for a saddle, it was in every 
case shown to the horse, and put first on his head, then on_ his neck, 
and finally in its proper place. The animal then always submitted to be 
mounted, and even allowed the dangerous plan recommended and adopted 
by Mr. Earey, of standing close to the hind-quarter while putting the foot 




THE HORSE TAMED. 



in' the stirrup, to be carried out without kicking, which before the " Earey- 
fication " most of the vicious brutes operated on in pubHc would probably 
have done. 

By this PLA.N, it is indisputable that any active man, of good temper, 
but possessed of firmness and courage, and accustomed to deal with horses, 
may gain such a control over even the most vicious, that he can do what 
he liices with them in-doors. N'o one who has examined into the matter 
can doubt Mr. Eare/s power, nor can he refuse him the merit of im- 
proving upon the old system of controlling the horse, by the addition of 
the second leg strap, which adds so much to the power of the human 
arm, that the most violent and muscular horse has no chance whatever,; 
The secret lies in two essential features ; first, that the horse must never 
be coerced or resisted unless the man is certain of success in controlling 
him ; and, secondly, that when the former is thoroughly convinced of his 



CONCLUSIONS. 173 

powerless condition, and his muscles are tired out, tlie latter interferes 
and relieves him of his trammels, " gentles " him, gives him kind wordsy 
and at length encourages him to rise. The effect is marvellous — the most 
vicious brute, who would previously tear any man to pieces, after he in 
thus first coerced, and then " gentled " and relieved, appears to grow fond 
of his master, and follows him about like a dog. Clearly, therefore, Mr. 
Rarey may be considered as having been eminently successful in pro- 
pounding a system of J^orse-taminff ; but it by no means follows that his 
process is equally, or even at all, useful iii hoYBQ-hreaJdng. There are 
other questions, also, which remain to be considered in relation to the 
method which I have described. First, Is it permanent quoad the indi- 
vidual who has carried it out 1 secondly, Does the vicious horse who has 
been subdued and "gentled" by one man, show the same absence of vice 
towards others 1 and thirdly. Is he injured m any way by the operation ? 
On the first of these points there appears to be strong evidence that, if 
the operator gives occasionally a very slight reminder of his powers, the 
effect of one, two, or three lessons, repeated at short intervals, will con- 
tinue for at least a year or two. There are numerous instances which 
have come to my knowledge of horses resuming their vicious habits 
witliin two or three months of receiving such a lesson from Mr. Earey 
that they would allow him to do what he liked with them ; but in the 
case of the savage Cruiser, there is reason to believe that he never once 
rebelled against his master from the time that he first gave in. In his 
case, however, the operation was repeated hundreds of times ; and there- 
fore it does not go so far as I have tated to be the rule, but others might 
be adduced which keep strictly within it ; and there are also private indi- 
viduals who have practised on horses which have never been exhibited in 
public who have kept up their control unimpaired. Tlie evidence m 
favour of the lasting nature of the controlling power, when exercised by 
the operator himself, is too strong to be gainsaid : and the first question 
may, I think, be safely answered in the affirmative. But in reference to 
the second, the evidence is all the other way ; and on putting Cruiser into 
the witness-box, he would tell us that he has several times turned against 
his groom, and put his life in danger. Still, it must be remembered that, 
prior to his treatment by " Rarey fication," no man dared enter his box ; 
and on comparing his two states, before and afterwards, it may be truly 
said, that though not absolutely cured of his vicious propensities, he is 
comparatively so. Probably the same conclusion may be arrived at in 
those cases which are related of relapses from virtue to vice ; but, at all 
events, such instances are numerous enough, and attested in a manner so 
respectable, that every possessor of a coerced horse should be always on 
his guard. The last question is somewhat difficult to answer, because the 
injury, if real, is not apparent. The chief means of testing the effect is on 
the powers of racehorses, several of which have felt Mr. Earey's straps, 
and been controlled by his master hand. JSTow, I believe there is no 
instance of a horse which had gone through the operation, doing any good 
subsequently on the turf All have shown either a want of speed or 
heart; and whatever has been the cause of this, they have run behind 
those animals whose form was considered by good judges to have been 
previously inferior to them. Thus, Mr. Merry's Miss Finch, when she 
first appeared, beat several fields of first-class two-year-olds ; and it Avas 
generally beheved, when she afterwards was beaten, that it was only 
because her temper was so bad. Yet when this defect was so far remedied 
by the process I am considering, that Mr. M. Dawson could ride her con- 



174 THE HORSE. 

stantly as a hack without much inconvenience, she never recovered her 
racing powers, and neither in private (as I have been informed), nor in 
pubHc certainly, did she ever exhibit any approach to her former speed. 

On the whole, therefore, it may fairly be concluded that Mr. Rareys 
plans are well adapted for the control of vicious horses, supposing they 
are not subsequently wanted for the turf, in which case the utility of the 
process is very questionable. As, however, all our horses are not vicious, 
and as by the casting and gentling nothing more is effected than a general 
control, it remains to be considered how far this is useful in breaking 
colts for general purposes. My own behef is that it acts by producing 
in the horse a compound feeling of fear and gratitude, the former being 
the result of his fruitless efforts to get rid of the controlling hand of man, 
and the latter being established from finding that hand relieve him of his 
straps and then caress and " gentle " him. If, therefore, any horse, even 
without vice, is required to exhibit to his master or mistress any relations 
more intimate than those which are usually practised in this country, 
great advantage will residt from the establishment of this fear and grati- 
tude. With the exception, however, of cavalry and circus horses, we 
generally content ourselves with that amount of intercourse which is 
acquired in the saddle, and we do not want our hacks to exhibit tricks, 
nor do we require them to follow us about at liberty like our dogs. It 
has been attempted to show that this particular plan gets rid of a great 
deal of cruelty to the horse, but this is altogether unfounded, for long 
before the great American trainer made his appearance, writers on the 
horse had denounced its use, and though many cruelly severe breakers 
and grooms existed, as they still exist, yet they were exceptions to the 
general rule. Cavahy horses, especially when on service, are required to 
submit to the control of the men in many ways which are never in demand 
for hacking or hunting, and the mere power of compelling the horse to 
lie down and remain on the ground is worth a great deal of trouble to 
acquu'e. As far as they are concerned, I think the use of Mr. Earey's 
straps most valuable ; and it must be remembered that this was all that the 
Canadian military authorities certified in their recommendations which 
Mr. Earey brought with him across the Atlantic. The clever management 
of his partner, Mr. Goodenough, and the profound secrecy maintained for 
so long, carried the public away far beyond this, and, as in the fable of the 
fox who had lost his tail, all those who had spent their ten guineas were 
anxious to place their friends in the same predicament. This is the only 
way in which I can account for the extraordinary conclusions to which so 
many practised horsemen arrived in 1858. Since that time, it is true, 
the fashion has subsided, and a more temperate view has been taken, the 
general opinion of good judges being, I beheve, pretty much in accordance 
with those which I have always held publicly and privately, and which I 
have here endeavoured to convey to my readers. 

Before proceeding to inquire into the merits of Mr. Eare/s plan as 
compared with our own mode of breaking, it will be well to describe 
what the latter is, and then ascertain which is the best mode of carrying 
out our object. Itfo horseman in this country would dream of using 
the animal he intends to ride or drive without the control of a bit, 
and although he may aid this powerful instrument with his voice, his'V 
leg, his whip, or his spur, yet it always has been, and still is, the 
chief agent in the management of the horse. Again, no colt is to be 
considered as broken until his rider or driver has altered his paces, 
and given him such an action in the walk, trot, canter, and gallop, or 



ORDINARY ENGLISH METHOD. 175 

in some two or tliree of these paces, that he has become pleasant and 
safe. Now the plans which I have just described do not effect either 
of these objects, indeed their tendency is rather to interfere with the 
making of a good moiith, for the bit will sometimes cut the angles of the 
lips and in this way tend to make it afterwards dull. I do not mean to 
assert that this is necessarily carried far enough by Mr. Earey to make his 
plan objectionable on that account, but merely that if anything is done 
towards breaking a colt, it is injurious rather than beneficial, with the 
single exception of the estabhshment of a mental control, which, as I shall 
presently show, is not wanted in more than one or two per thousand of 
our horses. 

THE ORDmAEY ENGLISH METHOD OF BREAKING FOR 
THE SADDLE. 

In this country the breaker of the hack is not only supposed to produce 
in his pupil what is called a good " mouth," but also to teach him the use 
of his legs, so as to give a pleasant feel to his rider in the walk, trot, and 
gallop, and in the canter, where specially required. The racehorse is 
only "mouthed" and "backed," his subsequent education being confided 
to the trainer ; and the hunter, in addition to these developments, is 
taught to get over the various fences which he is likely to meet with, in a 
clever manner. Each class must, therefore, go through the same prelimi- 
nary process, which consists in producing a good mouth, and in making 
the colt bear his rider patiently in the saddle. To effect these objects 
when the colt is running at large he must be caught and haltered, and I 
shall now proceed to show how the matter is effected ah initio. In doing 
this it will be necessary to examine into the best apparatus for carrying 
it out. 

The halter, which in this country is generally first used, is the ordi- 
nary one, made of hemp-webbing, for the head, with a running eye in the 
back of the nose-piece, in which runs a stout rope attached to the head. 
Thoroughbred colts are always made to carry a light leather head-stall 
from the end of their first year, and so, indeed, are all well-bred yearlings 
of any value. The large mass of colts run unhaltered till they are to be 
broken, which is generally commenced when they are three-year-olds. 
Ponies and small hacks are then often taken into use, the latter being 
quietly ridden by the breeder' for his own purposes till they are four or 
five years old, when they are sold. Mr. Rarey recommends for all pur- 
poses a leathern halter, made like an ordinary head-stall, but rather 
lighter. This is at once put on the colt, and by buckling a leading-strap 
to the nose-band, either before or behind, anything may be done Avhich is 
required, short of mounting. Two small billets and buckles attach any 
bit which may be selected to the rings which connect the cheek pieces to 
the nose-band, and thus the halter is converted into a very useful breaking 
bridle. It wants, however, the stiff padded nose-band of the cavesson, 
but this is only required with very violent and determined colts. The 
annexed engraving represents Mr. Rarey's halter-bridle, with his ordinary 
breaking bit, 

^- The bit which is usually employed in England for colts is a heavy 
smooth snaffle, with a tongue-piece and keys depending from its central 
linlc. For racing colts a very excellent bit has lately been extensively 
introduced, consisting in a mere smooth ring of iron, with a loop on 
the upper part for attachment to the head-stall, in the same way as in 



176 



THE HORSE. 



Mr. Earey's bridle. In front of this loop the ring is introduced into the 
mouth, and the back of the circle takes the leading rein, which is thus 
allowed to slip on either side, and keep a secure hold of the jaw however 
much the colt may pull at it. I have a dislike to the snaffle for colts, 
because I have found it constantly pressing on one corner of the mouth 
more than the other, the anijnal putting his head on one side, and leanin» 
upon that half of the mouthpiece, so as to relieve each side, of the jaw 
alternately, instead of allowing the two divisions of the snaffle to bear 
equally on the angles of the mouth. I much prefer a bit made with an 




MK. RAEET S HALTEE OR BRIDLE FOR COLTS, 



unjointed mouthpiece, curved in a segment of a cu-cle, "with the usual 
tongue-piece and keys attached to the middle by a roller. This ciu'ved 
mouthpiece should have smooth rings turned upon it, which will prevent 
the horse from rubbing his lips from side to side, and tend to form a very 
pleasant and delicate mouth. I have known it used with great success in 
breaking hundreds of colts, and I have myself found its advantages in 
a great number of horses, young as well as old. These, together with a 
martingale, buckling on to the bit, are all that are required for making 
the mouth. 

In addition to the apparatus for this part of the colt's education, arrange- 
ments must also be made for accustoming him to bear the weight of tho 



BREAKING. 177 

rider, and for attacliing tlie Lit to some part of the body. In commencing 
the breaking it is customary to put on merely a roller with a leathern 
surcingle over it, kept in its place by a crupper, which, for facility of putting 
on, should have a buckle on one side. In front of the surcingle, on each 
side, two buckles are stitched, serving to attach the reins either high up, 
or even crossed over the withers, or low down, or sometimes both high 
and low. Until mthin the last thirty or forty years, what is called a 
dumb jockey was always attached to the roller, but this is generally now 
dispensed with, though with the elastic reins introduced by Mr. Black- 
well I think it may be made very useful. Lastly, to the crupper long 
hanging straps are attached, so as to accustom the young animal to the 
pressure of the coat or habit. Provided with this apparatus, and with a 
long leading rein of webbing, the breaker is prepared to subdue the 
wildest colt. 

The first thing to be done is to get a halter or headstall on, which is 
only to be effected either in a stable or similar enclosed place, or among a 
herd of other horses, when the colt is so closely packed in that he cannot 
move. Every one must have seen the Welsh and Irish drovers rush into 
the middle of a herd, and seizing an unbroken colt round the neck, hold 
him till a halter is slipped over his head. The same plan greatly facili- 
tates the haltering of any colt; but a couple of steady horses are quite 
enough to keep a colt steady in any building or small yard. The breaker 
arranges so as to have one on each side, and then going up between them, 
he has the colt held for him while he very slowly and quietly insinuates 
his hand, with the head of the halter in it, over the neck, just behind the 
ears. With a little dexterity, this is soon done, and then the nose-band 
being slipped into its place, a good hold can be secured. Every horseman 
must, however, agree with Mr. Earey, that the rope halter with a running 
noose is most improper, and that a leathern headstall should always be 
chosen. It is quite true, that a single turn of the cord of the halter into 
a half-hitch prevents all mischief, and this is done by good breakers ; but 
the headstall or cavesson should be put on as soon as possible, and the 
former may be Avorn constantly till the breaking is complete. With the 
leading-reiu attached to the nose-band, the breaker can now restrain the 
colt from getting away ; and, by kind Avords and gentle treatment, the 
young animal soon becomes accustomed to his presence, and will allow 
him to approach and handle him all over. When this is borne easily, he 
may be led out about the fields, and green lanes if there are any ; but 
whde he continues to resent the approach of moving objects by violent 
bounds, nothing should be put in his mouth out-of-doors. If he is very 
wild and ungovernable, he may be made to trot gently round and round 
in a circle on some soft ground, the breaker at first following him up, but 
soon being enabled to "longe" him while standing in the centre. After 
a day or two, the breaking-bit already described may be slipped into his 
mouth, and attached in the way shown in the engraving at page 176. It 
should, however, only be allowed to hang there without reins at first, and 
it may either be kept on while the colt is being led about, or for an hour 
or two daily while in the stable. In this way the jaw and lips become 
accustomed to the pressure of the bit, and lose the painful sensation which 
it at first occasions. If, on the other hand, the reins are at once buckled 
on, and are then strained tightly back to the surcingle, or dumb-jockej'', 
the delicate mucous membrane becomes sore, and even ulcerated, and th(? 
foundation is laid for that dull, unyielding mouth which is so objection- 
able on every account. 

M 



178 THE HORSE. 

It should never be forgotten, that the mouth is the foundation upon 
which all the subsequent proceedings are to be conducted. A horse may 
naturally have fine action, and he may be so framed that, if he were pro- 
perly bitted, he would be a delightful hack or hunter; but if his mouth is 
spoiled in breaking, his fine action is thrown away, because it cannot be 
regulated and controlled by such a trifling exercise of strength in the 
hand and arm as is consistent with riding for pleasure. Many a pulling 
brute has won a steeplechase, or shown to advantage in the hunting-field, 
with a professional " up," which would not be ridden for ten minutes by 
an amateur who could afford to make his own selection. Hence, the first 
thing which the breaker has to set about is the formation of a good mouth; 
and this is exactly what Mr. Earey's plans fail to provide, and, indeed, it 
is what they interfere ynth. in a great degree, as I have observed at 
page 175. Well, then, let us examine into the received mode of obtaining 
a good mouth in England. M. Baucher has carried the European prin- 
ciples of producing it to a very high degree, and it will be necessary to 
allude to his plans also ; but, on the whole, I cannot but think them 
superfluous for ordinary purposes, and should be perfectly content with a 
horse broken in the best English methods, which now combine the " sup- 
plings " of the great French breaker with the old dead pressure adopted 
in the methods of our ancestors. The difi'erence between the two is 
mainly this, that we in England content ourselves with confining the head 
by the reins in a position which, while it does not compel the horse to 
lean upon his bit, yet makes him try to avoid its pressure by bending his 
neck, and thus rendering its muscles supple. M. Baucher, on the con- 
trary, prefers that the whole of this suppling shall be performed by the 
pressure of the breaker's hand ; and, doubtless, his is the best plan, if the 
man employed is competent to the task, and the time thus devoted can 
be afforded. It takes a fortnight or three weeks to " make " a horse's 
mouth, so far as to fit him to bear the hands of his rider, in either way; 
but as less than two hours a day during that time will not sufiice, and as 
in the one case the horse supples himself, while in the other a man must 
effect the change, M. Baucher's method costs twenty-eight hours of skilled 
labour, in addition to subsequent breaking, and it is therefore very ex- 
pensive. The course of proceedings which good English breakers now 
adopt is as follows. The bit having been allowed for some days to remain 
in the mouth without reins, as already described, the breaker next pro- 
ceeds to attach a rein to it in the ordinary way, and to buckle this loosely to 
the surcingle or dumb-jockey, whichever he may employ. Mr. Blackwell's 
india-rubber reins are thought very liiglily of by some for this purpose; 
but, as far as I have tried them, I prefer plain leather, because I object to 
constant pressure, however slight, upon the mouth. A drop of water 
falling constantly and regidarly upon a stone will wear it away sooner 
than the same quantity dashed at once upon it; and, in the same manner, 
permanent gentle pressure upon the mouth is more irksome than a more 
severe occasional pull. The great art consists in shortening the reins so 
gradually, that the pressure can always be avoided by bending the neck, 
and this the horse soon learns to do ; and thus, at one and the same time, 
he gains control over his muscles, and inures his jaws and lips to the bit. 
It is generally necessary, wliile the " bitting " is going on, whether in the 
stable or at exercise, to fix the head down by a martingale, budded to 
each side of the bit ; for without tliis the horse, in his struggles to get rid 
of his restraints, will often toss his head so high as to do himself a serious 
injury. If the moutliing is conducted in the stable, the horse is either put 



BREAKING. 17S 

into a loose-bos (which is the best plau), or he is turned round in his stall, 
and kept in that position by buckling the ordinary pillar reins to each 
side of the bit. At first, the reins should hardly confine the head at all 
beyond the position in which it is naturally carried when the horse is 
excited; but each day a hole or two may be taken up, until 2uch pressiu-e 
is made, that the horse has a tendency to relieve his neck and shoulders 
by advancing his fore legs and rounding his neck. The best plan is to 
put on the breaking tackle for an hour in the stable, then loose the reins 
for a quarter of an hour ; after which the colt may be led out for his 
regidar daily exercise, and may be " longed " with the reins buckled more 
or less tightly, according to the experience of the breaker and the con- 
dition of the mouth. In most cases, the process is hurried far too much ; 
the breaker contracts to do all that is required for a given sum, varying 
from one guinea to three, and it is his object to spend as little time over 
each of his pupils as will serve to make them barely rideable. This is 
objectionable in principle, though it is very difficult to know how to 
improve upon it without running the risk of extortion ; but when a colt 
i^s to be broken for the use of the owner, or any of his family, he will do 
well to see that plenty of time is devoted to the formation of the mouth, 
and this I have already said should extend to a fortnight. If the breeder 
has a lot of colts which are to be placed in the breaker's hands, the latter 
can, with the assistance of a few lads, go on with a dozen at the same 
time, and in that way too great an outlay of money is avoided ; but if 
there is only one in his hands, he can hardly do justice to his employer at 
the ordinary rate. Hitherto I have only alluded to longeing, without 
describing it or alluding to the object with which it is adopted. I must 
now, however, say something more about it, because in this stage it 
becomes an important element of success. It may be remembered, that I 
have laid down a fortnight as the least interval which should elapse from 
the commencement of breaking before the colt is fit to be backed with 
safety to the breaker or his assistant. JSTot that he may not be ridden in 
much less time than this, but that if he is, it will be at the expense of his 
mouth. Longeing is a means of at once giving exercise in a short space 
of time, and also of accustoming the colt to use his limbs while some 
degree of pressure is made on the mouth by the bit, without giving him- 
self pain from moving the head. !N"ow, the act of keeping this part still 
necessitates an even and smooth style of going, and so all things work 
together to produce the pleasant feel which is given to the rider by a 
perfect hack. A good mouth may be acquired in the stable, but it is soon, 
spoiled out-of-doors, either by longeing in a hurried manner, or by the 
bad hands of the rider, whether breaker or subsequent user. To keep it, 
great care is required at every stage of breaking; and none but a man 
possessed of head, temper, seat, and hands can finish a colt as he should 
be turned out. Longeing, therefore, I hold to be a most important part 
of the art of breaking; and its absence from Mr. Rarey's principles and 
practice shows that he has taken the dull pulling mouth of the American 
horse as his model, and not the beautifully yielding, j-et steady one of the 
English hack. In the United States, where Mr. Earey acquii'ed his ex- 
traordinary powers, ridhig is little practised; and those horses which are 
used have leathern mouths, and are ridden with three legs, rather than 
with a pair of legs and a pair of hands, as with us. We need not, there- 
fore, be surprised that he has altogether overlooked the importance of 
acquiring a fine mcmth, and has regarded the mere control over the horse, 
in some way or other, no matter how, as the sole object to bo desired in 

n2 



180 THE HORSE. 

breaking. At length, when the breaker is satisfied that the colt has 
gained the power over his limbs at all paces, which he will have gradually- 
given him in his daily longes, by increasing the tightness of the reins and 
accelerating the pace, (taking care to change the direction of the circles,) 
he thinks it time to give his pupil the finishing lessons, which can only 
be done in the saddle. Before mounting, however, he is enabled to teach 
the colt the meaning of each pressure of the rein, which at first is utterly 
unintelligible. By taking both in each hand, and pressing backwards, 
he causes him to back ; and by drawing them forward, to proceed in 
that direction. The right hand moved to the right, makes the colt move 
his head, and afterwards his body, towards that side, and vice versd 
with the left hand. In this way, all is prepared for the mounting, wliich 
should be first attempted when the colt is somewhat tired after a long and 
steady longe. The breaker should, during the last week's daily exercise, 
put on a saddle instead of a roller and surcingle, keeping it in its place by 
loose gii'ths and a crupper. Every day he should bear occasionally upon 
the stirrups, smacking them against the saddle, and tlius accustoming the 
colt to noises, and also to pressure on his back. When all is ready, hfi 
has only to put his foot in the stirrup, standing with his back to the 
shoulder, and then, after partially rising two or three times, and coming 
down again, he finally plants himself firmly in the saddle. Most careful 
breakers have a roll of cloth buckled firmly in front of their saddles ; and 
with this ijrecaution, even if the colt bucks or kicks, it is almost impos- 
sible for him to dislodge them. When thus mounted, the breaker should 
be in no hurry, but let the colt get accustomed to the intruder. Let him 
wait tni the pupil has somewhat recovered from the shock, and then only 
let him urge him forward at as slow a pace as he likes. If all has been 
conducted well throughout the j)reliminary stages, and the colt is good- 
tempered, he will walk away quietly enough, and generally no trouble 
will be given for a day or two ; when, probably, there wiU. be some sHght 
fight, which may be either in causing the pupil to go where he does not 
want to go, or in making him face some object which frightens him. At 
first, neither whip nor sj^ur should be used, for the object of neither is 
understood ; and if the colt will not readily move forward, he should be 
led or driven by an assistant, and not whipped or spurred by his rider. 
In process of time, however, he is made gradually to understand these 
signs by the tact of the breaker; and then if he offends, he must be 
punished accordingly, but it must always be remembered that the fault 
must be met immediatelj'^, or not at all. 

The amusing and experienced author of " The Horse and his Eider " 
has drawn attention to the misconception of the differences in character 
between a wild horse and a tame one, which is entertained in this 
country. He says : " It is generally conceived that in the difficulty of 
sticking on to the back of a horse there exist three degrees of comparison, 
namely : — 

" 1. That it is rather difficult to ride a horse that has been broken in. 

" 2. That it is exceedingly difficult to ride a tame one that has not 
been broken in. 

" 3. That it must be almost impossible to mount and ride a wild horso 
just caught, that has never been broken in. 

" We will, however, humbly venture to assert that, in certain instances, 
the three steps of this httle ladder might be reversed. 

"1. In a state of nature the horse is such a zealous advocate of our 
popular principle of * seK-government/ he is so desirous to maintain his 



BREAKING. 181 

* independence/ that although he will allow almost any quadruped, even 
wolves and lions, to approach within a certain distance, yet the moment 
he sees a man, though on horseback, he instinctively turns his tail towards 
him, and, when followed, gallops away. 

" If, consequently, by the triumph of reason over instinct, he be caught, 
saddled, and if all of a sudden, to his vast astonislunent, he finds sitting 
astride his back, with a cigar in his mouth, the very human being he has 
always been avoiding; his first and almost only feeling is that of fear, and 
accordingly, if he be retained by the bridle, instantaneously, by a series of 
jumps on all four legs, he makes impromptu his first hurried, untaught, 
unpractised effort to dislocate a rider. But if, instead of being as it were 
invited to perform these unsophisticated antics, he be allowed, or rather 
by whip and severe spurs, be propelled to do what he most ardently 
desires, namely, run away, his power of resistance is over, and his subjec- 
tion inevitable. For at the top of his speed, just as Avhen swimming, a 
horse can neither rear, kick, nor plunge, and accordingly at his best pace 
he proceeds on his sure road to ruin, until not only all his wind is 
pumped out of him, but after that, until twisted hide-thong and sharp 
iron have converted his terror of man into an ardent desire to be obedient 
to his wUl. In fact, like a small nation that has unsuccessfully been con- 
tending against a great one, he Avishes to put an end to the horrors of 
war, and to sue for the blessings of peace. 

" 2. If a domestic horse that has never been broken in be suddenly 
saddled and mounted, the rider has greater difficulties to encounter than 
those just described : for the animal is not only gifted by nature with all 
the propensities of the wild horse to reject man, hut, from being better 
fed, he has greater strength to indulge in them ; besides which he 
enjoys the immense advantage of being in a civilized, or, in plainer terms, 
an enclosed country. Accordingly, instead of being forced to run away, 
his rider is particularly afraid lest he should do so, simply because he 
knows that the remedy which would cure the wild horse, would probably 
kill him. In fact, the difference to the rider between an open and an 
enclosed field of battle is exactly that which a naval officer feels in 
scudding in a gale of wind out of sight of land, and in being caught 
among sandbanks and rocks in a narrow channel. 

" 3. Of all descriptions of horses wild and tame, by far the most diffi- 
cult to ride is that young British thorough-bred colt of two or three years 
old that has been regularly ' broken in ' by himself, without giving the 
shghtest warning, to jump away sideways, spin round, and at the same 
moment kick off his rider. This feat is a beautiful and well-arranged 
combination of nature and of art. Like the pugilistic champion of 
England — Tom Sayers — he is a professional performer, gifted with so 
much strength and activity, and skilful in so many quick, artful tricks 
and dodges, that any country practitioner that comes to deal with him is 
no sooner uj) than down, to rise from his mother earth with a vague, 
bewildered, incoherent idea as to what had befallen him, or 'how he 
got there.' 

" If a horse of this description and a wild one in his o\fa. country were 
to be mounted there simultaneously, each by an equally good rider, both 
the quacbupeds probably at the same moment would be seen to run away; 
the Briton for ever, to gain his liberty; the other quadruped, ju.st as 
surely, to lose it ! " 

Nothing can better convey to the reader the difficulties which the 
English horse-breaker has to contend with, than this extract fi'om the 



10-z THE HORSE. 

pages of Sir F. B. Head, wlio lias had ample opportunities of judging 
both the varieties of the species which he describes, It shows the neces- 
sity for the cautious proceedings which I have endeavoured to describe as 
the proper mode of breaking our young horses, and which I am satisfied 
will enable the breaker to perform his task in a way which will be satis- 
factory to his employer. It may, however, be worth while to examine 
into the methods adopted in the French school, as first introduced by 
M. Baucher. 

His " Method of Horsemanship " was published nearly twenty years 
ago, and has been generally received on the continent, where the prin- 
ciples of the manege have always been more highly prized than in this 
country. The author tells us, as his first principle, " that all the resist- 
ances of young horses spring from a physical cause, and that this cause 
only becomes a moral one by the awkwardness, ignorance, and brutality 
of the rider. In fact, besides the natural stiffness peculiar to all horses, 
each of them has a peculiar conformation, the greater or less perfection of 
wliich constitutes the degree of harmony that exists between the forces 
and the weight. The want of this harmony occasions the ungracefulness 
of their paces, the difficulty of their movements — in a word, all the 
obstacles to a good education." To remove these defects, M. Baucher 
adopts certain methods of suppling the neck, in which he considers the 
chief obstacle to perfect action resides. Without going into the long 
details of the various supplings, it will be sufficient to describe the general 
division of the work which the author considers necessary. This, he 
thinks, must extend to two months, divided into one hundred and twenty 
lessons of half an hour each, two being given each day. During the first 
series of eight lessons, the breaker -sviU devote twenty minutes to the 
stationary exercise for the flexions of the jaw and neck, which can hardly 
be efficiently described without the illustrations given in the book itself 
During the remaining ten minutes, he will make the horse go forward at 
a Avalk, without trying to animate him ; applying himself all the time to 
keeping the horse's head in a perpendicular position. In the second 
series, comprising ten days, the first fifteen minutes will be occupied in. 
stationary supplings and backings, followed by an equal time devoted to 
moving straight ahead in the walk and trot. The rider, while taking care 
to keep the head in good place, will commence a sUght opposition of 
hand and legs, in order to give regularity to the paces. The third series, 
making up twelve days, will combine the previous supplings with 
2}irouettes; while the fourth and fifth series, making up the whole time, 
will go on to develop the various elementary paces of the manege. Now, 
in all this, it appears to me that we have only our best English modes of 
brealdng carried out to excess; and I am yet to learn that any great 
novelty has been introduced by this standard authority of the French 
school. 

SUPEEIOPJTY OF THE OEDIIfAEY METHOD. 

It will readily be gathered from what I have abeady %vritten that 
for breaking the average colt I greatly prefer the methods which have 
been in use for many years in this country. Mr. Earey is entitled to 
every credit for introducing a novel mode of controlling a vicious horse, 
which is also of service in training cavahy and circus horses. Beyond 
these departments, however, his plans etfect no good as far as my judgment 
goes, and instead of improving the mouth thej'- have a tendency to injure 
it. I have shown that time and patience are grand elements of success 



BREAKING TO HARNESS. 183 

iu horsebreaking, and that it is a disadvantage to hasten the process, 
which is all that Mr. Earey pretends to effect. We do not want to 
manage oiu? horses without reins, but on the contrary to guide them and 
stop them with the slightest possible touch consistent with the equi- 
librium to be maiatained in the saddle. Hence the first object is the 
formation of a good mouth, and as this requires a considerable time to 
develop, there are ample opportunities for gradually accustoming the colt 
to the presence and control of his master while it is being produced. If 
several breakers were to be pitted against each other as to -wdiich should 
first ride a high-spirited unbroken colt, undoubtedly ]\Ir. Earey would come 
off victorious; but, on the other hand, I would back against any horse 
broken by his method, another which had been submitted to a good 
breaker on the old English plan, if the palm was to be given to that one 
which shoiLld prove to have the most perfect mouth and action. 

BEEAKING TO HAENESS. 

The early peoceedings in breaking a colt to harness are exactly the 
same as for the saddle, and indeed it is well in all cases to make him 
handy to ride before he is put into the break. "VYe may therefore assume 
that this has been done, or at all events that a good mouth has been made, 
and the colt handled and accustomed to bear the hip-straps hanging 
loosely over his sides prior to putting him in harness. 

There is some difference of opinion among breakers as to the best 
plan of conducting this operation. Some contend that for every kind of 
harness the horse ought to be put in with another, who will compel him 
to move or stop at the will of the driver. Others assert that on the 
contrary, every young horse should be put in first by himself, and then if 
he refuses to move he can be allowed to wait till he is tired of inactivity, 
which practically he soon is. My own opinion is founded upon more 
than twenty years' experience Avith all sorts of horses, and I am persuaded 
that by far the safest and best method is to put every horse into double 
harness first. ]\Iany farmers break their colts in by putting them to 
plough between two other horses, but the pull at this work is too dead 
for well-bred colts, and many jibbers are produced in this way. Every 
high-couraged horse has a tendency to jump forward on the first impulse 
to do so, and feeling the restraint of the collar he is irritated to increase his 
pull, whereby his shoulders are galled, causing him to dislike his work 
from the pain Avhich he suffers. It is quite possible to break in a colt of 
average good temper for single harness without putting him first into 
double, but the plan is always attended with danger to both horse and 
driver, and I should strongly caution my readers against it. Even after 
two or three lessons in the double break, which have been quietly sub- 
mitted to, the colt often turns restive when put in by himself, but still 
by that time he knows what he has to do and is not made sulky by being 
punished without cause. 

The apparatus necessary for breaking to harness consists of, 1st, a 
set of strong double and single harness, made in the ordinary way 
except that the crupper for the colt should buclde on one side ; 2dly, 
a double break of the ordinary construction ; but it is a safe plan to have 
the whole space between the fore carriage and the splinter-bar made up 
with iron rods so close together that if a horse kicks he cannot get his 
legs hung over the bar ; 3dly, a single break, to be hereafter described. 

Before the colt is put to draw he should be accustomed to the pressure 



1S4 THE HOfiSE. 

of the harness, and as a matter of course in any case he must have this 
put on him. Every groom ouglit to knoAV how to do this, but at the 
same time in a colt he should be cautioned to proceed slowly and quietly 
so as not to frighten him. ]\Ir. Rarey's plan of showing the horse every- 
thing which is to be put on him is a very good one, and taking advantage 
of it, before the collar is slipped over the head a little time may be allowed 
for the future Avearer of it to smell it and examine it with his eyes also. 
Many breakers, to avoid the danger of alarming their pupils by putting 
the collar over their heads, have this part made to open at the withers, 
where a buclde secures it after it has been slipped uj) under the neck. 
But collars made in tliis way are not so firm as when constructed in the 
ordinary mode, and are more liable to punish the shoulders, so that what 
is gained in one way is lost in the other. A quiet and handy man can 
always slip a collar over a horse's head if he will take time, and especially 
if he has previously handled the animal and made him accustomed to his 
presence. As soon as this part of the harness is in its place the pad and 
crupper must be gently put on the back, and then quietly raising the tail 
with every hair gathered and firmly grasped in the left hand the right 
slips the crupper under it, and as soon as this is done the left drops the tail 
and assists the right to buckle the two parts together. In the previous 
breaking the colt has been accustomed to the crupper so that there is no 
occasion for extra care in this part now. The pad is then drawu forward 
to its place, the bellyband buckled, and the rest of the harness being put 
on in the ordinary way, the colt is allowed to feel it for a few minutes and 
should then be led out in a yard or other convenient place for an hour. 
The general practice is after this to put him to at once, but it is far better 
if the colt is at all shy to take off the harness and postpone the com- 
mencement of actual breaking tdl the next day. 

The actual putting to is managed differently in double and single 
harness, but as I have endeavoured to show that the former should always 
precede the latter, I shall commence by describing it. In breaking to 
double harness a steady old horse should be provided, usually called a 
break-horse. All that is wanted is an animal of good courage and free 
from vice, who will draw steadily off on the slightest notice and Avill stop 
firmly when required. Some old horses which have had a great deal of 
practice in the break will assist their masters in a wonderful manner. If 
a colt kicks over the pole they will press against the intruding leg and 
cause him so much pain that he remains quiet till he is relieved. Indeed 
it matters not what the attempt is, they defeat it by some couuter 
manoeuvre, but these horses are rare and fortunately are by no means 
essential to success. Before attacliing the colt the break-horse should be 
put to, and it is usual to place him on the near side. Then, having the 
break conveniently situated for starting, the colt is brought out with a 
halter on and the cord knotted to his tracebearer so as to give a good hold 
in case he plunges or kicks. The pole-piece is then loosely buckled up, 
after wliich the inside trace is slipped over the roller bolt, and then 
the brealvsman pushing the quarters forcibly inwards the outside trace is 
earefully adjusted and the pole-piece buckled up to its proper length. 
Quickly but quietly and wdthout fuss the reins are crossed and buckled, 
and the ends being taken b}'" the breaker he mounts to the box, gives the 
word to the break-horse to move, and the break is qiiietly started without 
any notice to the colt, or effort on his part. In the great majority of 
instances no resistance is made, and all goes on smoothly for some time. 
The break should be driven slowly for three or four miles, and then the 



DR. BUKTIXG'S BREAK. 185 

breaksman who assists the breaker going to the side of the colt pulls him 
round by the halter as the breaker drives the break-horse in a -wide circle 
for turning. In returning the horses should be stopped and started again 
several times, and if the colt is pretty handy the turning may be 
repeated once or twice, but more than an hour's drive shoiild not be 
attempted for fear of galling the shoulders, to prevent which the inside 
of the collar should be well oiled on all occasions just before starting. 
When taking the young horse out the process of putting to should be 
exactly reversed. A repetition of this lesson, and constant tiu-ning into 
narrow lanes and crowded streets, together with uphill and downhill work, 
will soon make the young horse handy in double harness, though for 
town work a considerable time must elapse before he can be depended on 
in a crush, especially without a steady companion. No horse should be 
depended upon until he has been roused either by accidental circum- 
stances, or, if these do not present themselves, by an application of the 
whip, for it often happens that a colt will go quietly enough while his 
temper is unruffled, but when it is once uj)set he shows fight until he 
is conquered or himself gains the victory. ISTow it is far better that this 
should occur while in the hands of the breaker than after he is sent home 
as thoroughly perfect in harness. 

When the colt has had five or six lessons in double harness, and has 
been made to show the nature of his temper in the way I have just 
described, he may safely be put in the shafts, but not till then. The 
single-break is a stoutly-built two- wheeled vehicle, with strong and straight 
ash shafts. It should be so high as to preclude the possibility of the 
horse kicking over the dra^ving-bar ; and though occasionally it will happen 
that a clever animal will kick very high indeed, yet there are few that will 
get over a bar three feet from the ground. A kicking-strap and safety-rein 
should always be used, for fear of accidents ; and a breaker of experience 
generally uses the di'iving-reia in the cheek and the safety-rein in the 
lower bar; both being held in the same way as for foiu' horses. IS"o bearing- 
rein should be employed ; and the tugs should be made open above, so as 
to drop the shafts into them. "With these precautions, there is no difficulty 
in putting a colt into single harness ; but, if at all stubborn, he may not 
be easily made to start, having no break horse to take him ofi". Usually, 
however, when five or six lessons in double harness haA^e been given, the 
colt walks off quietly enough ; but, after one or two lessons, he discovers 
that what is to be done must be done by him unassisted, and he is then 
very apt to give himself airs, if his temper is at all inclined to be bad. 
Kicking may be kept under by the kicking-strap ; running away may be 
restrained by the bit; but jibbing in single harness is very difficult to get 
over. If necessary, an outrigger may be appHed to the break, and a 
second horse put on ; but it is better to exercise the patience by quietly 
sitting still, when, after a short time, the jibber generally moves on of his 
own accord. Beyond these expedients, nothing more is required than 
time and practice, 

DR bu:j^tii^g's break. 

About two years ago, a plan for breaking to harness was introduced 
to the notice of the chief jobmasters of London, which was adopted at; 
once by several of them, and has since been used with great advantage. 
It consists in the emplojonent of an apparatus Hke the moving power of a 
horse thrashing-machine, with the addition of a wheel at the end of each 
pole, and of a pair of shafts to coimect them. The inside shaft is very 



186 THE HORSE. 

strong, and is securely framed and bolted to the pole beliind and before 
it; while the outside is made moveable, so that the horse can be led into 
his place, poled up to the bar in front of him, and then, the outside shaft 
being fixed, he is perfectly secure. A trace on each side serves him to draw 
as usual ; a strong belly-band keeps him from throwing himseK down, 
and sometimes a second is buckled under the flank, which totally prevents 
that act. The addition of a strong back-band and kicking-strap will con- 
fine the most violent horse ; and when one is fixed in the way I have 
described, and the poles and shafts are of tough ash, it is quite impossible 
for any kicker to free himself. Dr. Bunting exhibited his apparatus on 
the premises of ]\Ir. Joshua East, in Curzon Street, May Fair, in my pre- 
sence ; the horse operated on being certainly the most unruly brute I ever 
saw. At each step, he kicked so strongly as to lift the wheel attached to 
the pole behind Irim otf the ground ; but, nevertheless, he was perfectly 
powerless, and soon submitted to be driven quietly by Dr. Bunting, who 
followed him up inside the circle, driving him with a long pair of reins. 
This plan is admirably calculated for breaking and exercising a large 
stableful of job horses, without the risk and expense attendant on their 
going out into the streets. Five or six may do their work at the same 
time, just as in a thrashing-machine, and the oat-bruising and chafif-cuttiug 
machine may be worked in this way. The worst part of the plan is, that, 
lilce Mr. Earey's, no effect is produced upon the mouth ; and though the 
horses are made to draw gently, they are not rendered handy, nor can they 
be made to draw together, as they must do Avhen two are put alongside 
each other. Dr. Bunting's break will not, therefore, entirely supersede 
the ordinary machine, and -svill be quite useless to any but the wholesale 
breaker and jobmaster, or to any large establisliment where a similar 
number of harness horses are kept. 



CHAPTEE XIII. 

STABLES. 

SITUATION AND ASPECT — FOUNDATIONS — SUPERFICIAL AREA AND HEIGHT EEQUIRED — 
STALLS versus LOOSE BOXES — HAY CHAMBER AND GRANARY — BEST MATERIALS FOR 
WALLS, rLOOES, DOORS, AND WINDOWS— DRAINAGE AND WATER SUPPLY— VENTILATION 

AND LIGHTING FITTINGS— HARNESS ROOM— COACH-HOUSE — SERVANTS* ROOMS — PLANS 

OF STABLES — NECESSITY FOR AIRING NEW STABLES. 

Ix DISCUSSING the various questions connected with the size, form, and 
aiiangements of the stable, it must not be forgotten that we may have to 
deal with an animal whose varieties extend from the Shetland pony to the 
racehorse. A stable which suits the one, Avill be quite out of character 
for the other; and hence, before we begin to consider the formation of a 
stable, we should settle what variety of the horse it is intended for. 

In addition to the kind of horse to be accommodated, regard must 
be had to the work which is to be performed. If the horse is to be kept 
for pleasure only, and is not regularly exercised on those days when he is 
not wanted, he AviU, in coarse of time, get out of health, whatever may bo 
the management indoors. Moreover, a horse so used requires a much 
greater area of stable, and mo]-e complete ventilation, even for jireserving 



SITUATION AND ASPECT. 187 

him in moderate health, than another of the same breed and constitution 
who does a proper amount of work from day to day. I have often Icnown 
gentlemen possessed of a couple of horses, well housed, express their sur- 
prise that they could not keep them so free fi'om disease as a lot of cab or 
coach horses which were kept near them, in some dark, close stable, per- 
haps underground. The reason is obvious enough : the overfed and 
under- worked horse is stimulated by his food to such an extent, that some 
organ is sure to become inflamed ; and if the lungs, stomach, or bowels do 
not show disease, the heels crack, or the joints enlarge, and, after a single 
day's work, lameness shows itself in a most severe form. On the other 
hind, the hard-worked horse is in the fi-esh air for a great part of his 
time ; and thus the mischief which is done to his blood indoors, is 
remedied when he is out. His food is all properly expended in nourishing 
and repairing his muscular system, and there is no surplus to go to form 
the foundation of disease. Darkness also is grateful, because the moment 
the feeding is over, sleep is to be desired. Hence it follows that, of 
necessity, private stables must be very carefully proportioned to the 
number of horses which are to be placed in them, and their lighting and 
ventilation should be of the most unobjectionable character. In the fol- 
lowing pages, when no specific directions are laid down, it may be con- 
sidered that my remarks apply to the hacks and carriage-horses of private 
gentlemen. Eace-horses and hunters demand a diflerent treatment in 
many respects ; and as to ponies, they are so hard}', that they may be 
lodged without difficulty. 

I AM QUITE AWARE that what I liave just written is in opposition to the 
opinions expressed in " Stewart's Stable Economy," an authority for which 
I have the highest respect ; but my opinions are formed from a long 
experience of the evUs attending upon the horse kept for pleasure, and 
I am quite confident that my conclusions are correct. It may be that the 
stables for cab and omnibus horses are now better managed than they 
Avere when Mr. Stewart's remarks were written ; but, on this point, I only 
refer to these two kinds of horses as lodged in the middle of the present 
century. The managers of large establishments are now fully aware of 
the importance of cleanliness, which can only be maintained by drainage ; 
and the free air of heaven is cheap enough, so that there is no reason why 
they should not introduce it as soon as they are convinced of its utUity. 

SITUATION AND ASPECT. 

The two most important points to be regarded in the choice of a 
situation, are, first, the power of excluding damp ; and, secondly, the best 
means of keeping up a tolerably even temperature in winter and summer. 
It is seldom that the stables are fixed without regard to the convenience 
of the inmates of the house itself, the corner most out of sight being the 
one usually selected as good enough for them. It should not, however, 
be forgotten, that the horse is a native of a dry country, and cannot be 
kept in health in a damp situation either in-doors or out. Nothing, except 
starvation, tells injuriously so soon upon the horse as damjD when exposed 
to it — he loses all life and spirit ; work soon tires him ; his coat stares ; 
he will scarcely look at his food, and he becomes rapidly emaciated, severe 
disease, often in the shape of some jDrevailing epidemic, showing itself 
after a short time, and generally soon ending in death. Grease and cracked 
heels, swelled legs, hide bound, inflamed eyes, and coughs and colds, are 
the evils which attend damp, when exhibited only in a slight degree ; but 



ISS THE HORSE. 

these are sufficient to interfere with, the use of the horse, and, irrespective 
of other reasons, as domestic comfort is greatly dependent on the carriage 
being always at command, the stables should not be sacrificed, as they too 
often are, to a fancy for keeping them out of sight. 

In choosing the situation, therefore, a spot should be looked out 
which will be high enough to allow of perfect drainage at all seasons of 
the year, l^o periodically overflowing brook should ever be allowed to 
discharge its contents into the foundations, for even if the floor of the 
stable itself is kept above the water, yet the soil underneath will be 
saturated, and acting like a sponge, will allow the damp to creep up the 
walls incessantly. Sometimes, in order to keep the stables well out of sight, 
a hollow is chosen, and the floor is then excavated below the level of the 
surrounding surface. The consequence is, that even in a summer-storm, 
the rain-fall of the surrounding land finds its way — either into the stable, 
or around it ; and the efi'ect is equally injurious in either. Concrete 
under the floor, and courses of slate at the bottom of the walls, wUl do 
something to meet the evil ; but it is better to avoid it altogether by 
choosing a site at least two or three feet out of the way of all flood- water, 
and with a good fall into a sewer or adjacent running stream. 

As TO THE ASPECT, there is some difierence of opinion whether it 
should be northerly or southerly, all being adverse to a direction either due 
east or west ; the former being too cold, and the latter too hot. As far 
as I know, all writers on the subject have preferred a southerly aspect, 
until the recent appearance of Mr. Miles' " General Eemarks on Stables," in 
which valuable work an opinion is expressed that " the prevailing desire 
to have the front of the stable due south is a mistake." The reasons for 
coming to this conclusion are grounded upon the fact, which is undeniable, 
that a more even temperature can be maintained if the situation is suffi- 
ciently sheltered from the stroke of the wind. No doubt, a southerly 
aspect allows the sun to enter with great power in the simimer ; but my 
experience does not lead me to believe that flies are less likely to get in 
through a door or window open to the north, than through similar openings 
looking south. Mr. Miles even objects to the heat of a winter's sun, 
which, he says, in the middle of the day makes the stable almost as hot 
as in the summer ; the heat being often suddenly succeeded by a degree 
of cold approaching the freezing point. Here, again, I certainly cannot 
follow him, and I should hail -with pleasure any beams of the sun which 
show themselves between November and March, either in the stable or 
kennel. Animal life is always benefited by the direct rays of the sun, 
although, when the heat produced by them is intense, the mischief done 
is so great as to counteract the advantage. Still, in the winters of this 
country, such a thing is not, in my opinion, to be dreamt of, as a properly 
ventilated stable becoming too hot, and I look upon Mr. Miles' conclusions 
as being considerably strained when he is arguing in favour of a northerly 
aspect. I do not mean to assert that, on the whole, he is wrong, but 
that his arguments are based upon certain assumed facts which I hesitate 
to accept. It should not be forgotten that his own stable, which is 
undoubtedly a pet one, was accidentally built to face the north ; and, there- 
fore, while, on the one hand, his experience of the advantages of this 
aspect should be accepted with all respect ; on the other, it may be 
conceded that he naturally has a tendency to overlook the disadvantages 
because they are inevitable. 



SUPERFICIAL AREA AND HEIGHT REQUIRED. 189 



FOUI^DATIOITS. 

In most cases stables are p.ot built of more than the basement story, 
with a loft over, which is generally, almost entirely, constructed in 
the roof; the walls, therefore, are not high, and do not require deep 
foundations, even if they are built on clay, which is more liable to 
cause cracks, &c. than any other species of soil of a uniform character. 
It is a very common plan, on this account, to lay the foundations of 
any kind of coarse and stony material ; but if this is done, a course 
of broken slates should be laid in cement a little above the level of the 
ground ; or, instead of this, a course or two of hard bricks should be 
laid in the same material, so as to prevent the damp from striking up the 
walls by capillary attraction. A neglect of this precaution has, in several 
instances within my own knowledge, kept stables damp in spite of atten- 
tion to drainage and a resort to all sorts of expedients which could be 
carried out subsequent to the building of the walls. 

SUPEEFICIAL AEEA AND HEIGHT EEQUIRED. 

The horse, like all the higher animals, requires a constant supply of 
pure air to renovate his blood, and yet it must not be admitted in a strong 
current flowing directly upon liitu, or it will chill the surface and give 
him cold. Artificial means of warming stables are objected to on account 
of their costliness, and of the constant and careful supervision which they 
demand, so that the horse is dependent upon his own heat-producing 
powers for keeping up the temperature of the air in which he breathes., 
Hence, it is a matter for experimental research to ascertain what ntimber 
of cubic feet of air can supply him with what he wants for the purifying 
of his blood, without reducing the temperature of the stable generally, and 
without the necessity for admitting blasts of cold air. By common consent 
it is allowed that no stable divided into stalls should give to each horse 
less than 800 or 1,000 cubic feet, and a loose box should not contain less 
than 1,300 to 1,500 cubic feet. An inexperienced person may perhaps 
fail to discover the reason why a loose box should provide more air for its 
inhabitant than a stall ; but those who are accustomed to use horses, will 
see at once that the air is more or less changed in a large stable every 
time the door is opened, which act is repeated a great many times in the 
day, while the door of the loose box is often kept closed, with the excep- 
tion of the hours of feeding and dressing. Much wiU depend upon the 
thickness of the walls, the nature of their materials, and the exposure of 
their outer surfaces to the weather ; for a fourteen-inch brick wall will 
retain the heat within its inclosure much more completely than one of 
nine inches built of the same materials, and this remark applies still moro 
strictly in the case of a wall buUt of absorbent stone, or inferior bricks. 
If a substantially-built stable is kept properly clean, and its ventilation is 
well arranged, my own opinion is that a comparatively limited area is 
better for its inmates than an extravagantly large one, A "very airy" 
stable generally means one wliich is so high that it cannot be kept warm, 
and in such I have generally seen staring coats and heard coughs per- 
petually going on. I have myself tried different stables, allowing an area 
of 750, 850, and 950 cubical feet per horse, extending to three or four 
stalls ; but I confess that my leaning has been rather to the lowest than 
the highest of these numbers. The most healthy on I ever used scarcely 



19 J THE HORSE. 

allowed so much as 750 feet per horse, and in it for ten years I scarcely 
ever had a case of iUness, irrespective of legs and feet, consequent upon 
hard work. This space may be divided in the way most convenient, as 
we shall hereafter see. 

With regard to the number of stalls or loose boxes which should 
be grouped together in one apartment, there is little difference of opinion 
now-a-days among practical men, that more than from four to six horses 
should not be allowed to stand together. The former number is the 
better ; but sometimes there may be circumstances which will excuse the 
latter bemg adopted ; as, for instance, when this number are kept, and 
the space occupied by a partition-wall is an object. Even then, however, 
a boarded partition may be introduced, and as it will not occupy any addi- 
tional room, there is no objection on that account. When a larger number 
of horses are stabled together, there is great difficulty in keeping up an 
even temperature, unless, as in the case of omnibus and cab horses, the 
same number are nearly always absent at work. In private stables, how- 
ever, all or nearly all the horses are often out at once, and then in a large 
space the temperature is reduced so much, that when they return, two or 
three at a time, followed by others, and compel the doors to be con- 
stantly opened and shut, there is, first of all, danger of chilling each as he 
comes in, and if he escapes this, of producing that injurious effect 
when the next horse conies home. Practically it is found that the long 
row of stalls does not conduce to the health of the horses, and although 
it may please the eye of the master to look down a long line of 
valuable animals, this arrangement is by no means to be recommended. 
Either two stalls with a loose box at one or both sides, or, perhaps, as I 
said before, even four stalls with a similar arrangement of loose boxes, 
should be the aim of the builder of a stable for general private work, and 
in this, as well as in all other cases, appearances should be sacrificed to 
utility. 

STALLS versus LOOSE BOXES. 

Op late years there has been a great demand for loose boxes, and every 
private horse-keeper who could afford the extra space, has adopted the 
plan, at all events for a large proportion of his stud. Eor hunters and 
racehorses, when they are doing severe work, there can be no doubt that 
the quiet and liberty allowed in a box are for preferable to the restraint of 
a stall, where the horse is constantly hable to be disturbed by the ingress 
and egress of men and horses. In the stall, also, there must be a slope 
(though not necessarily a great one), from before backwards, so as to 
provide for surface drainage ; and this compels the horse who is tied to 
the manger to stand mth his hind feet lower than his. fore, which is a 
tiresome position if continued for any length of time, and which therefore 
induces so many to stand back to the full length of their reins. But the 
horse is a social animal, and does not lilve solitary confinement any more 
than the dog ; indeed, some which will do well when placed in a stall, 
will even refuse their food, and actually lose condition, if removed to a 
loose box, out of sight of companions. If therefore the quiet and com- 
parative liberty of a loose box can be combined with the society of the 
stall, the only objections to each are got rid of, and the best kind of 
accommodation for the horse is provided, though even in a loose box it 
is not always desirable to leave the inmate loose. 

In large stables intended for business purposes, such as for omnibus, 
cab, aaid waggon horses, loose boxes are out of the question, on account 



HAY CHAMBER AND GRANARY. 191 

of the area "which they require, extra width being necessary for the horse 
to turn round in, inasmuch as he cannot in them put his head over the 
travis, as he always does whUe turning in a stalL A full-sized animal 
must have his box at least 10 feet wide by 12 long, which gives an area 
of 120 superficial feet, instead of 80 or 85, the area required for a six-foot 
stall, including the gangway. Indeed, the above dimensions are scarcely 
large enough for a box, a roomy one being from 15 to 18 feet long by 
at least ten feet mde. Again, the consumption of straw in a box is much 
greater than in a stall, the droppings of the horse not being deposited in 
any one place, as in the latter, but scattered all over the surface, and 
spoihng the litter whereon they may happen to lie. For these reasons 
loose boxes are not introduced into any stables but those for racehorses, 
hunters, and in a certain proportion for hacks and carriage horses. In 
every large establishment a small number must be set aside for the sick 
and lame, but I am now solely discussing their merits as applied to horses 
doing work. 

HAY CHAMBER AND GRAl^'AEY. 

In every stable conducted economically, whether in town or country, 
a space should be allotted for storing hay, straw, and corn. In London 
and the large provincial cities and towns, the corn-chandler frequently 
supplies the stable by contract, at a fixed sum per horse, and in that case 
of course room for a week's consumption only is required ; but, as I shall 
hereafter show, the plan is an expensive one. At present I shall take 
this for granted, referring my readers to the next chapter for proof of 
what I lay down as an admitted fact among horsekeepers of experience. 
Hay and straw are either sold by the ton or by the load, which is two 
cwt. less, and on that account the loft should always hold at least a ton 
of hay, and the same quantity of straw, because if a smaller bulk is pur- 
chased, it cannot be obtained at the regular market price. ISTow a ton of 
hay cut into trusses will nearly occupy the space over an ordinary loose 
box, supposing that the walls of the loft are not carried up far above the 
floor, and every additional yard in height of wall allows stowage for 
another ton. Straw occupies more space by nearly one-half, and it may 
be calculated that a loft formed entirely in a tiled roof of the usual pitch, 
must have an area equal to two roomy loose boxes, or two stalls and a 
box, to stow away a ton of hay and a ton of straw, and even then there 
wiU be little space for any other purpose. To find room for a corn- 
bruiser and chaff"-cutter, as well as for a stock of oats and beans, a granary 
with an area at least as large as a loose box should be arranged, and with 
these conveniences a stable may be said to be complete — that is to say, 
with dry and airy stowage-room, someivhere, amounting altogether to about 
2,000 cubical feet. K the number of horses kept is larger than three or 
four, the hay-chamber need not generally be increased to any great extent, 
because the hay and corn are' purchased by the ton or load ; but it is 
often a great convenience to have accommodation for two or three months' 
provender, and therefore it is always well to be provided with space enough 
for that purpose, if it can be so arranged. 

With these calculations to guide him, the builder has next to 
consider where he shall fix the stowage-room which I have said will bo 
necessary. Formerly a loft was almost always provided over the stable, 
in which the provender was kept ; but in those days, when high racks 
were in vogue, a trap-door was left over them to keep them supplied, and 
the consequence was, that, in the first place, the horses were continually 



192 THE HORSE. 

annoyed with the dust falling through, and, in the second, the hay was 
injured by the vapour from the stable reaching it through the same open- 
ings. On these accounts a great outcry was raised agaLiist placing the loft 
in this situation ; and stable-architects insisted upon a hay chamber, as it 
was called, being built on the groimd-floor, or at all events in some other 
situation than that usually allotted to it. There was great sense in this 
precaution, and for a time credit was due to the promoters of the improve- 
ment ; but on the subsequent introduction of low racks (which the (grooms 
did not object to when they had to bring their hay in through the stable-door), 
and the simultaneous dismissal of the openings over them to the loft, the 
objections to the old situation of the latter were done away with ; and the 
objections of the grooms having been removed, no opposition could be 
offered by them, and thus it has come to pass that in most of our best 
stables low racks are estabhshed without openings over them, and with 
the hay and straw stowed in a loft overhead, perfectly protected from 
injury from the stable emanations, by means of a sound floor and a good 
ceiling beneath it. The fodder so placed does good instead of harm, in- 
asmuch as being a bad conductor of heat it tends to keep the stable cool 
in summer and warm in winter. Arrangements are easily made for throw- 
ing it down thi'ough a shaft in some convenient spot, clear of the horses ; 
and as it can more readily be filled from the cart or waggon through the 
Avindow than a chamber on the ground, labour is economised also. On 
the whole therefore it may be laid down that if low racks are adopted, 
which I shall hereafter show are the best on every account, the loft should 
be placed over the stable, while even if high ones are preferred, it may be 
fixed in the same situation, provided no openings which will allow the 
passage of dust and steam are left above them. 

The construction of the hay chamber should be such as will provide 
for getting the hay and straw into it ; for the daily supply of these articles 
out of it into the stable can always be easily managed without mechanical 
assistance. Mr. ]\Iiles, in the work which I have already quoted, suggests 
the introduction of a spout leading down from the loft to the manger, so 
as to convey the corn and chaff into it ; but I have a great objection to 
any plan which allows of a direct communication from the one to the 
other, and as neither corn nor chaff is a bulky article, it is easy for the 
groom to carry them in his sieve. Moreover, each feed of corn should be 
sifted and examined for stones, which cannot so well be done in the bulk. 
I should therefore strongly advise the planner of a stable to avoid all such 
premiums upon laziness, and to keep the ceiling of liis stable perfectly 
intact, except for the purpose of carrying off the noxious gases which are 
the product of respiration. 

The granary, however, will require several fittings ; and, in the first 
place, it should be so constructed as to be mice-proof. If the walls are 
soundly built, no mice can gnaw through them, but even if they are of 
soft materials, a lining of Eoman cement Avill exclude mice altogether. 
This article also keeps the corn dry, and forms an excellent floor, as well 
as a lining for the walls. If tlie granary is on the ground, instead of 
using boards, which harbour vermin of all kinds, lay a course of bricks 
edgeways upon concrete, and then upon the former have an inch of Eoman 
cement carefully laid, and take care to allow time for it to harden. "When 
this is done, corn may be stored without fear of loss by mice, and all that 
is necessary is to turn it over every fortnight if at all new, or once a 
month if dry. Few grooms are to be trusted with an unlimited supply of 
oats, as they will almost all waste them in some way or other. It is better 



MATERIALS FOR WALLS. 193 

therefore to shut off a part of the granary with open lattice or wire-work, 
admitting a free current of air, but not allowing anything large enough to 
contain corn to pass. At stated intervals the allowance of corn may be 
taken out and kept in the other part of the granary till wanted. Here 
also should be fixed a corn-bruiser and chaff-cutter, and also a bin for oats, 
beans, and chaff. 

In the next chapter on stable management, I shall enter upon the 
advantages of chaff-cutters and oat-bruisers ; but at present I must beg 
my readers to take it for granted that they are essential to every well- 
conducted stable, and shall here only go into the room they occupy, and 
their prime cost. It is needless, also, to describe their appearance or 
mode of acting, as they are so generally used, that they may be seen in 
every stable, and the real thing is much more easily understood than 
either an engraving or a written description. Every agricultural imple- 
ment maker sells both, and most of the chief of these establishments 
have a pattern of their own, but in principle all are alike. I have ob- 
tained the price list of the St. Pancras Iron Works, where, I believe, these 
and other stable fittings may be obtained of the best quality, and at as 
reasonable rates as are consistent with tliis. The oat-bruisers may either 
be screwed to wooden pillars, or may stand upon iron frames. No. 1 
and 2 in the following list are on the former plan, and the remainder on 
the latter. Of course, the choice will depend upon circumstances ; but I 
may remark, that when a good strong wooden upright can be fixed to the 
floor and ceiling, or roof, the bruising-machine works more steadily than 
if standing on an iron frame. 

Improved oat-bruisers, made at the St. Pancras Iron Works, Old 
St. Pancras (KC), London : — 

No. 1. 1| Bushels per hour— can be worked by a boy 

No. 2. 2" ditto ditto ditto 

No. 3. 3 ditto ditto ditto 

No. 4. 4 1 ditto ditto by a man 

No. 5. 6 ditto ditto by a man and a boy 

Horse or steam power can be applied to the two largest machines, with 
loose and fast pullies, at an extra cost of 305. each. The machines will 
then be capable of crushing a bushel more per hoiu". 

The chaff-machines made at the same establishment, with two knives, 
are sold at the following prices : — 

£ s. d. 
No. 1. Cutting 1| trusses, or 84 lbs. per hour; the chaff | of 

an inch long — can be worked by a boy . . , . 2 15 each 
No. 2. Cutting 2 trusses, or 112 lbs. per hour ; the chaff | of 

an inch long — can be worked by a boy .... 4 4 „ 
No. 3. Large machine on Corne's principle, cutting 4 trusses, 
or 224 lbs. per hour, lengths of § or f inches — can 
be worked by a man 10 10 „ 

If applied to horse power, with loose and fast pullies, 30s. extra. This 
will increase the quantity 1 truss, or 56 lbs. per hour. 

BEST MATERIALS POR WALLS, FLOOES, DOOES, 
AND WINDOWS. 

The "w^alls of stables, if economy is studied, must be built of the 
material used in the district, whatever that may be. In some parts of 
England, bricks are plentiful and cheap ; but in others, where there is no 





£ s. 


d. 


..27 


6 each 


. . 2 16 


„ 


..44 


„ 


, . 5 12 


6 „ 


..72 


6 „ 



194 THE HORSE. 

clay to "be obtained near at hand, the carriage alone from the brick-kilns 
amounts to a prohibitory sum. But, in all cases, when they can be had, 
well burnt and free from salt, they should be selected as at once the most 
convenient, the dryest, and the least absorbent of all building materials. 
In some districts, the clay and sand are so bad, that they burn into a 
porous sponge, than which nothing can be worse, if exposed to the rain 
without and the exhalations from the horse within. Even these, how- 
ever, will make good walls, if they are cemented inside and out ; but no 
precaution short of this will suffice. Eough stone seldom makes a dry 
stable, on account of the quantity of mortar which it takes to fill up the 
interstices ; for as lime is always an expensive article, the filling in is not 
sufficiently attended to, and the wet is allowed to enter, more or less. Of 
course, attention to the proper performance of his work by the stonemason 
wiU obviate these objections ; and some supervision of this kind is re- 
quired, Avhether brick or stone is selected as the material for the walls. 
in any case, a good thickness should be allowed, in order to keep an even 
temperature ; and for walls much exposed to the east or north, less than 
fourteen inches should never be adopted as the dimensions. 

Stable floors are laid in some one of the following materials, of which 
I give the prices, as nearly as they can be calcidated, since these will 
depend, in each case, upon circumstances varying in every county : — 

1. Common stock bricks may be laid edgeways, so as to last for a few 
years ; but though their low prime cost makes them the cheapest material 
(except pebbles, in certain localities), yet in the long run they are dear, as 
they so soon wear through. Moreover, unless very hard and well-burnt 
bricks are carefully picked, they absorb the lU'ine, and the stable laid with 
them can never be kept quite sweet, nor can it be as dry as it should be. 
A yard (super.) of bricks, laid edgeways, without mortar or cement, will 
take about fifty-six ; but if laid in cement, fifty will be about the number, 
varying with the thickness of the joint. In every case, miless the natural 
soil is very dry, and especially if it is composed of clay or loam, about 
a foot of concrete should be first put in ; upon this a couple of inches of 
sand, and then the bricks. In levelhng the sand before laying the bricks, 
a fall of about two inches should be allowed from the head to the drain 
at the back, which is amply sufficient. The usual plan in stable floors is 
to lay the bricks edgeways dry, running them across the stalls, and care- 
fully breaking the joints — that is, avoiding the placing of each joint 
opposite the one in the row above and below it. After the whole space is 
thus laid, some recently-mixed mortar is reduced to the thickness for 
grouting, and well worked into the joints by a stout besom. The floor is 
then left for several days to set ; after wliich it may be used. The price 
of stock bricks averages about 25s. to 285. per thousand ; and therefore 
the prime cost of this kind of floor, simply laid in sand and grouted, is 
very low — sometimes not exceeding 2s. per yard. The concrete adds 
greatly to the cost, and with these common bricks it will hardly be of 
much use, as they absorb so much moisture themselves from above, that 
they can hold very little in addition. ISTothing but limited tneans can 
justify the use of these bricks. I have recently known a floor laid with 
them wear almost through in a single year. 

2. Pebbles are even cheaper than bricks in the immediate neighbour- 
hood of the localities where they are found. They make an excellent and 
dry floor, if carefully laid, as they neither wear away by friction, nor do 
they become decomposed in course of time ; while, being pure flint, they 
do not absorb a drop of water. It is difficult, however, to keep their sur- 



MATERIALS FOR FLOORS. I95 

face tolerably level for any length of time ; but, even when they wear 
into holes, the expense of taking them np and relaying them is not great. 
Every one, therefore, who is about to build a stable, should ascertain the 
price of pebbles in his own locality; and if they are cheap, he cannot 
do better than adopt them ; taking care to put in a good bed of concrete 
beneath, and to lay them in sand, carefully grouting them afterwards, as 
I have described for common bricks, and finishing with the paviour's 
hammer, just as in street paving. In some places, pebbles may be ob- 
tained for little more than the labour of loading, carting, and unloading; 
while in others they are worth as much as bricks. ISTo estimate can, 
therefore, be given which would be of the slightest possible use. They 
are quickly laid, the labour coming to about Qd. a yard (super.), more or 
less, according to circumstances. 

3. Bkoselet, or other hard bricks, make an excellent floor, than which 
nothing is better, the material being extremely hard, and quite impervious 
to moisture. They are made a trifle larger than stock bricks, and about 
forty-eight will lay a yard (super.), without cement. To do them justice, 
a good bed of concrete should be laid, on which should be two or three 
inches of sand, and then the bricks should be laid either in cement, or 
if the expense is objected to, they must be laid dry and well grouted, as 
before described. I have known floors of these bricks last in good con- 
dition for twenty and even thirty years, requiring no repairs whatever. 
They are, however, not easily to be obtained far from the localities where 
they are made, as their weight is considerable, and the cost of carriage is 
therefore high, A peculiar clay is required for their manufacture, which 
is only obtained in the red sandstone districts. The price per thousand is 
about 50s. to 56s. near the kilns; but a very short distance soon raises 
their cost to a prohibitory sum. At the above price, a superficial yard of 
stable flooring will come to about 5s. to 5s. 6d., including sand and grout- 
ing ; a bed of concrete, and the setting in cement, costing nearly as much 
more, but this is not more than half the cost of Dutch clinkers, and these 
hard bricks answer quite as well, or eVen better. 

4. Dutch Clinkers and Adamantine Clinkers may be taken together, 
the two being nearly allied in size and shape, as well as in their hardness 
and resistance to absorption. They are intermediate in size between the 
pebble and the brick, resembling the latter, however, in their proportions. 
Nothing can possibly answer the purposes of a stable floor better than 
clinkers, as they give a capital foot-hold to the horses, and yet are per- 
fectly dry within a few minutes of being washed. They are laid on a 
concrete foundation, ia sand and cement; but the pattern varies greatly, 
according to the fancy of the architect or builder. As far as I know, there 
is little choice between the Dutch and English clinkers, as the latter are 
now made ; the price, on the average, being nearly the same. A square 
yard will require from 110 to 150 clinkers, according to their size; but 
no one should attempt to purchase clinkers and lay them by the hands of 
ordinary bricklayers, as they require some management, founded on expe- 
rience. The best plan is to contract with some respectable house to lay 
the kind selected at a certain sum per yard. K the pattern is a plain one, 
the price wUl generally be about lis. per yard (super.), which will include 
cutting, when necessary, for the ordinary drains. 

5. Concrete is made of fresh-burnt lime and gravel, with the addition, 
sometimes, of broken brick. Where a thick bed of it is laid for high 
buildings, the lime is ground ; but, for the purpose we are now consider- 
ing, this is labour and. expense thrown away. The proportions will vary 

o2 



196 



THE HORSE. 



a good deal, according to the nature of the lime ; but, on the average, a 
bushel will suffice for six or seven of well- washed coarse gravel, which, as 
I said before, may be mixed with half its bulk of bricks, broken into 
pieces not larger than a walnut, and the dust riddled out. An iron 
cistern being provided, such as is used by plasterers and bricklayers, the 
lime is first slacked with water till it is ready to crumble to powder; 
then, measuring each carefully, the respective bulks are put into the 
cistern, carefully mixing them together ; after which water is added till 
it wiU just cover the surface when fully stirred up ; and then the men, 
filling their buckets, throw it with force along the surface to be covered; 
the whole being done in successive layers as quickly as may be. Of 
course, it takes some days to become hard or " set," and until then no 
attempt should be made to work upon it. The price of concrete, laid in 
large quantities, varies from 5s. to 8s. per cubic yard, according to the 
price of lime, gravel, and labour. 

6. An attempt has recently been made to revive the old plan of layiag 
an open or perforated wooden floor so as to allow the urine to pass 
through, and thus keep the litter dry. Mr. Haycock, in his " Gentleman's 
Stable Manual," is a strong advocate for this plan, but I cannot say that 
I am impressed with his arguments in its favour. That it may save 
the litter to some extent is clear enough, but it only does so at the 
expense of cleanliness, for as the wood absorbs a great deal of the urine 
in its descent, ammonia is constantly being given off, and the stable is 
never sweet. For this reason these floors were abandoned in the early part 
of the present century, when they were extensively tried, and I should much 
regret their general re-introduction. It may be laid down that no material 
should be used for stable floors which absorbs the urine, but to select one 
which in itself is liable to decomposition is doubly wrong. 

The doors of stables are generally made of yellow, or, as it is called in 
the midland districts, red deal. Sometimes elm is used, but it is very 
liable to cast or warp. Unless the proprietor is very particular about 
appearances, what is called a "ledge door" is considered sufficient, the 
rails being of inch-and-half stuff, and the boards which are only nailed 
on, from three-quarters of an inch to one inch thick. The ordinary 
thumb-latch is very apt to catch in the skin of the horse as he passes 
through, causing often a sevei»e wound, and on that 
account a sunk catch is preferred which drops into 
a recess made for it in the door-frame, but this is 
not adapted for a "ledge door," a frame at least 
two inches in thickness being necessary to allow 
of the lock being let in. Eor loose boxes a door 
may be made with the upper half of open iron work 
as in the annexed engraving, but these are expen- 
sive and can only be adopted when money is not 
considered. In a door of this construction the 
hinges are so arranged that with a rounded edge to 
the frame there is no sharp projection and even 
when wide open the hip of the horse passing through 
cannot possibly be injured. Common ledge doors 
of deal may be hxing with ordinary iron hinges 
and thumb latches for about 30s. to 35s. each, 
while fi-amed doors will run up to 51. and 61. a-piece. No door should 
be less tlian three feet six inches wide and seven feet high, and the outer 
door is better if made three feet nine or even four feet in the clear. 




DOOR FOR LOOSE BOX. 



DRAINAGE AND WATER SUPPLY. 



197 



All stable windows should be of ii'on, and if they are cast with iron 
bars six inches apart from centre to centre, no horse will break the glass. 
Eveiy other bar may be made to project so as to form the framework for 
the glass, and in this way serve a donble purpose. In buUding new 
stables I should always prefer to place the windows close to the ceiling 
and above the mangers, so as to give the horse the fresh air where he 
wants it. If they are made to open in a valvular form, as represented 
below, on the same principle as has long been adopted in church windows, 
and as I have for years recommended for lighting and ventilating kennels, 
there is no down draught, and every advantage is obtained from the fresh 
air without the disadvantage which ensues when it blows down upon the 
back or loins. In the engraving (a) represents the window perfectly 





/pe 



I^ 



c 

VENTILATING WINDOWS. 

closed, in the state admittmg light but no air ; (5) shows the same window 
opened as far as the framework will allow, intermediate degrees being 
regulated by the ratched rod (c), which is fixed to the upper edge of the 
frame, and catches on the top rail of the sash. Iron frames of this 
shape may be obtained by order of any iron-founder, or they may be made 
of wood. The glass must be guarded with bars either fixed to the sashes 
themselves or to the framework. It wdll be seen in the figure (6) that I 
have indicated with an arrow the direction which the air inevitably takes 
as it enters the stable. Of course these windows may be fixed in any 
wall other than that at the head of the horse, but I prefer the latter as 
being the nearest to the nostrils where the air is wanted for the purpose of 
respiration. The size should be about two feet square. The additional 
cost is very trifling when it is considered that no other openings need be 
provided for the admission of air. 



DEAmAGE AND AVATEE SUPPLY. 

Next I^ importance to the choice of the situation and aspect, is the 
method to be adopted in draining the stable. The former caimot well be 
altered, but the latter may, and therefore I have placed it second. To" 
ensure the perfect performance of the office of cleansing the stable, 
the first tlung to be done is to provide a means of receiving the 
liquid which constantly must fall upon the flooring, consisting partly of 



IDS 



THE HORSE. 



ihe urine of the horses, and partly of the water used in keeping them 
clean. Several plans are adopted for this purpose, some of which are 
founded upon true principles of economy, while others are wasteful in the 
extreme. In towns and cities provided with sewers and water pipes, 
liquid manure is seldom worth the cost of removing it, and hence in them 
there is no choice and the whole of the liquids flowing through the drains 
must pass off into the common sewers. Even here, however, a catch pit 
should be provided somewhere outside the stable, without Avliich the traps 
will either become clogged if made gas-tight, or they will admit the foul 
emanations from the common sewer if they are so arranged as to allow of 
the free flow of drainage from the stable into them. Such a pit as that 
represented below will serve all the purposes required, and if it is regu- 



_^ 




m I _^ I m 

BECTION OF CATCH PIT. 



larly cleaned out once a week by the groom there will never be an 
overflow, while in no case can any gas pass through it from the sewers. 
It is merely a square pit lined with brick or stone and cemented. The 
size must depend on the number of horses, but if made on the calculation 
of one cubical foot per horse up to four horses, and half an additional foot 
for each horse beyond this number it will fidfil all the conditions required. 
The principle on which it acts is as follows : — The liquid drainage enters 
from the stable at (a), and falls into the inner half of the pit, marked (6), 
which is separated from the other half by an iron partition (c). This is 
fixed above in a stone or iron lid ((i), which, being fitted in a frame at the 
top of the pit, effectually closes it except when taken up by the groom for 
the purpose of removing the solid contents at (6). The sides of the iron 
partition (c) should run in gi'ooves cut in the cement lining the pit, which 
it should pretty accurately fit, but only so as to keep all solid matter from 
passing through. A space of from two to four inches according to the 
size of tihe pit is left beneath the iron partition and the bottom or floor, 
and through this the liquid passes, filling the outer half (e) and over- 
flowing through the pipe (/) as fast as it has run in at (a), the same level 
being always maintained in the two halves of the pit. With this simple 
apparatus properly constructed all internal stench traps may be done 
away with, and the iron surface-drains which I shall presently describe 
alone introduced. An examination of the engravings of ordinary stench 
traps which I here append will show how easily they are choked and how 
badly they fidfil their office. The larger one (a) represents that in com- 
mon use when surface drainage is rendered as good as possible by intro- 



drainagp:. 



199 



ducing wrought ii"on gutters, which enter on the same level as the grating. 
The smaller one is intended to be set in the centre of the stall with- 
out the iron gutters, and its section (b) shows the small size of the trap and 




STENCH TKAFS. 



consequently how easily it chokes, thereby stopping the ready flow of 
urine. The first thing in all stables is to provide for the rapid removal 
of any fluid which falls upon the litter, whether it be urine or water used 
in washing legs or floor. Without this damp arises and the health of the 
inmates sufiers in proportion. Foul gas such as is given off from decom- 
posing matters in sewers is no doubt prejudicial, but damp is still more 
so ; and while I would be careful to guard against the former I would still 
more cautiously attend to the exclusion of the latter. Hence it is that I 
would exclude all internal traps ; and every one who has watched the 
proceedings of liis oaati stablemen will have seen how constantly, if they 
know their business, they are obliged to clean out the stench traps if they 
are furnished with them, or on the contrary how slowly these articles 
alloAV the fluids to pass off if they are not thus attended to. Even the 
old-fashioned simple plan of making the stalls to fall rapidly to an open 
gutter, and carrying this straight behind the horses through an opening in 
the wall to the manure hole, will answer better than neglected stench 
traps ; and as it is always wise to count upon the occasional carelessness 
of the men, it is expedient to arrange on this basis if it is practicable, 
which I know by experience it is, by the adoption of the catch pit I 
have described. In the country such a pit may be interposed between a 
liquid manure tank and the stable, or it may simply be placed outside, 
taking care that the drain (/) has some safety valve to allow of the escape 
of any gas which is generated beyond it either in the liquid manure 
cistern or in the drain which carries away its contents whatever they may 
be. JSTo trap ^vill prevent the passage of gas if the pressure is greater 
than that of the atmosphere, and in many cases decomposing animal 
matter at a high temperature evolves gas under one considerably greater. 
The best stench trap will then be offensive, but a bad one choked with 
solid matter will be doubly so. By thus doing away with all internal 
traps, and simply using wrought-iron gutters of the annexed form, which 




IRON SURFACE GUTTER. 



are provided with moveable covers, that allow of their being regularly 
cleaned out with a common besom, such perfect drainage may be attained 
that the stable neither smells badly nor feels at all damp. It will be seen 



200 THE HORSE. 

that angular joints are forged so as to connect tlie stall drains witli those 
at the backs of the horses, and in this way there is no difficulty Avhatever 
in keeping the htter perfectly dry excepting just at the spot where the 
urine or water first falls. If the drain at the backs of the horses is a very 
long one it must be sunk beneath the surface and carried on by means of 
glazed earthenware or iron pipes, with grated openings behind each horse 
(not trapped), but the iron gutters above described are quite sufficient to 
provide for three or four horses. This Avill be more fully alluded to when 
the exact formation of the stalls and loose boxes is entered upon. The 
price of the various articles, as manufactured and sold by the proprietor 
of the St. Pancras Iron Works, is as follows :— 

s. d. 
Patent wrought-iron stable guttering, according to the pattern 

engraved, per foot 2 6 

Angles for ditto, each. 3 6 

T's for ditto, each 3 6 

An open guttering is made at Is. 10c?. per foot, rounded at the top, but 
it is not nearly so efficient as that which I have described. 
The prices of stench pots or traps are as follows : — 

s. d. 

Large traps (a), page 199, each 12 

Inlets, each, extra 13 

Small traps (6), page 199, 10-inch 6 

„ „ 12-inch 8 

Plain stable gratings and frames, 8-inch, 2s. Qd., 10-inch, 3s. 3d, 
12-inch, 4s. %d., 14-inch, 7s. 6tZ., 16-inch, 10s. 6d, each. 

Water-pipes, where there is no pump, must be laid in the ground 
so as to be out of the reach of frost, and should be furnished with a 
good-sized cistern in or near the saddle-room, where it can be kept 
from freezing. The system of laying on water pipes to the mangers, by 
which they may be readily filled, is a good one, but it costs money and is 
by no means necessary. If the iron surface drains which I have de- 
scribed are used no flushing is required, a besom easily cleaning them out, 
but pipe drains are certainly the better for a good flushing now and then. 
Hard pump water is not so good for drinking as soft or river water, but in 
many situations nothing else can be obtained. When soft water is 
■within reach it may easily be conducted into a cistern in the saddle-room, 
where its temperature will be always nearly that of the stable 

VENTILATION" AND LIGHTING. 

I HAVE ALREADY entered to some extent upon the best form of Avindows 
for stabling, and have shown how far they may be applied to the purpose 
of supplying air from without. Sometimes, however, there are already in 
the building windows of the ordinary construction ; and in that case it 
will be necessary to introduce ventilators, of some shape or other, to admit 
the external air. In all cases, some provision should be made for pre- 
venting any draught falling upon the horses, and for regulating the amount 
of air. The common round tube, with a bend at a right angle down- 
wards on the outside of the wall, is the cheapest form in which this can 
be done ; but it is very apt to be rendered totally inefficient by being 
stuffed with hay in cold weather, and left in this state ever afterwards. 
Several patents have been lately taken out for getting a down-draught by 
the side of the up-draught tube ; of which Mr. Mou"'s four-sectioned 



VENTILATION. 



201 



plan is, perhaps, the Lest. In this a large tube of iron is made to descend 
from the apex of the roof to the stable ceiling ; and being divided into 
four tubes by iron plates, which rise above the top, the wind always 
descends through one or two of these tubes whenever there is the slightest 
air moving. Unfortunately, however, it happens that when it is most 
wanted, it is totally inactive — namely, in the hot, calm days of summer. 
Ventilation is always easy enough when there is a wind blowing ; and, 
indeed, the difficulty then is to moderate it; but it is when there is no air 
moving that stables become so hot and close. I have known these down- 
current tubes tried in all sorts of places, including stables, kennels, work- 
rooms, cigar- divans, &c. ; but I have always found that, without the power 
of moderating the down-draught by closing-valves placed at the bottom 
of the tubes, they are not only useless in calm weather, but highly dan- 
gerous in a wind. Now, horses have not the sense to close valves, when 
a wind rises in the night, and grooms are absent Irom 8 o'clock p. M. till 
6 A. M., during which time a whole stableful of horses may be chilled to an 
alarming extent. Hence, if adopted, I should never venture to leave 
these ventilators open during the night, and this would take away from 
their efficiency sufficiently to forbid their use. I greatly prefer the valvular 
window which I have described at page 197, for the introduction of air, 
and a plain ventilating shaft, such as I shall presently allude to, for car- 
rying off the foul air. Failing the window from any cause, nothing is 
better than a latticed ventilator, like the foUowiug, which should be fixed 




in the head wall, or in either of the side walls, near the head. The louvres 
should be moveable, so as to moderate the di'aught ; and the usual plan is 
to make them open and shut by pulling a cord. The price is, for the size 
twelve inches by eight, 9s. 6d., or fourteen inches by ten, 13s. 9d. A 
small ventilator is sometimes required, like one or other of the annexed, 




which may be fixed iu any part of the stable where air is wanted. These 
also open and shut, but they require the hand itself, or some intermediate 
agent, such as a shovel-handle, and cannot be arranged to move by a cord. 
The usual prices are as follows : — ^ ^ 

Square, to open and shut 9 inches by 9 inches ..40 

Ditto ditto 12 inches by 12 inches ..60 

Ditto ditto 15 inches by 15 inches ..90 

Oblong, to open and shut 13 inches by 4^ inches ..30 

Ditto ditto 16 inches by i^ inches ..40 

Large Round, to open and shut . . 22 inches : . 17 6 



?02 



THE HORSE. 



Ha"V ing thus provided for the admission of fresh atmospheric air, the 
next thing to do is to carry it off, when it has been used for the purposes 
of respiration. As I before remarked, it is not safe to depend upon the 
wind for this purpose ; and the only remaining agent is the diminution in 
its specific gravity when air is warmed by respiration. By taking advantage 
of this principle, the foul air is carried off from the upper parts of the stable 
if a shaft is fixed there for its passage. Sometimes a small shaft is intro- 
duced over the head of each horse ; but in practice it is found that one 
large shaft, about a foot square, -will purify a stable containing four or five 
liorses. It is better to fix tliis about the middle of the stable, as regards 




j^ I 1 I 1 ! I I I !--'--i I' ill III II rr 
VENTILATING SHAFT. 



=TJb 



its length, but near the heads of the horses, as shown in the above section 
of a stalled stable. The tube may be made of wood — and, indeed, this 
material is better than iron, because it does not condense the steam as it 
ascends nearly so much as metal, and there is less dropping of water from 
it. The upper end of this shaft should be guarded from down-draughts, 
either by a cowl which will turn with the -wind, or by a covered ventilator 
of galvanized iron fixed on the ridge of the roo:^ the price of which vnU 




HEAD 01' SHAi'T. 



depend on the size. At the bottom, a sheet of iron, considerably larger 
than the shaft, should be fixed about three inches below the mouth, so as 
to prevent any down-draught striking the horses, and also to catch any 
drip from the condensation of the steam of the stable, as it comes in 
contact with, the interior of the shaft. Tliis, however, will be almos*' 



STABLE FITTINGS. 



203 



entirely avoided by making tlie shaft of wood, as I have already men- 
tioned. Loose boxes must be ventilated separately, if they are not oj^en 
to the stable ; but if they are, the same shaft -will take off their foul 
air as is used for the stalls, provided there are not more than, four or five 
horses in the same space. A shaft about six inches in diameter is amply 
large enough for one box ; and this, Avith the ventilating window or the 
separate ventilator I have described, will keep any box in a healthy con- 
dition, if its drainage is properly attended to. There is a very common 
notion that no ascending shaft mil remove the carbonic-acid gas, which is 
one of the results of respiration, because its specific gravity is so gTeat that 
it lies close to the floor. This, however, is a fallacy in practice, though 
perfectly correct in theory, because all gases have a tendency to mix 
rapidly together ; and hence, although the weight of pure carbonic-acid 
gas is so great that it may be poured from one glass into another, yet, as 
it is given gradually ofi" by the lungs, it does not remain separate, but 
mixes with the bulk of air in the stable, and is carried off with it. For 
this reason, there is not the slightest necessity to admit the fresh air near 
the bottom of the stable, as is sometimes contended for. If it is attempted, 
nothing can prevent a draught falling upon the bodies of the horses when 
they are lying down, and they inevitably catch cold. K the upper 
regions are kept pm-e, the whole air soon mixes ; and thus, when the 
openings are fijxed near the ceiling, as I have described, all the good 
which is wanted from them is obtained without any risk of draught. 




TYVl 



STABLE FITTIA^GS. 

Under this head may be included 
all the internal additions wliicli are made 
to the walls in the shape of partitions 
between the stalls, mangers, racks, &c. 
It will therefore be necessary to consider 
each of these subjects separately. 

There are two modes op separating 
stalls from each other; that most com- 
monly adopted in private stables being 
the travis, whilst in cavalry and cab 
stables the hanging bail is used for the 
sake of economy of money and space. 
The latter being considerably cheaper 
than the former, I shall describe it first. 
All that is necessary is a strong pole of 
ash, oak, or elm, which is fixed about 
three feet from the ground between the 
horses, one end being attached to the 
manger by a strong iron hook and eye, 
and the other being either suspended 
from the ceiling by a chain or attached 
to a post, reaching from the ground to 
the ceiling in such a way that, if the 
horse gets fixed under or over it, he 
can readily be relieved by striking 
upwards the ring (a) which liberates the 
hook (b), and allows the bail (c) to fall to the ground. A better plan is t( 
use a plank of elm instead of a pole for the bail, and the difference of cost 



LAN 



'204 THE HOUSE. 

is not very great. I have myself adopted this plan with advantage in a 
two-stalled stable which is too narrow for a travis, the whole width for 
two horses being barely ten feet. Here, of course, two stalls would be 
unsafe, for no horse can be accommodated properly with less than five 
feet six inches from inside to inside of stall-posts, and this would require 
eleven feet six inches, being eighteen inches more than I had to do with. 
I find that a plank of elm, one inch and a half in thickness and eighteen 
inches deep, will protect a horse very effectually from the kicks of his 
neighbour ; and as I happen to have had an inveterate kicker in one of 
the stalls for six months, without injury to her fellow, the trial has been 
a pretty severe one. The hangings at each end are just the same as for 
bails, a chain, in my stable, descending from the ceiling, and no tail- 
post being used on account of the propensities of the mare in question. 
She would have demolished any fixed post behind her in a single night ; 
but the hanging plank of elm not being a fixture, gave way to her blows, 
and she soon left it alone. If the horse is tied up with one rein only, he 
can bite his neighbour with great facility over the bail, but two reins are 
just as efficient with hanging bails as with a travis, and these should never 
be neglected. 

The TRAVIS may be either of wood or iron, or partly of each material. 
If cheapness is an object, all that is necessary is to fix a head and tail post, 
and connect these by three strong rails ; inch elm-boards are then nailed 
perpendicularly, and cut at the top to the proper sweep, or " ramp," as it 
is called, after which a thin fillet of elm is bent to the shape and nailed 
on to the top. Most travises, however, have an ornamental tail-post, and 
a framed top rail, rebated on the lower edge to receive the boards. In 
the present day iron, however, is substituted for wood ; but as, when cast, 
it is very liable to break, it should be wrought for the posts and cills. The 
following are the prices of these articles, varying with the degree of orna- 
mentation ; — 

£ s. d. £ s. d. 
Wi-ouglit-iron stable posts, with ornamental cast tops, 

each from 140 to 270 

If with rings for pillar reins, additional 1 to 5 

Cast-iron ramp, each from 12 to 15 

Ventilating ramp with patent bars 276 to 300 

Wrought-iron cill, each from 76 to 126 

Intermediate rail, each from 76 to 126 

Thus a plain iron frame-work, consisting of wrought-iron post and cill, 
with cast-iron ramp, may be obtained for about 21. 4s. to which must be 
added the expense of boarding both sides, which will come to about 10s. 
in deal or elm, exclusive of the labour, being fully double the cost of 
wooden posts and rails, put up in a correspondingly plain way. The 
length of the travis should never be less than six feet six inches, and if 
the stable is fourteen feet deep, which it ought at least to be, the travis 
may be seven feet long with advantage. Beyond this length it should 
not extend except in very roomy stables, as there is danger of straining 
the back in turning out of a narrow gangway into the stall. No travis 
should be less than seven feet in height at the head, and four feet six, or 
five feet at the tail-post. If lower than this, the horses can bite each 
other over the head, or kick over the tail, and so become hung, from 
which latter accident serious mischief may ensue. The tail-post is gene- 
rally made only to reach high enough to take the ring for the pillar reins, 
but it is far firmer if carried to the ceiling. 'When the stable is to be 
built from the ground, the tail-posts may be made to economise wood in 



STABLE FITTINGS. 



205 



the flooring-joists above, as they diminish their length by one-half. A 
moderately stout beam, say eight inches by four, is carried from end to 
end, and into this the posts are framed, while the joists, running in the 
direction of the stalls, are only seven feet long each, for which a very 
small scantling will suffice, even if heavy weights of hay and straw are 
placed ia the loft. This is a great consideration, as the floor of the loft 
requiring to be made strong, the joists, when fourteen or fifteen feet long, 
should be at least ten inches deep. If wooden posts are sunk into the 
ground, which they must be if short, they soon decay, whereas, when they 
reach the ceiling, as I have advised, they may be dowelled into a stone 
rising above the floor, and thus escape destruction. Charring the part 
buried is the usual expedient adopted to prevent decay, but though it acts 
beneficially to some extent, it does not long put ofi" the decomposition of 
the woody matter by the damp of the floor. 

A GANGWAY BAIL is sometimes used in stables, when valuable horses 
are kept in stalls, such as hunters and race-horses. It is merely a strong 
piece of oak which is dropped into a mortice in the stall-post at one end, 
and into another made in the Avail opposite ; so that, if either of the 
horses gets loose, he cannot reach his neighbours. It also serves to 
prevent two horses from hanging back and kicking at each other, which 
vicious animals will sometimes do. 

The mangeks and racks are now almost invariably made of the an- 
nexed form, whether of wood or iron ; the addition of a separate cavity 




IRON MANGEE AND BACK. 



for water, bran mashes, or gruel, being a modern invention. With the 
single exception of Mr. Miles, I am not aware of any recent authority on 
the subject who has written in favour of the old high rack, and after 
about fifteen years' experience of each in my own stables, I can confidently 
recommend the low position for its manifold advantages both to the horse 
and his master. The above-named writer gives as the reasons for his 
preference of the high rack, " that besides the chance there is of a horse 
getting his feet into a low rack, when he is either frolicsome or alarmed, 
it is open to the objection that he is constantly hanging his head over his 
food, and breathing on it while he is feeding, which renders the undermost 
portion of it moist and warm, and makes him reluctant to consume the 
whole." l!^ow the first of these objections may be tenable, for, no doubt, 
a horse can get his feet into a low rack, but so he can into his mancrer, 
and as this must be placed low, no farther harm is done in the one case 



206 THE HORSE. 

than in tlie other. Moreover, the rack being placed in the corner is not 
so likely to receive the feet as the manger in the middle. But, in either 
case, if the bottom is strong enough to bear the weight, which it ought to 
be, no mischief is done, and the horse gets down again when he likes. The 
second objection I contend to be wholly without foundation, and I do this 
after carefully trying the experiment for a month, with the same four horses, 
tended by the same men, and doing the same kind of work. It so happened 
that in the year 18451 required two additional stalls ; and at that time having 
high racks in my own three-stalled stable, I hired one of two stalls close 
adjoining. In this I placed two of the three horses for a month, and carefully 
weighed the hay which was consumed by them during that period, at the 
same time weighing that eaten by the other three horses in the three-stalled 
stable. At the end of the month I changed the two horses for two of 
those in the three-stalled stable, and again weighed the hay consumed by 
each. The result was, in round numbers, a saving of ten pounds of hay 
per week per horse, and this was done without any further limitation than 
the judgment of the head groom, who, moreover, was prejudiced in favour 
of high racks. I immediately introduced low racks into my own 
stables, and have used them since with the greatest satisfaction and ad- 
vantage. Such is the result of my own experience, and I find that aU 
those of my acquaintance who have tried the low racks, are strongly 
impressed with their advantages, nor have I ever known an accident result 
from them. The only place where they are dangerous is in the loose box 
of the brood mare with her foal, where the latter may damage itself by 
getting into the manger, but against this risk I have cautioned the breeder 
at page 159. In those stables where a long wooden manger is fixed, the 
alteration of a part to form the low rack is easUy accomplished, and the 
saving in hay will soon pay for the trifling outlay. 

With regard to the material of wliich the racks and mangers 
should be made, I am not quite so settled in my convictions. Wood is 
undoubtedly the cheapest, and it has the advantage in its favour that the 
horse, in laying hold of the cap with his teeth, when he is being dressed, 
which most high-couraged horses do, wears them out much less rapidly 
than with the iron manger. This objection is met by making the cap so 
wide that the horse's jaw will not embrace it, and with this modification 
I have notliing to allege against the metal but its price, — while it has the 
advantage that mice cannot gnaw through it, and that it does not become 
decomposed by remaining constantly damp, which is the case with wood. 
The iron is generally lined with enamel, but as I believe that its oxide is 
absolutely advantageous to the health of the horse when taken into the 
stomach with liis food, I do not care whether this additional expense is 
incurred or not. The enamel always looks and is clean, which is in its 
favour, but, as I said before, this is its only real advantage. With these 
preliminary observations, I shall describe each, and give their cost price 
in. addition, so that in fitting up a stable the proprietor may take his 
choice. 

(1.) Wooden mangers may be economically made in part of elm or 
deal, and in part of oak, which latter wood should always be used for the 
capping, on account of the wear occasioned by the teeth, and for the 
bottoms, to prevent decay. The top of the cap should be from 3 ft. 3 in. 
to 3 ft. 6 in. from the ground, and the manger itself should be 1 3 inches 
wide at the top and 9 inches at the bottom ; depth 1 1 inches. The caps 
should be 4 inches deep and 3 inches wide, and these should be firmly 
wedged into the wall or travis at each end. The bottoms may be of inch 



STABLE FITTINGS. 207 

oak, and the backs, ends, and fronts, of inch, ehn, or, if deal is used, they 
should be a little stouter. Supposing low racks to be introduced also of 
wood, they should be 2 feet wide, and shoidd project 5 inches beyond the 
manger, making them 18 inches deep inside. An oak post must be dropped 
into the floor at the junction of the two, so as to give strength at this 
part, and the two caps may be strongly nailed or bolted to the top of 
this. The rack is generally made from 2 ft. to 2 ft. 3 in, deep outside, 
which leaves a space below sufficient to ensure the free passage of seeds 
and dust. 

(2.) Iron mangers are made of the same dimensions as the above, but 
in general the capping of the rack is continuous with that of the manger, 
as shown in the engraving at page 205. Both are five inches wide, to 
prevent the horse laying hold of the iron and thus wearing down his 
teeth. A water-tank occupies one end of the space at the head of the 
stall, the manger the middle, and the rack the other end, — the two former 
being generally enamelled inside. The addition of the tank is in favour 
of iron as a material ; for water remainiag in wood soon rots it, and hence 
even if wooden mangers are preferred, the tank, if adopted, must be of 
iron. There is a great variety of patterns sold, suitable to stables of aR 
kinds and sizes, but I know none more adapted to the average private 
stable than the one I have figured. Iron-founders are very apt to fix both 
the rings for the head-stall-reias near the middle, which is a great mis- 
take, as the advantages of the double rein are thereby lost. Gentlemen, 
therefore, who are giving their orders, should see that they are placed as 
in the engraving at page 205. 

In comparing the prices of wood and iron, it may be assumed that 
a wooden manger and low rack will cost about a pound, including labour 
and materials. The following are the prices of iron : — 

& s. d. 

Comer manger, with water trough, but no rack, 3 feet long, plain . 15 

Ditto ditto enamelled 1 15 

Improved ditto, 4 feet 3 inches long, plain 1100 

Ditto ditto enameUed 2 10 

Brass plug and washer, extra 3 6 

Wrought-iron circular rack, 2 feet 6 inches long .... 9s. to 13 6 

Ditto ditto 3 feet long 10s. to 14 

Patent manger, rack and water trough, plain, with guard roller, 

brass plug and washer, each 300 

Ditto ditto enamelled 3 17 6 

Patent halter guide and rein, extra 100 

Seed box 6 

Patent manger and rack, without troiigh, plain 2 7 6 

Ditto ditto enamelled 300 

Halter guide and rein 10 

Self-acting rack, extra 1 14 

Cart-horse manger and rack, plain 2176 

Ditto ditto enamelled 3 17 6 

Comer manger racks and troughs for loose boxes, plain .... 2 12 6 

Ditto ditto with patent enamelled top plate . . 3 12 6 

The only remaining fitting yet to be described is the enamelled tiJe, 
which is now very generally introduced in first-class stables at the heads 
of the stall above the mangers. I cannot say that I see any great ad- 
vantage in them, as a coat of soiind Eoman cement will be as impervious 
to all kinds of diseased secretions as the best enamel, — that is to say, 
when each is washed. Nevertheless, I have shown these tiles in the 
annexed engraving of a couple of stalls and a loose box, which is taken 



208 



THE HORSE 



from the pattern plan exhibited at the St. Pancras Iron Works. Here all 
the iron fittings which I have already described are introduced, and my 
reader may judge for himself of their appearance, which is certainly, in my 
opinion, extremely neat and well adapted to the requirements of the horse. 







IRON FITTINGS FOR STALLS AND LOOSE' BOX. 

The stalls show the iron manger, rack, and trough, and the wrought-ii'on 
posts to the travis, with iron ramp as described at page 204. The floor is 
laid with blue paviors, cut to fit the wrought-iron gutters alluded to at 
page 199. The loose box is lined with inch deal, and the partition from 
the stalls is of open iron-work. This also shows the corner manger-rack 
and trough suitable for a loose box. The only objection that I know to 
these very complete fittings is on the score of expense. 

Projections of all kinds are sometimes to be carefully avoided, either 
■svdth crib-biters or very mischievous horses. In such cases, a concealed 
manger and rack on the following plan is adopted, which is admirably 




COTTCEALED MANGER FOR CRIB-BITERS. 



calculated for the purpose. On the left-hand side the manger is seen in 
the position which it occupies when turned out for feeding, while the 
right gives a view of it when closed. The whole forms a solid frame, 



HARNESS-ROOM. 



209 



hinged at tlie iDottom near the lloor, and prevented from coming further 
out by a check. The groom, therefore, has nothing to do bnt to pull the 
whole out (as slioAvn at a), feed liis horse, and leave it out till he has eaten 
his corn, as well as hay, when this is given him ; after which the frame is 
pushed back to the position shown at (h), when it is flush with the wall. 
The objection to the plan is, that it does not prevent a horse from crib- 
biting when feeding, and that he must wear a muzzle in addition ; for it is 
while he is eating his hay and corn that the habit is indulged in to the 
greatest extent. Besides which, it compels the gTOom, after he " beds up " 
at night, to return to the stable, after ho has allowed time enough for the 
horse to feed^ without which precaution the concealed manger is useless. 
On the whole, therefore, I cannot recommend the plan, and crib-biting 
must be met by some other expedient. 

I HAVE ALREADY SAID that I object to corn and chaff-shoots arranged 
so as to open into the manger, on account of the dust which they bring 
down. If the corn and chaff are kept upstairs, a shoot may be arranged 
so as to dehver them at or near the gangway, the particular spot^ chosen 
depending on circiimstances, which will vary -with almost every stable. 
A granary, or corn-room, on the gi'ound floor, does not admit of a shoot. 

The walls of a stable should be lined, wherever they come in contact 
with the horse, with inch elm or deal. Without this, in cold weather, 
the brick or stone, whether plastered or not, is too cold, and if a delicate 
horse lies down with his loins against it, he will probably be attacked with 
rheumatism, or perhaps with inflammation of the kidneys. Usually, 
also, as I have already observed at page 207, the head wall above the 
manger is lined either with boards or enamelled plates, which have lately 
been introduced as being cleaner than boards, as they undoubtedly are. 
They are either of enamelled iron, nailed on to boardmg, or of vitrified 
plates set in cement, the latter being cheaper and having nearly the same 
appearance. They are made of all shapes, square, octagon, hexagon, &c., 
and they vary in price from Is. 7d. per foot for the vitrified plates of a 
white colour, to 25. 6d. for the enamelled iron, which may be had white, 
French grey, or granite. 

HARNESS-EOOM. 

Every Harness-Eoom should be provided either with a stove or open 
fireplace, in order to dry the saddles, harness, and clothing, when they 




SADDLE AIRER. 



come in wet. If, also, it can be so arranged that a supply of hot water 
can be obtained, by fitting a boiler to the back of the fire, the groom 

p 



2i0 



THE HOKSE. 



will be always provided with what he must occasionally obtain fiom somo 
source or other. ISTo establishnient can be considered complete which 
does not provide plenty of hot Avater when wanted ; and if it is heated in 
the saddle-room, so much the better. 

The next thing to be done is to give the groom the means of drying 
his saddles and harness by the heat of his fire. The former are easily 
deprived of the moistiu-e arising from the sweat, by putting them in front 
of the fire, spread on an airer of the annexed form, which is an excellent 
(iontrivancc for the purpose, and may be obtained of any large saddler, in 
wood, for a few shilhngs. In addition to this, what is called a " saddle 
horse" is requhed, which may either be of wood or iron. If the former, 
it should have a draAver or two, to hold small articles in common use. 
The following is the form of those made of iron, resembling in general 




IRON SADDLE nOHSE. 



plan the ■wooden horse, but being lighter in appearance, though really 
qiiite as heavy, if not more so. The same horse is useful for cleaning 
harness upon, the pad or saddle being put over the top, and the bridle 
hanging at either end, while it is being cleaned. 

When the saddles and harness are cleaned, tliey must be put away 
till wanted; and here they must be protected from injury, either in the 
shape of scratches, damp, or dust. Harness and saddle brackets are made 
either of wood or iron ; the former being the cheaper, but the surface they 
present being necessarily larger, they do not alloAV the stuffing to dry so 
well as iron brackets of the annexed form, wluch are made to turn up and 




SADDLE BRACKETS, 



form a hook beloAV, on Avhich bridles may be hung. This is a capital plan 
where space is scanty, but otherwise it is not to be recommended. Where 
a long cupboard can be separated off by hanging doors, either of glass or 



COACH HOUSE. 



211 



panel, the harness and saddlery can be kept in very nice order ; and even 
a curtain of cloth or canvas will serve a similar purpose, when drawn 
across in front of them. In addition to the brackets, bridle hooks, either 
single or double, lilce the annexed forms, must be attached to the walls, to 





BraDLE HOOKS. 

hang the bridles, stirrup leathers, &c., to. Masters who are particular 
about their stable arrangements have many other fittings, such as wheels 
for Avhip-lashes to hang over, &c. &c. ; but those which I have enumerated 
are the essentials for a harness-room intended for use rather than show. 
A double hook suspended from the ceiling, where it can be used to hang 
dirty harness on while washing it, is extremely useful ; but any groom 
who understands his business will suggest something of the kind, accord- 
ing to circumstances. The prices of brackets, hooks, &c., made of ii'on 
are as follows : — 

PATENT SADDLE BRACKETS, ETC. 

Plain. Galvanized. Covered, 

s. d. s. d. s. d. 

Gentlemen's 7 6 10 15 each. 

Ladies' 10 6 12 6 19 6 „ 

Bridle Bracket 10 13 2 6 „ 

Stirrup 2 2 9 4 6 „ 

Girth 20 29 5 6 „ 

Rein Hook 05 07 16 „ 



PATENT HARNESS FITTINGS. 

A single set, consisting of — 

Plain. Galvanized. 

s. d. s. d. 

Collar Bracket 26 36 

Pad ditto 30 40 

Bridle ditto 26 36 

Rein Hook 08 10 

Cinipper Bracket 2 6 3 6 

Iron Stable Hooks 10 2 

Bridle Hook (single) 5 7 

„ (double) 8 10 

Harness Bracket (small) 13 19 

„ (large) 2 6 3 9 



Covered. 


s. 


d. 


7 


6 each. 


8 


„ 


7 


6 M 


2 


6 „ 


7 


6 „ 


5 


„ 


1 


6 „ 


2 


6 „ 


4 


9 „ 


JO 


y ,. 



COACH HOUSE. 

In THE COACH HOUSE mere standing room is all that it is necessary to 
provide if the harness-room stove is made to answer the double purpose 
of airing both, which should always be managed. Open carriages may bg 
kept in tolerably good order without any stove, but the lining of close 
carriages soon becomes mouldy unless heat in some form or other bo 
applied. 

SEEVAl^TS' EOOMS. 

Little need be herb said of the servants' rooms, but I certainly agree 
with Mr. Miles in his objection to placing them over the horses. Quiet 
is essential to the sleep of these animals, and if grooms are to bo walking 
over head at all hoiu'S their sleep must necessarily bo disturbed. It is 

p2 



212 THE HORSE. 

always well to have a groom's room -witliiii hearing of his horses, so that 
if any of them get cast, or are taken ill, he may be able at once to go to 
their assistance, bnt this can readily be done without placing any lodging- 
rooms over the stalls or l^oxes. 



GEOU^D PLANS OF STABLES. 

In deciding on the best ground plan for stabling a great deal must 
.always depend upon the hind and number of horses to be placed in it. 
Ill the folloAving plans I shall consider the two extremes afforded by those 
for racehorses or hunters on the one hand, and on the other by the hack 
or harness stable for two or three horses where space is a great object. 
As a general rule racehorses and hunters require a loose box each, because 
they are often greatly distressed, and must then have entire rest and quiet 
to enable them to recover themselves. They are also a great many hours 
together in the stable, and being called upon for great exertions when out 
they ought to have plenty of air when indoors. The best proportions for 
their boxes are sixteen to eighteen feet long by twelve feet wide and nine 
or ten high, but these are perhaps a little above the average. Neverthe- 
less I have given these in the annexed plan of a 



EACINU OB HUNTtNO STABLE, 



It is divided into four separate stables thii^-six feet long and eighteen 
wide in wliich three or even four loose boxes may be separated by partitions 
nine 'feet liigh with open iron tops, as shown at page 208, or one or more 
may be divided by travises into six stalls each six feet wide. I have akeadj 



NEW STABLES. 



213 



alluded to the fittings for each, and therefore I need say nothing more 
here beyond alluding to the plan itself 

The architect employed by the St. Pancras Ii-on- works has designed a 
plan by which a loose box and t^yo stalls may be arranged La a space only 
sixteen feet by fifteen, as shown in the following cut, which is drawn on 
a scale of one-sixth of an inch to a foot. Undoubtedly it may sometimes 
happen that such an area may be at hand, and at the same time being 
incapable of alteration, it may be desirable to lodge three horses within it, 
which can scarcely be done in any other way. But while I give him 




PLAN OF STABLE FOR THREE HORSES. 

credit for his ingenuity, I would strongly object to the general adoption 
of the plan when it can be avoided, on account of the danger of injury 
from kicking caused by the proxhnity of the heels of two of the horses to 
one another. The loose box moreover is very small, but stUl Ave cannot 
expect to place three horses without crowding them in such a limited space 
as this. Four feet more in length (that is eighteen feet) and one foot less 
in breadth (or fourteen feet) Avill give three good stalls, and the area is 
only increased by fourteen superficial feet, which can generally be obtained 
in some way. A loose box should, as I have already observed, be always 
thirteen or fourteen feet long and eight or nine feet Avide, and if it is less 
than this I should prefer an open stall, on account of the danger of injury 
to the back in tiiining round. 



:n^ecessity foe aieing new stables. 

To PUT HORSES INTO NEW STABLES without ahing them is to give them 
.1,1 1 .• Indeed those which have been merely uninhabited 



cold or rheumatism. 



214 THE HORSE. 

for some months are not fit for liorses that are accustomed to be kept 
warm and dry, withont taking the following precautions, K the walls 
are very new some open stoves should be kept burning for at least a week, 
not with the windows and doors shut, as is often done, but with a good 
current of air blowing through the whole building. In the absence of 
regular stoves loose bricks may be built up so as to allow a good draught 
of air through the coals or wood burnt in them, and thus to give out as 
much heat as is wanted. For stables that have merely been closed for a 
month or two a fire kindled on the floor and kept burning for a few hours 
will suffice, but when the horses are first brought in, their beds should 
prcidously bo made up ready for them, and then the doors, windows and 
other ventilators should all be shut till the stable becomes thoroughly 
warmed by the natural heat of their bodies, which it soon is. "Wlien this 
is accomplished, if the weather is warm, the ventilators should be opened 
as usual, and the "windows also if necessary ; but it is better to err on the 
safe side, and not to do this till the groom is perfectly satisfied that his 
charge are all comfortably warm. 



. . CHAPTEE XIV. 

STABLE MANAGEMENT. 

THE COACIIMAN', GROOM, AND HELPER — STABLE IMPLEMENTS, CLOTHING, ETC. — FOOT) 

AND WATER — THEORY AND PRACTICE OF FEEDING BEDDING DRESSING OR 

GROOMING — CLIPPING, SINGEING, AND TRIMMING USE AND APPLICATION OF BANDAGES 

MANAGEMENT OP THE FEET — EXERCISE. 

In tdb following pages, my attention will be specially directed to the 
management of private stables ; and therefore the racehorse, the omnibus 
and cab horse, and the poster, will not pass under review. Those who are 
engaged in their superintendence make it their business to ascertain what 
is best to be done ; and, whether they do or not, each of them fancies that 
he loiows better than any one else how to effect his object. 

THE COACHMAN, GEOOIM, AND HELPER 

The coachman is generally understood to be a servant in charge of a 
horse or horses, drawing either a close carriage or an open one of some 
importance, and attending to their management, indoors and out. To 
perform these duties thoroughly, he must possess all his facidties; and 
should have had considerable practice in driving, if he is wanted for 
" town " work. If he has more than two horses under liis care, he must 
have a helper ; for each of them requires at least tAvo hours' work daily 
indoors ; and to clean a carriage and harness, about three hours more will 
be occupied. Thus seven hours are accounted for in the stable ; and a 
carriage is seldom engaged less than four more, which is quite enough 
work for any man to do well. I have certainly known more than one 
coachman turn out three horses and a carriage extremely well ; but on 
the average it wUl not be efficiently done ; and it must be remembered 
that top-boots are not kept in nice order ■^v'ithout some little trouble. 
Good and careful driving is the first consideration ; for without this, the 



CLOTHING. 2l.i 

inmates of the carriage are in constant danger. But unless the coachman 
Icnows how to dress and feed his horses, and also to manage their sliglit 
ailments, they ■will be constantly lame or sick; and hence a few additional 
jiounds in wages are well bestowed upon a first-rate servant. The wages 
of coachmen varj^ from 18s. to 25s. j^er week out of doors, or from 18^. to 
451. yearly indoors. 

Under the word Groom are comprehended all servants having the 
entire charge of horses, ^vitli the exception of those who habitually drive 
a carriage of full size. There are many grooms Avho occasionally drive 
their masters' phaetons, and some Avho are regidarly in charge of small 
carriages, but who, on that account, do not obtain the name of coachman. 
As a general rule, however, the office of the groom is to take charge of 
hunters, hacks, and phaeton horses, both indoors and oiit ; and if the 
latter he shoidd be able to drive well enough to handle the reins with 
safety in the absence of his master. The stud-groom has charge of more 
horses than he can manage without assistance, and has help in proportion 
to their numbers. So, also, the hunting-groom may or may not require 
assistance ; but if he has more than tlu-ee horses to look after, he cannot 
do them well himself. Two horses, and a gig or dog-cart, are quite 
sufficient for a groom, and they will give him eight or nine hours' hard 
work daily in the stable-yard and harness-room, besides what he has to 
do out of doors, in attendance on his master. The wages of a good groom 
vaiy from 12s. to 20s. weekly out of doors, or from 15^. to 351. yearly 
indoors. 

The helper is merely a strapper, and is only required to use his hands, 
and not liis head. His wages vary from 10s. to 14s. per week, according 
to the locality. 

CLOTHING, STABLE IMPLEMENTS, &c. 

The various accessories required in the stable are of two kinds ; 
first, those intended to confine and clothe the horse ; and secondly, the 
implements Avith which he is dressed, and otherwise attended to. 

Whether in a stall or loose-box, every horse must have a head- 
collar, which should always be made with a front-piece, as without this 
the mane is soon worn aAvay for four or five inches behind the ears, instead 
of two. Nothing so effectually spoils the appearance of the horse as a 
shabby mane ; and the trifling outlay necessary to procure a front-piece is 
never regretted by those who care about looks. One or two rope halters 
are also required, hj which the horse is tied up, or led out of doors when he 
is being dressed after his work, or while he is being cooled when he comes 
home in a sweat. The price of the leather head-collar is from 5s. to 
8.S. Gd. ; that of a rope halter varying from 6d. to Is., according to quality. 
In addition to tliis, two head-collar reins must be provided for each horse, 
costing 7s. 6d. per pair, and a sinker, or weight, for each, to keep them 
always out of reach of the horse's legs, costing Is. In all private stables, 
the former are made of leather, with a billet and buckle, by which tlie 
head-collar is attached on each side. The sinker must be heavy enough for 
the work which it has to do ; and if not of iron, it should be made of 
some hard wood. If these reins and sinkers are so arranged that when 
the horse is standing comfortably near the manger, the weight is just 
taken by the floor, they Avill be no annoyance to the animal, and will 
prevent the serious accidents Avhich follow upon getting the leg over 
the rein. 



216 THE EORSE. 

HoRSE-CLOi'HiNG varies in make, quality, and price, from tlie small rug, 
costing about 6s., to the complete suit of body-clothes, which will be 
charged for by first-rate saddlers at the rate of about six guineas or seven 
guineas. Rugs are made of the same materials as our household blankets, 
dyed according to taste ; and betAveen the quality of those used by small 
dealers or hverymen, on the one hand, and in well-appointed private 
stables on the other, there is as much difference as between a workhouse 
blanket and a " best Witney." The former are small, thin, and light, easily 
torn, and soon wearing out ; while the latter are large, warm, and tolerably 
stout and enduring, though not being twilled, like the serge used for body 
clothes, they tear much more readily. An undyed coarse serge is now used 
in many livery stables, Avhich is cheap, strong, and enduring; but it shows 
every stain, and is not calcidated to please the eye. If rugs are used, they 
will be found to last much longer when bound with strong galloon; and 
it is an excellent plan to have them made, as they now frequently are, 
with a projecting piece on the off side in front, which -wraps round the 
breast of the horse, and buckles over the near side, so as to protect this 
part of the horse, both indoors and out. A roller, well padded, to keep 
the pressure off the backbone, completes this kind of clothing; but 
in well- managed stables, it is customary to keep two rugs, one for the day 
and the other to be put on at night. The object of this is not only for the 
sake of appearances, but to enable the groom to keep the inside as well as 
the out dry and clean. A rug which is constantly on the horse soon 
becomes matted Avith hair, scurf, and SAveat, which must occasionally be 
brushed, or cA^en Avashed off; for Avithout this the insensible persj)iration 
constantly thrown off by the horse's skin has not a sufficient means of 
escape. The suit of body clothing is made of thick, strong, and warm 
serge, and consists of a quarter-piece, a breast-piece, and a hood. The 
quarter-piece is cut so as to cover the body of the horse, and the two sides 
do not meet in front, so that an open space is left to be covered by the 
breast-piece, Avhich somcAvhat resembles a short man's apron in its form, 
and is buckled to the quarter-piece on each side of the Avithers, where the 
latter has a strong piece of leather stitched on, to enable it to stand the 
drag. The hood is cut to the shape of the head and neck, having holes 
for the eyes and coverings for the ears, resembling those organs in shape. 
The muzzle is uncovered for about six inches, and a strap acd buckle con- 
fine the hood to this part; Avhile a number of strings tie it under the 
angle of the jaAV and beloAV the neck, in such a way as to let it loosely 
overlap the quarter-piece and breast-piece. AJl these three divisions are 
neatly bound, and the Avhole looks Avell upon the horse, when nicely put 
on Avith the roller buckled smoothly over the quarter-piece. A cord is 
sometimes used to confine the quarter-piece behind, when there is much 
Avind. It is simply attached on each side, so as to lie beneath the tail 
across the quarters of the horse. Body clothing is made of different 
degrees of stoutness, according to the time of year when it is to be worn. 
Eacehorses, Avhich are not intended to be trauied during the winter, do 
not require such stout clothing as hunters, and their sheets in the summer 
are made of very light serge. EroAAai-holland is not fit for any season, for 
CA^en m our summer the nights are often unexpectedly cold. The follow- 
ing are the prices at Avhich good rugs and clotlnng may be obtained fit foi 
private use : — „ , 

Horse Blankets, 9 quarter, extra heavy 18 

Ditto, cut out at neck 110 

Ditto, ditto, 8 quarter, extra heavy 16 



STABLE IMPLEMENTS. ^17 

£ s. d. 

Best Body Rollers, extra strong 0126 

Complete suit of Superfiue Kersey Horse Clotliiug, boviud nnd 

edged with. Superfine Cloth, stitched throughout with Silk, 

Initials, &c., all complete 4 15 

Complete Suit of Summer Horse Clothing, stitched throughout 

with Silk, Initials 1150 

Complete Suit of Blanket Horse Clothing, with Hood, full Breast 

Cloth, Roller, Initials, &c., extra heavy, all complete ... 3 10 

Sweating Hoods, lined throughout 126 

Sweaters are merely warm rugs or blankets wliicli are kept for that 
especial purpose, and are shaped according to the part they are intended 
to cover, being kept in their places by the body clothing. Thus if the 
neck is too heavy, as it often is, especially in entire horses, and it is 
desired to reduce this part more than any other, one, two, or three old 
hoods, according to circumstances, with the ears cut away, are put on 
under the regular hood, and the horse is then sweated, Tvith or without 
additional body sweaters, as may be decided on. If old hoods are not at 
liand, a rug is folded and placed over the neck, confining it in its place by 
a. temporary string across the forehead, and by the aid also of a hood over 
all. So again a rug may be arranged to sweat the bosom by foldmg it 
cornerwise lilve a woman's shawl and drawing the ends up over the 
withers, crossing them beneath the saddle. Sweaters for the body are 
simply rugs used for that purpose, Avhich may be one, two, or three 
beneath the quarter-piece, according to the amount of wasting which is 
intended. The saddle keeps all in place instead of the roller, which is 
not taken out of doors excep)ting for those horses which are only led in 
hand. Sweaters must be carefullv freed from the dried sweat by washing. 

The stable accessobies for cleaning and otherwise attendmg to the 
horse are the following, to which I have appended the average price, 
which will vary to some extent according to quality, and also to the 
fashionable nature of the establishment at which they are sold : — 

£ s. d. s. d. 

Currycomb, best -i knocker . 1 3 Leathers, each . Is. Qd. to 2 0' 

Mane comb 10 Rubbers, ordusters, eachls. to 1 6 

Body brush 5 Buckets, each 6 

Picker for pocket .... 16 Corn sieve 26 

Scraper ... .... 10 Measures, each 16 

Water-brush 4 Trimming scissors, bent and 

Pitchfork 16 straight 5 6 

Shovel 2 6 Singeing lamp 10 6 

Stable besoms, each . Gd. to 2 Oil brushes, each .... 1 6 

Sponges, per lb. . 11. Is. to 1 5 Bandages, woollen, per set . Q Q 

Manure basket 2 Ditto, linen, ditto . 6 6 

Stopping box 2 

The currycomb is intended to remove the scurf or scales of the scarf 
skin which are constantly produced from the true skin, and if allowed to 
remain at the roots of the hair have a tendency to confine the sweat, and 
thus interfere with the relief to the circulation which is afforded by that 
natural process. "When a horse's skin is once put into good order it may 
be kept clean without the use of the currycomb, but a dirty coat cannot 
Avell be got right by any other means. The body brush does not penetrate 
deeply enough unless the coat of the horse is very thin and short, and no 
amount of whisping will be of the slightest use. The currycomb there- 
fore must be j)rovided for every groom, and indeed it is wanted not only 
to cleanse the skin, but also to remove the dust from the brush. But the 



218 THE HOUSE. 

less it is used the better, and the thorough]}^ good groom will chiefly 
employ it for his brush. There are several iDatterns ia use, but tlie chiet 
point to be attended to is the depth of the teeth, which should not be cut 
more than the eighth of an inch deep, and should only be on alternate 
rows of the comb itself There is a great difference in the modes of hand- 
ling this comb adopted by good and bad grooms. The former sweep it 
lightly over the sldn, just effecting their object T^-ithout absolutely scratch- 
ing the surface, wliile the latter bear heavily upon it, and punish the horse 
to such an extent as often to cause even a naturally good-tempered animal 
to use liis teeth or heels most savagely. So also a light thin-coated horse 
even when very dirty and full of scurf, as it will inevitably be after lying 
by in a loose-box or at grass, does not reqtiire the comb to be pressed 
hard upon the skin, yet the stupid and ignorant groom makes no dif- 
ference in his favoiu-, but works away just as he would if dressing the 
woolly winter coat of a cart-horse. During the time when a horse is 
shedding his coat the currycomb should be banished from the stable, for 
neither it nor the brush should be employed at that time. 

TuE MANE COMB is merely a strong horn, iron, or compressed india- 
rubber comb, with teeth of a suitable degree of coarscv.pps. 

Body brushes are made of hog's bristles, of an ova! shape, about nine 
inches long by four and a half wide, with a strap of webbing across the 
back to hold them firmly to the hand. They are wanted at all times but 
during moulting, when their use makes the next coat come on coarser 
than it otherwise would. This arises from the fact that the brush brings 
off the old coat too soon, thereby chiding the skin and stimulating the 
glands which secrete the hair, to develop it more stoiitly and of greater 
length than they would otherwise do. To produce a beautiful new coat 
the old one should be kept on as long as possible, just as we find in the 
sheep which is not shorn, but allowed to shed its wool, the next growth 
will be much shorter and lighter. 

The picker is merely a blunt hook for clearing away the gravel which 
gets between the shoe and the foot of the horse while at work. It is 
better made to fold up like the pocket button-hook for our own use. 

Water brushes are either made of split whalebone or of a kind of 
reed, which is cheaper but docs not last so long. They are intended to 
wash off the dirt from the legs and feet, and out of the soles of the latter. 

The use op the pitchfork and shovel is too well known to need 
description here. 

Stable btiooms are either made of birch or of split whalebone, the 
choice being dependent upon price, which varies according to the locality. 
Either will answer the purpose well, and where birch can be readily 
obtained, its price is so low as to beat whalebone out of the market, good 
besoms of this make being in many parts of England to be bought at 3d. 
or Ad. apiece without the handle, which will last out an indefinite 
number. In London, however, whalebone will compete with them in 
economy, birch brooms being sold there at Is. apiece, while whalebone, 
which Avill last out three or four of them, may be obtained for 3s. 

Sponge is an expensive article in the stable, for as it is constantly in 
use it soon decays. To employ it to the best advantage a double supply 
should always be on hand, one of each of the sizes wanted being in use for 
a week, and then put by to dry for a similar period. In this way a soft, 
flabby, and nearly worn-out sponge recovers its texture in a marvellous 
manner, and sponge carefully treated on the plan I have described wiU 
last fully three times as long as if it is constantly kept wet from first to 



STABLE IMPLEMENTS. 219 

last. Few grooms, liowever, Avill carry out economical priiicii^les to this 
extent without the constant interference of the master, and if the experi- 
ment is tried it should be really ascertained that the alternate periods of 
use and renovation are rigidly adliered to. In ordinary stables one large 
piece of sponge about eight or nine inches square when wetted, another 
five or six inches square, and a still smaller piece, will be sufficient. 

The manuee basket is either of the ordinary broAvn willow work, or it 
is made, where willows are scarce, of split wood, interlaced on the same 
principle. 'No good stableman should be Ttnprovided with this accessory, 
which enables him to save litter, and also to keep his horse clean and 
comfortable. 

The stopping box is an oblong box of oak or elm about fifteen to 
eighteen inches long, nine wide, and six deep. This is filled with fresh 
cowdung, mixed with an equal quantity of clay, to which some stablemen 
add one-fourth or less of pitch ointment, but the dung is the essential 
ingredient, its use consisting in its great tendency to keep moist and also 
to moisten the surface to which it is applied. This is so great that a 
thin sole or a fungous frog may be readily made to waste away by decom- 
position if the stopping is applied constantly to them. As much 
harm is often done by overdoing the stopping as by omitting to use it 
altogether. 

Leathers are used of the full size sold in the shops, to finally dress 
over the coat of the horse, and also to wipe the saddlery. Like the 
sponge they form an expensive item in the accounts of the groom. 

Eubbers or dusters, as they are sometimes called, are made of coarse 
hnen, wliich shordd be twilled if economy is studied. Calico does not 
answer the purpose. Erom six to twelve rubbers, each about two feet 
square, will be wanted, the number depending upon the extent of 
the stable. 

Two buckets at the least must bo provided for each groom, one being 
kept for clean water, and the other for washing legs and feet, dirty 
saddlery, &c. None but well-made oak buckets should be admitted into 
any stalole. 

The corn sieve is employed to get rid of the dust, which all corn con- 
tains, more or less, and also to expose a large surface of it, so that any 
stones in it may be readily discovered. One only is wanted in each stable, 
the head-groom alone being entrusted with the feeding of the horses. 

A quartern and a half-quartern ME.VSURE Will be indispensable, 
both being wanted for oats, and the latter for beans. 

Trimming scissors are necessary, with straight as well as curved blades, 
to keep down those hairs which cannot be got rid of by pulling; as, for 
example, a few of the strongest in each fetlock. They should never be 
used where the hand, aided by powdered resin, is able to draw the 
hair out. 

A singeing lamp, to bo used cither with naphtha or gas, should form a 
part of every list of stable implements ; for even if the groom is not com- 
petent to singe the body of the horse, he should, at all events, use it 
occasionally to keep down the long and loose hairs which keep growing 
about the jaws, neck, quarters, and legs. If a horse is singed ever so well 
in October, and even if the operation is repeated in November, he will be 
rough to the eye in the fbllowing month, and in January he will be quite 
unfit for a gentleman's use. Any groom, however, Avho has the slightest 
skill in the use of his hands, can avoid this by skimming over these parts 
with the lamp ; and, indeed, most head-grooms in the present day ara 



220 THE HORSE. 

abltj to do Avithout the fiid of the professed singer and clipper, by repeated 
applications of the lamp. 

Oil brushes are required, and also a small can of either neat's-foot or 
fish oil, to apply to the outside of the feet before going out of the stable, 
and the former also to dress the saddlery and harness when required. 

Bandages are of two kinds ; firstly, of flannel, for the purpose of keep- 
ing the legs warm, when they have been washed, or during illness ; and, 
secondly, of linen, cotton webbing, or unbleached calico, to give support 
to the vessels, and keep the legs and feet cool. Both should be about 
seven inches wide and five or six yards long, and should finish off by 
turning the corners down to a point where two strings are sewn, which 
tie round the leg, and prevent the last turn becoming loose. The strings 
are rolled inwards, so as to come out last ; and the whole should be firmly 
and smoothly rolled np some hours before they are to be applied, so as to 
get rid of the creases left during the last application. 

FOOD AND WATEE. 

In Gbeat Britain and Ireland horses are chiefly fed upon grass 
(green or dried into the form of hay), corn, chaff (wliich is hay cut u]j with 
straw into short lengths), and roots of various kinds ; but in addition may 
be mentioned the following kinds of green food — namely, clover, tares or 
vetches, lucerne, rye-grass, saintfoin, green oats, gorse or fm'ze, and, lastly, 
the various stimulating mixtures which have lately come into fashion, 
being sold under the name of Thorley, Henri, &c. 

Grass is undoubtedly the natural food of the horse, though in his 
native plains the same species of plants are not met with as form the 
green surface of our own fields. English horses, however, may now be 
said to be thoroughly accustomed to our grasses, which seem to agree with 
these anunals so "well as to be one main cause of their superiority. The 
water grasses, which constitute a large proportion of the herbage found in 
our lowland meadows, are not suited to the constitution of the animal; 
and he wiR not take them, unless forced to do so by the absence of other 
and preferable food. On our uplands, clover (either white or red) is gene- 
rally more or less mixed ; and in proportion to their presence will the 
pasture suit the horses turned out to graze upon them. A sound and 
moderately young animal gets fat during the summer and autumn months, 
when turned out on a good upland meadow ; but he is not able to undergo 
long-continued exertion, especially at a fast pace, partly because the 
amount of fat accumulated in his internal organs interferes with his Avind, 
but chiefly from the fact that grass does not supply sufficient muscle- 
making materials for the Avear and tear of his fi'ame. If the horse is 
alloAved as much oats as usual, and has regular exercise, he Avill be able to 
do a good day's work AvhUe at grass ; but he Avill sw^eat profusely, and on 
that account, if he is requu'ed to repeat his task often, he Avill lose flesh 
and become jaded in his sj^irits. For these reasons, grass is not commonly 
used as food for the horse, excepting for the purpose either of keepmg him 
cheaply and conA'eniently, Avhile he is undergoing treatment for some 
accident or disease, or to afford a renovating change after a long-continued 
course of hay and corn. For the former of these purposes, the horse is 
generally turned into the fields ; but for the latter, he is very often sup- 
plied Avitli cut-grass, or some other kind of green food, in his stall or box. 
The effect of grass, Avhen given by itself, is apparent in its action on the 
boAvels, which is at first very marked, and also on the kidneys and skin. 



FOOD AND WATER. .221 

These increased secretions subside in the course of a few ciays to a cijn- 
siderable extent, but continue, more or less, as long as the grass continues 
to be the sole article of food. This Avill, of course, account for the cooling 
effect always remarked on horses at grass, in which inflamed joints and 
swelled legs rapidly subside, and inflammatory diseases of most kinds have 
a tendency to abate. The amount of nourishment contained in grass is 
small as comjjared with its bulk, and hence the belly of every horse 
enlarges considerably while at grass, because of the necessity for a larger 
quantity being contained within it, so as to afford a sufficient means of 
nutrition. Winter grass, which contains no clover, from this plant not 
bemg of a nature sufiiciently hardy to stand the frost, is so void of 
nourishment, that the horse confined to it alone speedily becomes very 
poor, and will almost starve if he has not some hay or corn. 

Hat is not merely grass cut when most full of nourishment — that is, 
just when the seeds are ripening — but it is also subjected to a degree of 
fermentation, which converts some of the starch into sugar. Until this 
change has been fully gone through, the hay is not wholesome ; and 
hence new hay has obtained a character for producing worms, which is 
not without some foundation ; the reason being that the stomach and 
bowels are put out of order; and this being a necessary condition pre- 
vious to the development of the ova of parasitic animals, it is a natural 
consequence that worms should be more frequently met with in horses 
fed upon new hay, than in those whose digestive organs are strengthened 
by the healthy stimulus of sound old bay. Of course, fodder of all kinds 
may be too old, as well as too new; but well-made hay does not begin, to 
lose its good qualities till after the second winter, and remains perfectly 
i'lt for ordinary purposes during at least another twelvemonth. There are 
several varieties of hay growTi and sold throughout the country, which 
may be divided into three principal growths ; viz. uj)land hay, in which 
no water grasses are met with, aiid Avhich generally contains a large pro- 
portion of clover ; meadow or lowland hay, made up of the various Idnds 
of water grasses and plants fond of wet soils ; and clover hay, which is 
made from the common red clover, without any admixture of grasses. Of 
these, upland hay is alone fit for horses used at high speed ; and no other 
should ever be admitted into the stables of the private gentleman, except 
clover intended to be cut into chaff. 

Good old Upland Hay is linown by its peculiarly sweet and grateful 
smell, and by being made up of fine dry bents of grass with the seeds well 
developed, mixed with a small proportion of white clover. The colour 
should neither be a bright green nor a dark brown, an intermediate shade 
of brownish green being the best, and showing by its green cast that the 
bay has not been lying out in the rain, and by the absence of any deep 
blackish brown tint that it has not been put together too soon and thereby 
become heated. A rick of good hay may be entirely spoiled by a want of 
proper caution in getting it in, and many a one has taken fire from this 
omission, or if not absolutely burnt it has been so heated that it cuts quite 
black and is unfit for food. If the hay is dusty it is either from having 
been flooded, which marks its lowland character, and in which case the 
dust is of a mineral nature ; or the vegetable material becomes powdery 
from being overheated, — and thereby rendered brittle, and easily broken 
down by the slightest friction. Experience alone can enable the purchaser 
to select exactly the proper kind and condition of hay, but if once a good 
sample is carefully examined by the eye and nose it can scarcely be 
forgotten. "When hay has been burnt it is not always at first refused 



222 THE HOUSE. 

even by the most dainty horse, but in a day or two he finds it disagrees 
with his stomach, and he will then leave the contents of his raclc 
untouched. Of course there are many degrees of "mowburn," but unless 
the hay is only slightly affected it is l^etter to avoid using it, as it may 
produce irreparable injury on the stomach or lungs. Half rations of good 
food are far better than an unlimited quantity of bad hay and corn, and 
this the horsemaster soon learns by experience, but often not until he has 
paid for it by the production of some serious disease. The staying powers 
of the horse are dependent upon the quantity and quality of the corn he 
has eaten, but his health is chiefly affected by his hay. Tliis is an 
important consideration to every stableman, and of its truth I am con- 
vinced from thii'ty years' experience with my own horses as well as 
numberless others. Such are the qualities and evidences of good hay; 
let us now examine into those belonging to this kind of food when it is 
of an opposite nature. 

Musty hay may be detected by its p)eculiar smell, by its dark colour 
and mouldy appearance, wliich last is produced by the fungous growths 
that are the seat of the mischief. Sometimes these fungi have been de- 
veloped without any heat, which generally occurs when the hay has been 
left out in bad weather, and has been got in at last pretty well dried in 
the main, but Avith a few damp patches mixed in with the rest. These 
are not suflicient to develop the fermentation, of Avhich excessive heating 
is the result ; but, remaining damp, they give rise to fungi instead. No 
hay is so unwholesome as this, and it is instinctively refused by all horses 
until they are driven to eat it by starvation. Salt is often used to induce 
horses to eat it, but, though it will have that effect to a certain extent, it 
scarcely makes it at all less unwholesome, and the groom must not fancy 
that his charge will escape the ill effects which result from musty hay in 
every shape. It is also often cut into chaff with straw ; but this plan also 
has no advantage ; and in every way musty hay may be considered as a 
poison to the horse, and not a very slow one. 

Weather-beaten hay is that which has lain out in the rain for many days 
before it could be got in dry. It is generally but not necessarily musty, 
but if not so, it is devoid of nourisliment, the soluble matters fit for food 
having been mostly washed out of it. It may be known by its faint, 
sickly smell, by its sapless and withered appearance, by the absence of 
seed, and by the presence of dust. The colour varies greatly, depending 
upon the management ; for if the hay has not been put together in cocks 
during the making, it does not blacken, but remains of a pale, dirty, olive 
green. Ifo one who cares for the health and condition of the inmates of 
his stable should use such hay in it ; for he will fijad it not nearly se 
nourishing as good barley straw, while it will assuredly disagree with the 
stomachs of his horses, and then not only do no good to them, but prove 
positively injmious. 

The quantity of hay which is required, if given alone, will average about 
1'^ cwt. per week for a horse of middle size and good constitution. This, 
however, is but an approximation to the truth ; for m haK-a-dozen horses 
there wiU be scarcely two which will require the same quantity of food to 
keep them in health. Hay alone is poor food, and, unless corn is given 
with it, the stomach refuses to digest enough for the nourishment of the 
body. Some low-bred animals are like donkeys in their constitutions, 
and will thrive upon hay alone ; but these are exceptions to the rule, and 
they are only to be met with among horses which have been brought up 
on this poor diet. I have known one stable in Vi^hich the carriage-horses 



FOOD AND WATEH. 2^3 

were kept on salted liay, without ever tasting corn at home ; but though 
they looked fat enough, and were certainly full of life, they Avere unable 
to do fast work, and indeed they were only used for short distances at 
any time. If a projoer allowance of corn is made, from ten to fourteen 
pounds of hay per day will be ample, the quantity varying with the constitu- 
tion of each horse and with his allowance of corn. Sometimes clover hay is 
cut into chafi' in addition to the meadow hay, which is put in the racks, 
and then an allowance shoidd be made, as there is more nourishment in 
the clover than in the ordinary grasses. In well-managed stables, each 
horse of average size will consume from two tons to two tons and a half 
of hay m the course of the year, and this will cost on the average from 
10^. to 13^. 

Horse corn consists of oats and beans, to which may be added peas 
and Indian corn, the last kind of food having recently been used to some 
extent in farm stables, in imitation of the Americans. Barley and wheat 
have occasionally been tried, especially the former when malted ; but 
they have not been found to possess any advantage, and, on the contrary, 
they have generally disagreed with the stomach to a A^ery appreciable 
extent. Wheat bran is in very general use, and also linseed. 

Oats contain a large amount of nutriment as compared with hay, but 
they have a thick husk, which is sometimes so considerable in proportion 
to the mealy kernel that a bushel may not weigh more than thirty 
pounds. Oats should not weigh less than thirty-nine pounds per imperial 
bushel, but, if t'lei/ are sweet, I prefer, for ordinary Avork, laying out the 
money which is considered sufficient for the pui'pose in a moderately 
light oat, rather than in a heavy one, which latter always bears a very high 
price. Thus, selecting tAVO samples, equally sweet and of the same age, 
one of which weighs forty-three pounds per bushel and the other thirty- 
eight pounds, it will be foiind that the lieaA^ oats will fetch about one- 
third more money than the lighter sample, though the additional av eight 
is barely one-eighth. This arises from the scarcity of the best oats, Avhicli 
are eagerly sought after by the trainers of racehorses, and by hunting- 
grooms, as well as by all those Avho cater for their stables regardless of 
expense. It is found by experience that horses will only consume a 
certain bulk of oats ; and as the quantity of this kind of food which is 
eaten is generally considered to be the measure of condition, grooms and 
trainers come to the conclusion that if they can get their horses to take 
three bushels of heavy oats during the Aveek instead of the same bulk of 
Hghter ones, they AviU have benefited to the extent of the difference in 
weight between the one sample and the other. As far as those horses are 
concerned Avhich are allowed as much corn as they will eat, this calcula- 
tion is perfectly correct, and hence the high price of heavy oats is perfectly 
in accordance Avith reason and experience ; but the same argument for 
their adoption Avith hacks and harness-horses does not hold good. Very 
few of these latter animals are allowed an unlimited quantity of oats, 
which indeed would do them absolute harm, as the work they do seldom 
demands it. Omnibus and cab horses are worked to the utmost extent of 
Avhich their poAvers are capable, and on them a heavy oat or good sound 
bean aaoU ahvays be weU bestoAved ; but hacks and private-carriage horses 
are not so worn down by muscular exertion, and, if they Avere fed like the 
cab and omnibus horse, they Avould soon become diseased, and in the 
meantime Avould often be quite unmanageable. Hence, supposing each of 
these private horses is allowed tliree quarterns of heavy oats per day, I 
contend it Avill do him more good to give him a peck of light ones 



224 THE HORSE. 

costing the same money, only taking care that they are equally sweet and 
sound. Three and a half qi;arterns of the one will, probably, about equal 
the three quarterns of the other ; and thus a slight saving may be 
effected, the former costing about threepenee less than the latter, making 
a difference of nearly two shillings j)er week. I have tried tliis plan for 
a series of years, and found it to answer well ; my horses haA^ing always 
been full of condition, and costing me, on an average of years, nine 
shillings and a fraction of a penny per head for food and litter. Oats 
should never be given wliile they are new, and until the March winds 
have dried the last year's crop it is seldom fit for horse food. Indeed, 
this is, on the average, too early a period to begin using oats as a rule, 
especially for horses consuming large quantities of them ; but for hacks 
and harness-horses they do not hurt by that time. Good oats may be 
laiown by their plump look, and full, hard feel to the touch, by their 
sweet smell and taste, by their bright straw colour, and by the absence of 
dust and stones. As before remarked, they should weigh from thirty-nine 
to forty-one pounds per bushel. They will keep good for two or three 
years in the rick. 

New oats are indigestible, and act prejudicially on the bowels and 
kidneys. As a natural consequence, the horse eating them becomes 
flabby in his flesh, sweats profusely, and often throws out the eruption 
known as " surfeit." If it is necessary to use them at once, they should 
be Idln-dried ; and this plan is always resorted to for oats which are im- 
ported into this coimtry, to prevent the heating -which would occur in the 
hold of the vessel from the bullv which is lodged there, and which would 
soon make damp new oats musty. They may be recognised by their soft- 
ness to the touch, and by the wliite substance within each grain being 
pulpy and quite unlike flour, as it ought to be in old oats. EngHsh oats 
are considerably heavier than those of either of the sister kingdoms, and 
generally bring a much better price to the grower. Irish and Welsh oats 
are sweet, but light, and they contain a large number of stones, Avhich 
must be carefully removed in the sieve. When they are bruised, these 
stones are very apt to injure the teeth of the mill, and should be carefully 
picked out before putting them into the hopper. A great many black 
oats are grown both in Ii-eland and Wales, and there is no objection to 
them on account of colour alone ; but it is apt to make the grower careless 
in getting them in, as they do not lose in appearance by damp so much as 
the white oat. The Scotch oat is particularly sound and good, being often 
as heavy as the English oat, and of a better quahty; so that the Scotch 
oatmeal is superior to all other. 

When oats are kiln-dried they are said by some fanciful stablemen to 
produce diabetes, but it does not appear that any prejudicial effect fol- 
lows merely from the artificial drying. Many of the oats so treated are 
previously damaged, and then of course they are likely to produce an 
injurious effect upon the stomach, but not from the mere drying itself. 
It is also a common practice to sulphur them at the same time for the 
pui'pose of improving the colour, and this may add to the diuretic effect. 
But there is very little, if any, injury done by small quantities of sulphur, 
and on that account alone an otherwise good sample of oats should not 
be rejected. 

Oats are either given whole, or converted into meal, when they are used 
in the shape of gruel, or they are bruised (sometimes called " Idbbled "). 
The entire oat is not alwaj's crushed by the grinders of the liorse, and it • 
then often passes through the digestive canal without losing its nutritive 



FOOD AND WATER. 225 

materials, indeed, it is by no means uncommon to see a large quantity of 
oats vegetating on a manure heap. Plence there is a great loss, for unless 
the oats swallowed are digested, they are quite useless in imparting 
nourishment, and to avoid this defect it is now very usual to bruise all the 
oats before they are put in the manger. I have already alluded to the 
oat-bruising machine as a necessary appendage in every stable, and I may 
only here remark, that the saving is supposed to be nearly one-fourth of 
the consumption. This estimate is in my opinion too high for young and 
vigorous horses, but for old ones it is accurate enough. There is a vast 
difference in horses, in respect to their power of digesting oats, and if the 
droppings of a number of these animals are carefully examined, this will 
be very apparent. Sometimes a whole oat can scarcely be found in a largo 
mass, while in other cases nearly fifty per cent, will be evidently undis- 
solved. Many people, and especially trainers of racehorses, have an idea 
that bruising oats- interferes with the wind of the horses to which they 
are given, bxxt tliis is purely imaginary, and cannot for a moment be sup- 
ported either on theoretical or experimental grounds. The bruising is always 
advantageous, but not to the same extent; still it cannot be denied that 
the labour of working the oat-bruisers is well bestowed. The grains 
should not be more than crushed, so as to readily admit the gastric juice to 
the floury kernel, all beyond this being more or less injurious. The 
quantity of this kind of food which is required depends upon the nature 
and amount of the work to be done, and upon the constitution and breed 
of each horse. Racehorses are now often induced to eat eight and even 
nine quarterns of oats daily, and hunters in a like proportion, but hacks 
and harness-horses seldom get more than from three to four quarterns 
daily, a bushel and a half per week being about the average, costing about 
4s. 6d. For ponies and horses doing very little work a proportionate 
reduction is made. 

Gruel is made from oatmeal, either with hot or cold water, in the latter 
case hardly deserving the name, but being the form in which it is too 
often given by ignorant and careless stablemen. To make it properly, one 
pound of good oatmeal should be carefully stirred up Avith suflicient cold 
water to form a tliin mixture of the consistence of cream, which will take 
nearly a quart. This is then stirred into three quarts of boiling water, 
and the whole kept stirred over the fi^re till it thickens, when it is to be 
set on one side to cool, being given when about lukewarm, or, if the horse 
is very much exhausted, a little warmer. It is an excellent restorative for 
a tired and exhausted hunter, and careful grooms provide it ready-made 
against their master's return from hunting. Raw gruel should only be 
given when time is an object, as, for instance, on a journey, when half 
an hour cannot be devoted to a regular feed. A pint of oatmeal may then 
be stirred up in some cold water, and given from a pail, affording as much 
nourishment as a feed of corn. 

Beans and Peas may be taken together, inasmuch as the nutritive 
matter contained in them is very nearly the same. Both are extremely 
stimulating to the horse, rendering him prone to inflammation when 
given in inordinate quantities, and always producing more or less 
flatulence. They each contain more than twice as much gluten as oats, 
the proportions, according to Professor Johnstone, in 100 parts, being 
11 in oats, 26 in beans, and 24 in peas. From this cause beans and peas 
supply the waste in the muscles produced by hard work, more completely 
than oats, and the former are therefore extensively used by cab and 
omnibus proprietors, as well as by farmers, who find them cheaper th.au 

Q 



22r> THE HORSE. 

oats. I .shall hereafter be able to make a comparative estimate of the 
value of the various articles of hcrse-food in muscle-making ingredients, 
from whicli it will be seen that they are right in their conclusions. For 
private horses, beans are generally too stimulating, and as they also have 
a tentlency to produce constipation, they should be useil with caution. 
Old horses, and those exposed to the wet, require them, and the effect ot 
a few in restoring condition, when it has been lost during wet and cold 
veather, is sometimes quite marvellous. Almost all horses are passion- 
ately fond of beans, and those which have been long used to them will 
hardly touch oats alone. In private stables, when beans are given, they 
are generally mixed with three or four times their weight of oats, half a 
quartern of beans daily being sufficient, when split, for most horses, when 
mixed with their usual allowance of oats. Of course this addition must 
be met by a diminution of the oats ; and thus a horse which has been 
allowed a peck of oats daUy, if he has a quartern of beans may be reduced 
to three quarterns of oats in addition. Wherever the feet or legs are in- 
clined t(j inflame, or there is any tendency to thick wmd or broken wind, 
beans are very injurious, and should be carefully avoided. Indeed, fot 
private work, I should never recommend them, excepting for old horses, 
or for those which are much exposed to the weather, and especially in 
standing about at night. In such cases beans are extremely valuable, 
always supposing that there are none of the diseases which I have in- 
stanced as aggravated by them. Many washy, light-carcased horses, which 
could not be made to do any work Avithout beans, may by their aid 
be rendered serviceable ; and although they are liable to great abuse, 
they are a very valuable adjunct to the stableman. Beans should never 
be used till they are nearly a year old, and after they are thrashed they 
require turning every ten days to keep them from becoming musl;y. 
They are very prone to the ravages of the weevil ; but so long as they are 
sweet and old the damage done by this larva is only from the loss ot 
substance, which they cause by scooping out the middle of the bean. 
Peas produce nearly the same effects as beans on the horse, but they are 
scarcely so digestible, and being more adapted for human food they bear 
a higher price in the market, so that they are comparatively seldom used. 
Tliirty years ago many trainers regularly used peas in their final prepara- 
tions, but neitlier one nor the other of the articles I am here describing 
are now introduced into the racing stable, except in some very rare cases. 
Beans and peas weigh from sixty to sixty-five pounds per bushel ; the 
price varying from thirty-five to sixty-five shillings for that quantity. 

Indian Corn has long been used in America as the ordinary food 
of horses, and it is said to suit them well. There is, however, a pre- 
judice against it in this country, which has prevented its being tried long 
enough to enable us to form a good opinion of its merits, as it takes somo 
time to accustom any animal to a change of food. For a long time it 
was said to be unfit for hounds and other dogs, but it is now admitted to 
be useful enough, excepting where the nose is required to be kept very 
cool, as in the hunting season. Cobbett recommended its use for horses, 
but Bracy Clarke, and other writers of his day, opposed the innovation, 
alleging that it clogged the stomach, and had a tendency to produce 
founder. I have myself known harness-horses fed upon it for six months 
at a time, without any manifest disadvantages, and with a considerable 
saving of money, oats being in the year the experiment was tried un- 
usually high as compared with other corn. No one should attempt to 
give it, in the present state of oiu" knowledge of its properties, to horses 



FOOD AND WATER. 



227 



mtended for fast ■work, but for road work it is worth trying w hen ever oats 
are proportionably dear. According to the following report, contained in 
the Transactions of the Arfierican Institute for 1855, and made to it by a 
member of the Farming Committee, from fourteen to twenty pounds of 
Indian meal is sufficient for the daily ration of the omnibus horses of New 
York ; whereas ours eat on the average from forty to sixty pounds of 
beans and oats. In the report the rate of travelling is said to be four 
miles per hour, but this must surely be a mistake, as no omnibus goes at 
so slow a rate. The rations seem extremely small, the highest being only 
thirty-four pounds of hay and corn together, which would in this country 
be quite inadequate for an omnibus horse, and thus the presumption is 
raised, that Indian corn is well suited to the digestive organs of tho 
American horse, and most probably to our own, as there is little difference 
between the two breeds. 



"EEPOET ON THE MANAGE]\IENT OF OMNIBUS HOESES IN 

NEW YOEK. 









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STAGE LINES. 




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Red Bird Stap;e Line 


116 
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227 


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21 
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18 
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184 


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Spring Street ditto 


Seventh Avenue ditto 




Sixth Avenue Railroad 


Horses . 
Mules , 


117 
211 


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New York Consolidated 


Stage Co. 


335 


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" It is the object of the stage proprietors to get aU the work out of 
their teams possible, without injury to the animals. Where the routes 
are shorter,- the horses consequently make more trips, so that the different 
amounts and proportions of food consumed are not so apparent when tho 
comparison is made between the different lines, as when it is made also 
with the railroad and livery horses. The stage horses consume most, and 
the livery horses least. 

" The stage horses are fed on cut hay and corn meal wet, and mixed in 
the proportion of about one pound of hay to two pounds of meal, a ratio 
adopted rather for mechanical than physiological reasons, as this is all 
the meal that can be made to adhere to the hay. The animals eat this 
mixtm-e from a deep manger. The New York Consolidated Stage Company 
use a very small quantity of salt. They think it causes horses to urinate 
too freely. They find horses do not eat so much when worked too hard. 
The large horses eat more than the small ones. Prefer a horse of 1,000 
to 1,100 pounds' weight. If too small, they get poor, and cannot draw a 
stage; if too large, they ruin their feet, and their shoulders grow stiff and 
shrink. The principal objection to large horses is not so much tlie in- 
creased amount of food required, as the fact that they are soon used up by 
wear. They would prefer for feed a mixture of half corn and half oats, if 

q2 



228 THE HORSE. 

it were not more expensive. Horses do not keep fat so well on oats alone, 
if at hard labour, as on corn meal, or a mixture of the two. 

" Straw is best for bedding. If salt hay is used, horses eat it, as not 
more than a bag of 200 pounds of salt is used in three months, Glauber 
salt is allowed occasionally as a laxative in the spritig of the year, and 
the animals eat it voraciously. If corn is too new, it is mixed with an 
equal weight of rye bran, which prevents scouring. Jersey yellow corn 
is best, and horses like it best. The hay is aU cut, inixed with meal, and 
fed moist. No difference is made between day and night work. The 
travel is continuous, except in warm weather, when it is sometimes 
divided, and an interval of rest allowed. In cold weather the horses are 
watered four times a day in the stable, and not at all on the road. In 
warm weather, four times a day in the stables, and are allowed a sip on 
the middle of the route. 

'•' The amount that the company exact from each horse is all that he 
can do. In the worst of the travelling they fed 450 bags per week of 
meal, of 100 pounds each. They now feed 400. The horses are not 
allowed to drink when warm. If allowed to do so, it founders them. In 
warm weather a bed of sawdust is prepared for them to roll in. Number 
of hoi'ses, 335. Speed varies, but is about foior miles an hour. Horses 
eat more in cold weather than in warm, but the difference cannot be 
exactly determined." 

From this report it may be gathered that it is possible to keep horses 
doing hard but slow work upon hay and Indian meal, and as in this 
country the former article is very superior to that made in America, there 
is every reason to beUeve that the latter might be used to greater advan- 
tage when mixed with it. 

The price of Indian corn per bushel ia tliis country is generally a trifle 
higher than that of the best English oats, and, therefore, \inless it went much 
further it would be no economy to use it. As, however, it appears from 
the above report that from fourteen to twenty pounds will sufl&ce to keep 
a hard-working omnibus horse, it follows that its use is very economical 
if it can be made to answer the purpose equally well with our English 
corn. 

Barley and wheat are generally too costly to compete with oats and 
beans in feeding horses ; but sometimes the former is malted, and in that 
state it is found to fatten farm horses, even if it does not contribute to 
the support of their muscular systems. Horses greedily devour wheat 
either in the shape of grain or made into bread, but in the former state it 
is very indigestible. It is so seldom that wheat is cheaper in proportion 
to its weight than oats, that unless some great advantage could be clearly 
shown to accrue from the use of it, no one would dream of employing it 
to feed horses, aud as there is every reason to beHeve that it is not even 
nearly equal to them, we may dismiss it from our consideration. The 
husk separated from the meal in the shape of bran is a very important 
article in all stables, having a cooling effect from its laxative properties 
when made into a mash with water. Dry bran is often given with sliced 
carrots, with which it makes an excellent food for slow working horses ; 
but there is not any great amount of nourishment in it by itself. Bran 
mash is made either hot or cold. In either case a bucket is half filled 
with bran, and then as much water as it will absorb is poured upon it, 
and if hot it is put by tdl nearly cold, being closely covered up in the 
meantime. All horses which are not incKned to scour should, when they 
axe kept on hnj and coin^ have a mash once a week, selecting the night 



KOOTS. 229 

before the most idle day in it. The effect is a gentle action on the bowels 
without purgation, by which all tendency to mechanical stoppage is pre- 
vented without weakening the horse. On the evening when the mash is 
given the usual feed of corn is omitted, the hay being given in slightly 
reduced quantity, unless the bowels are very confined, when a bucketful 
of mash may be given by itseK ; but few horses will eat more than half 
a bucket of bran. 

Linseed, like bran, is chiefly used medicinally, that is to say, to produce 
certain effects upon the body which are not required to be permanent. 
These are, first, to increase the fatty matter deposited in the flesh ; and 
secondly, to soothe the air passages or the mucous membranes generally. 
For the former purpose half-a-pint or a pint of linseed is scalded and set 
to simmer by the fire till it has become a glutinous mass, when it is mixed 
up with a quart of bran, and is given every night till the desired change is 
produced. To produce an effect upon the mucous membrane, the linseed 
should be boiled slowly in two quarts of water, and this should be mixed 
with a quart of bran, and given as warm as the horse will eat it, 

Hempseed is occasionally given to entu'e horses, but it cannot be con- 
sidered as a regular article of food. 

Chaff is composed of hay and straw, or clover hay alone, or sometimes 
barley straw by itself, cut into sliort lengths. It is given mixed with the 
corn, the object being to induce the horse to masticate this thoroughly. In 
many large cab and omnibus stables, as well as those where horses stand 
at livery, no hay is given excepting what is cut up with stra^v in the 
shape of chaff. Here the object is to induce the horse to grind his corn 
well and quickly, so that his whole body, but especially his legs, will be 
refreshed in the recumbent position. The plan seems to answer well 
under the peculiar conditions in which such horses are placed, but there 
can be no doubt that it is unsuited to produce the highest condition of 
which the horse is capable. Moreover, it is a great object to amuse the 
animal when he is not worked very hard, and this is far better done by 
gi\dng him some portion of the hay in his rack for him to play with, than 
by cutting all of it up into chaff. For these reasons the practice in 
private stables is to cut up about" two bushels of chaff for each horse 
weekly, thus allowing about a peck a day to mix with an equal quantity 
of corn. This is quite enough to induce him to grind his oats and beans, 
if he has any, without depriving him of liis amusemejit in picking his 
hay out of his rack. I am quite aware that in large establi.shments 
economy is practised by cutting all the hay into chaff, but the saving per 
head is small, and is not worth attention for private horse-keepers, if it 
can be shown that it affects the health or comfort of the horse in the 
slightest degree. In London clover-hay is extensively used by itself as 
chaff, but elsewhere throughout England the practice is to cut up equal 
quantities of barley or wheat straw, with some of the hay that is provided 
for the racks. These are placed in alternate layers in the chaff-cutting 
machine, and they are thus sufficiently amalgamated to prevent the horse 
from picldng out the one and leaving the other. If the master has not 
obtained a machine, there are in all towns men who go about with one to 
cut the chaff once a week at a small sum per bushel. 

EOOTS. 

Carrots and Parsnips are the only roots which are readily eaten by 
the horse, and no others seem to agree with him well. . The effect of each 



230 THE HORSE. 

is nearly the same, proving slightly aperient and dinretic at first, and 
then serving to cool the system. After a short time they fatten him, and 
may be continued for months together without inconvenience. It is 
supposed that two pounds of carrots are about equal in nourishment to 
one pound of oats, but they do not possess the same amount of muscle- 
making material, and are therefore only suited to slow work. Parsnips 
are not often given in this country, but in France they are a very common 
kind of horse-food. Mangold-wurzel and common turnips are altogether 
refused by the horse, and he has no great fancy for Swedes, but by a 
little starvation he will eat them in small quantities. Whenever, there- 
fore, a change is desired during the wdnter, carrots alone supply the want, 
and they can only be given with advantage to those horses wliich are not 
doing hard work. They are made up chiefly of starch and sugar, and 
afi'ord little gluten and albumen as compared with oats. 

GEEEN FOOD SUITABLE FOE SOILIN"G HOESES. 

The object in giving green food to horses in the stable is generally to 
afi'ord them a temporary change for their unvarying rations of hay and 
corn without losing their condition entirely as they do when turned out. 
All the articles which are used for this purpose, and which I have 
enumerated at page 220, slightly purge the horse when first given, and 
act beneficially in that way for some two or three weeks. After this, 
however, they fatten him rapidly, and then, instead of doing the legs 
good, as is generally the intention, they make them more stale by increas- 
ing the weight of the carcase, as soon as the horse is put to work. 

Clover is greedily devoured by all horses, and fattens them quickly, but 
it is not suited to those cases Avhere a cooling diet is wanted to relieve 
inflamed jouats. 

Tares or Vetches when young are very relaxing, and they also act 
])0werfully on the kidneys. As soon as the seed is nearly ripe in them, 
they are nearly as stimulating as corn, and at that time only are they fit 
for horses at work. This ought to be known to all horse-masters, or 
they wlU be apt to make the mistake of giving young vetches to horses at 
work, and old ones to those which are put by to be freshened up. 

Lucerne is a good kind of green food, being neither so relaxing as 
young vetches, nor so stimulating as old ones. 

Eye-grass is chiefly to be recommended as coming very early in the 
year, when no other kind of green food can be obtained. 

Sainfoin is very similar to clover in its effects upon the horse, but is 
not quite so fattening. 

Green Oats are only given where the land is so poor that it will 
not produce clover or vetches. The crop is a very light one, and in an 
economical point of view it is not to be recommended, excepting for the 
reasons given above. 

GoRSE, Furze, or Whin makes a good food for horses that are not 
doing fast work, and in those situations where it can be procured it is 
most economical. As a change it acts quite as beneficially as any other 
green food, and sometimes it is the only kmd Avhich can be procured. 
The following is the method of using it : — It is cultivated by sowing it 
with a crop of barley or oats, and it is fit to cut the second autumn after 
planting. It is then mown every year during the winter, as required, 
with a common scythe, close to the ground. A tolerably good soil, dry 
enough for this plant, will cut from seven to ten tons per acre ; and the 



ARTIFICIAL CONDIMENTAL FOODS. 231 

same land has b(;en cut for fourteen years without loss of quantity or 
quality, hut after that time it required to be given up and a fresh planta- 
tion made on other land, as tlie roots became decayed. The plant best 
adapted for the purpose is very common in England, but is called the 
French furze, and it grows well upon an old Avoodland, stocked up, such 
as is often useless for other purposes ; but it must be dry. Half an acre 
of this laud is, on the average, enough to keep a horse twenty weeks ; on 
rich, loamy, dry land a quarter of an acre will serve for the same period, so 
itliat an acre of land may be made to keep two small cart-horses for more 
than a year, though it is better to give them grass in the summer. On 
the large scale, the mowing, carting, cutting, and bruising cost not quite 
a penny a bushel; but for small stables the expense would of course be 
greater. As, however, this item is generally a part of the groom's daily 
work, it is seldom taken into the calculation. The quantity of seed 
required is 201b. per acre, sown broadcast ; but it shoxdd be drilled as 
near in the rows as will admit of hand-hoeing for the first year or two, if 
the land is inclined to run to grass. It is not necessary to manure it, 
though in its consumption it creates a great deal. When once sown and 
well rooted, it yields a great quantity of food for cattle, at no other expense 
but the cutting, bruising, &c. In those districts Avhere winter food is 
short, it answers well to mow it as soon as the grass is gone, and then it 
lasts till grass comes again. If there is a threatening of snow, it is 
necessary to mow some quantity beforehand, as it will keep for some days 
unbruised. 

ARTIFICIAL CONDIMENTAL FOODS. 

During the last five or six years various artificially prepared foods 
have been introduced to the notice of the public, under the names of 
Thorlei/s Food for Cattle, Henri s Horse and Cattle Fond, &c. &c. The 
advertisements of the patentees would lead to the belief that their horse 
and cattle foods contain more real nourishment than the various kinds of 
food wliich have hitherto been given to horses and cattle ; but chemical 
analysis shows the incorrectness of these statements. The following 
■observations in The Field of the 18th of February, 1860, put the matter 
in its true light, and show that, as a mere article of food, these prepara- 
tions are far from economical : — 

"It is not surprising, when artificial foods should thus come to be 
adopted as so much fattening power, that various mixtures should be em- 
ployed largely impregnated with stimulating substances. They are thus 
made extremely palatable to the animal, who naturally enough thrives 
upon the good things provided for him. We will not now stop to inquire 
how far tJiis stimulus may be permanently beneficial, even admitting the 
temporary advantage ; our object is simply a cash account. If the price 
of cake, ranging at about 10^. a ton, forms the limit from which any ordi- 
nary return can be expected, how can an article sold at a price realising 
from 300 to 400 per cent, on the cost price of the materials of which it is 
composed, ever bring any return at all ] Such savoury condiments, dished 
Tip at from 40^. to 50/. a ton, have no more fattening powers than the 
oi'dinary cakes and meal, of which indeed their bulk is principally com- 
posed. Locust-beans, the different oil-cakes, and Indian corn form the 
basis of these cattle foods so often paraded before the public, with which 
sundry stimulants, making a kind of curry-pow^der concoction, are mixed 
up. This, though it may be highly agreeable, yet at the price above 
stated forms a most costly addition to the ordinary feeding cost, and an 



232 THE HOKSE. 

animal once pampered on such material can hardly fall back on ordinary 
food ; hence the price of fattening is greatly enhanced, but without any 
increase of the saleable carcase, for there is a natural limit in this direc- 
tion. A compound at 40^. a ton Avill make no more flesh than oil-cake 
at 10^. ; but if tlie farmer approves of and will have the compound, let 
him simply mix the materials himself There is no secret in the compo- 
sition, for the test is at hand in a simjole analysis. The following is an 
ordinary formula : — 

"to make one ton of meal. 

Cwt. qrs. lb. Price. 

Locust Bean, finely gi'ound, at 61. a ton . . . 6 — £116 

Indian Corn, at 7^. a ton 9 0—330 

JJest Linseed Cake, at 10^. a ton 300 — 110 

Powdered turmeric, at 8cZ. a lb 40 — 1 6 8 

Sulphur, at 2d a lb .. 40 — 6 8 

Saltpetre, at 5 rf. a lb 20 — 8 4 

Liquorice, at Is. a lb 27 — 17 

Ginger, at 6c?. a lb 3—016 

Aniseed, at 9rf. a lb 4 — 3 

Coriander, at 9d. a lb 0010—076 

Gentian, at 8cZ. a lb 10 — 6 8 

Cream of Tartar, at Is. 8d. alb 2 — 3 4 

Carbonate of Soda, at 4 (/. a lb 006 — 020 

Levigated Antimony, at 6(i. a lb 6 — 3 

Common Salt, at ^d a lb 30 — 1 3 

Peruvian Bark, at 4s. a lb 4 — 16 

Fenugreek, at 9d a lb 22 — 16 6 

Total 20 — 12 18 5 

" Looking at this composition, it will be evident at a glance that the 
chief ingredients are the orduiary commercial locust bean, Indian corn, 
and oil-cakes. These form its bidk, and constitute nine-tenths of the 
whole ; the remainder being made up of condiments and stimulants, the 
sulphur and antimony being intended to act upon the skin in the produc- 
tion of a fine coat, and the fenugreek forming a kind of mucilage to pre- 
vent any ill effects that might arise from the stimulating character of the 
food. These ingredients have no doubt been selected with skill, and an 
animal may be expected, and not unreasonably, to thrive upon such 
savoury substances. For this precious article (which it unquestionably is) 
the modest sum of about 4:2s. a cwt. is demanded, or at the rate of 4:21. a 
ton, or upwards of 200 per cent, on the cost price, even taken at the 
valuation given above, Avhich for the one-tenth or stimulating portion 
might be considerably reduced, if the several materials were bought at 
wholesale prices. We prefer, however, to take the ordinary trade valua- 
tion, in order to give the widest margin possible for the cost — tliis, after 
all, being tlie simple point at issue. If a farmer wishes for the article, the 
use of which, containing as it does so much stimulating matter, is very 
questionable, and chooses to pay from three to four times the intrinsic 
value, it is of course at his option to do so ; but as the whole question of 
farming is one of paying, we wdl put it plainly : Can it pay to feed 
animals on substances costing from 40^. to 501. a ton? A knowledge of 
the constituent elements of these foods may induce a pause before the 
outlay is made. Some supposed great secret has no doubt with a few 
acted as a charm, on the principle of omne ignotum 2>i'o magnifico; but the 
analysis at once dispels this illusion, and nothing remains but the cost and 
its result, mere matters of ordinary calculation." 



FOOD AND WATER. 233 

But though, this view of artificial condimental foods is quite correct, 
it is also true that as an occasional stimulus to a feeble stomach, they 
are highly useful. I have known horses terribly out of condition 
brought round by Thorleys food in an incredibly short space of time ; 
and used in this way, I beHeve it to be highly beneficial. But no stomacli 
will go on for ever answering to the same stimulus, and therefore, as a 
constant article of food it is perfectly useless. I can confidently recom- 
mend it for the former purpose, but for the latter it is dear even at the 
reduced rate at which it has been lately sold. 

Salt is the only kind of seasoning which has stood the test of experi- 
ence in this country, and even it is by no means generally employed. 
Some grooms give an ounce of common salt in the water daily, others 
give it by sprinkling it on the hay, while a third set leave a lump of rock 
salt constantly in the manger for the horse to lick. The last is the only 
really safe and useful mode of using this article, and I am persuaded that 
all horses mil thrive better if they are allowed a lump of rock salt con- 
stantly within their reach. The quantity which is thus taken is by no 
means large, for rock salt does not easily dissolve by the mere contact of 
the moist tongue. It is only to be procured in certain localities, where it 
is found in the earth in large quantities, the salt mines of Cheshire afford- 
ing the cliief supply for England and Scotland. A lump weighmg two or 
three pounds is placed in the manger, and it will generally be found that 
a pound will last nearly a month, but there is a great variation in the 
quantity oonsumcd by different horses. 

The water wliich is given to the hnrse will materially affect his con- 
dition if it is not suitable to him in quality or quantity, or if he is allowed 
to take it when heated by work. Thirst is most distressing to this animal, 
and if he Las not his water regularly when his stomacli demands it, he 
will not only refuse his solid food, but he will drink inordinately when he 
has the opportunity, causing colic or founder to supervene. For this 
reason it has lately been the fashion to provide iron tanks on a level with 
the manger, which are intended to be kept constantly full, and indeed 
some are arranged with cisterns and ball-cocks for that purpose. But 
those who contend for this constant supply have overlooked the feet that 
every horse when he first comes into the stable is unfit to be allowed to 
" take his fill " of water, and yet he will be sure to do so if the water 
tank is open to him. Undoubtedly for horses which are never heated by 
work the tank is perfectly safe, because as they never become thirsty, 
since they prevent the full development of the appetite by drinking small 
quantities as it arises, so they are never induced to do themselves an 
mjury by imbibing large quantities of water at any time. On the other 
hand, working horses are kept out of the stable without water for five or 
six hours on the average, and when they come m they are not only very 
thirsty, but they are generally in a state in which a full draught of 
fluid will seriously injure them. For this reason I think the tank 
unsuited to the ordinary private stable, though of course it is easy to 
prevent mischief by taking care either to have a cover over it, which 
is kept down tUl the horse is cool, or to let off the water for a similar 
period. The question is one involving a choice of evils incidental to 
carelessness, and it is doubtful whether in the long run the horse is more 
likely to be injured by being allowed to fill himself with water at the 
time I have alluded to, or by being deprived of his proper allowance of 
it at regular intervals. Nothing is more easy for the master to detect, 
when he visits his stable (as he should do at uncertain hours), than a state 



234 THE UORSE. 

of thirst. Few horses are allowed as much corn as they will eat, and the 
rattling of the sieve or bin will make every occupant of a staU place 
liiuisclf in an attitude of expectation. But if the lifting of a bucket ]iro- 
duces the same eager look, and especially at any hour* but the usual time 
of Avatering, it may at once be concluded that the horse is not regularly 
and sufficiently supplied with fluid, and it Avill generally be found that 
liis condition suffers accordingly. It is astonishing how little water will 
suffice if it is given at regular intervals, and it is the neglect of this 
periodical supply which produces the craving that leads to dangerous 
repletion. If it is decided to adopt the tank, provision should also be 
made for emptying it readily, v/ithout calluig up)on the groom to bale it 
out with a teacuj), which I have actually seen done in one particular 
stable, the owner of which prided himself on the perfection of his arrange- 
ments. If the water only came into contact with the iron, no great harm 
would ensue, because the oxyde formed by the union of the oxygen in 
the water with the metal itself, in the shape of common rust, is by no 
means prejudicial to health. But no iron manger containing water will 
long remain free from decomposing vegetable matter, unless it is regularly 
scrubbed out daily, because the horse, as he holds his head over it during 
his feeding, drops particles of hay, corn, &c. into the water, and this 
being raised in temperature to that of the stable, soon dissolves the starch 
and other ingredients which are prone to decomposition. The conse- 
quence is that the sides of the tank become foul, being covered with a 
thick slime, which not only renders the water nauseous to the horse, but 
also makes it prejudicial to his health. For this reason a waste-pipe and 
stop-cock are absolutely essential, for by tlieir aid alone can the groom be 
expected to do his duty. 

The quantity of water which will be imbibed by horses varies even 
more than that of theu' solid food, yet ignorant grooms are too apt to give 
all alike. The most strenuous advocate for the continuous supply would 
doubtless make an exception at those times when horses are just about to 
be severel)' galloped, as in hunting or racing ; and on the other hand, 
almost all grooms who know their business allow their charge to fill 
themselves at night, and also give them a Hberal allowance when they 
have done their work ajid are dressed and cooled down after it. I have 
tbund in my own stable, in measuring the actual quantity of water drunk 
by the horses, that even among tliose which are doing the same amount 
of work and eating similar food both in quantity and quality, the water 
will vary from two buckets a day to nearly Ave. If salt is given, it will 
produce considerable thirst at tirst, but after a time this effect ceases, and 
1 have not found it in the long run make much difierence. Green food 
will also make less alteration in the desu-e for water than might be 
expected, which may be accounted for by the fact that it increases the 
Secretions of urine and perspiration, and also acts gently on the bowels ; 
so that, though more fluid is taken into the system with the green food, 
yet a proportionably large quantity passes ofl". It is, however, necessary 
to be cautious in the allowance of water to horses which have just begun to 
•eat grass or vetches, for if given in the usual quantity on a stomach full of 
green food, it will very probably bring on an attack of colic. As a rule, no 
horse should go to any moderately fast work with more than half a bucket 
of water in him, and that should have been swallowed at least an hour. 
This subject, however, will be better considered under the next head. 

The quality of watee best suited to the horse is one moderately soft, 
Jjut it should not be rain water collected in tanks, which soon becomes 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF FEEDING. 235 

full of decomposing vegetable matter. I have known the health of a 
whole stable full -of horses seriously injured by using rain water, as was 
proved by the fact that its filtration through charcoal, gravel, and sand 
soon restored the animals to a feir state of health, without any alteration 
in their solid food or work. On the other hand, very hard water disagrees 
almost to an equal extent, often producing the state of the skin kno-\vn 
as " hide-bound," and sometimes affecting the boAvels in the form of 
serious diarrhoea. But in course of time most sound horses become 
accustomed to hard water, and then a change to that which is soft must 
be carefully avoided whenever Avork is to be demanded of them. Tlius 
in. sending hunters or harness-horses used in fast Avork from home, when 
they have been accustomed to either kind of water, it often hapi)ens that 
their health is upset, and this is quite as likely to occur wlien the cliange is 
from hard to soft, as from soft to hard water. Trainers of valuabh^ raceliorses 
are so aware of this fact, that irrespective of the risk of jjoisoning, which 
they thereby avoid, they take water with them, knowing the injurious 
effects likely to be produced by a sudden change. Hard water, if it con- 
tains large quantities of carbonate of lime, may be made to deposit it to 
some extent by boiling, but the sulphate of lime (or gypsum), wliich is 
a far more common ingredient, is as soluble in hot water as in cold. 
Evaporation by boiling causes the deposit of a large quantity of it on the 
sides of the vessel used to contain the water, but tlie fluid remaining 
still holds as much gypsum per gallon, and is not therefore benefited in 
the slightest degree. 

The proper temperature of the water given in the stable is a 
matter of serious importance, and the effect of a bucketful of cold water 
to a horse just come in from his work is very serious. Even in a state of 
rest cold water will often produce cramp or colic, so that careful grooms 
never give it by any chance witliout warming it, either by tlie addition of 
a little hot water, called " chilling " it, or by letting it stand for some 
hours in the stable or saddle-room. If the former method is adopted, it 
should not be made to feel actually warm, for in that state it nauseates 
a delicate feeder, but it should merely have the chill taken off, so that in 
dipping the hand into it, no seiisation of cold is produced. 

THE THEOEY AND PEACTICE OF FEEDING. 

In adapting the quantity and quality of horse-keep to the wants of 
each horse, regard nmst be paid first of all to the small size of tliis 
animal's stomach, which affects all alike ; secondly, to the work for which 
he is designed; and tldrdly, to the peculiar constitution of each individual. 
From the first of these causes the horse must never be allowed to fust for 
any long period if it can possibly be avoided, it being found fi'om expe- 
rience that at the end of four hours his stomach is empty, and the wliole 
frame becomes exhausted, while the appetite is frequently so impaired if 
lie is kept fasting for a longer period that when food is presented to him 
it will not be taken. Previously to the introduction of railroads harness- 
horses were often required to do long distances in the day, and it was 
found that if the whole journey must be performed without stopping to 
bait, it exhausted the horse less to increase the pace up to nine or ten 
miles an hour than to dawdle over the ground on an empty stomach. If 
two horses are driven or ridden fifty or sixty miles under similar condi- 
tions as to the weight they have to draw or carry, and the one is taken at 
the rate of six miles an hour wliich will keep him fasting from eight and 



236 THE HORSE. 

a half to ten hours according to the distance, while the other is travelled 
fast enough to do it iu six or seven hours, the latter will be less exhausted 
than the former, though even he would be all the better for a feed in the 
middle of the journey, the time devoted to this act being easily picked up by 
the increased energy which would be given by the corn. No horseman of 
experience is ignorant of these facts, and after a long day the hunting 
man who kno^vs what he is about will always be seen on the look out for 
a feed of corn or a pint of oatmeal for his hunter, before he attends to his 
own wants. The human stomach will bear hunger far better than that of 
the horse, and if the rider feels his appetite pretty keen, he may be satis- 
fied that the animal which carries him is still more in want of food. The 
hind of work which the horse is intended for afiects not only the quantity 
of food required, but also its quality. Thus very fast work, as in racmg and 
himting, strains the muscular system as well as the heart and lungs to the 
utmost, and therefore the food which is best fitted for the development of 
the former to the highest degree consists of those kinds which present the 
elements contained in the muscular tissue in the largest i^rojiortions con- 
sistent with the due 2^erformanGe of the digestive powers. These are found 
in oats and beans, but nature herself teaches every animal instinctively to 
keep Avithin such limits as are safe, and hence it is found that though 
every horse will greedily devour a peck or a peck and a half of corn daily, 
yet he will not go beyond this quantity even though it is not sufficient for 
his wants, and in spite of his being deprived of every other kind of food. 
The demands of his muscular system are supplied by the corn, but there 
are certain saline matters in hay which are not found in the former, and 
being necessary for the performance of several important functions the 
stomach receives its warning through the appetite and no more corn is 
received into it. On the other hand, the hard-worked horse fed on hay 
alone craves for corn, and will greedily devour almost any quantity put in 
his manger until he upsets his digestive powers, when the appetite for it 
ceases. It is found by experience that a certain proportion of hay and 
corn is best adapted to each horse according to the work he has to do, and 
his own particular constitution, so that in laying doAvn rules for feeding 
it is necessary first of all to ascertain what demands will be likely to be 
made upon the system. Few owners of carriage-horses would like to see 
them driven to the door with their muscles showing the lines between them 
as they ought to do in a racehorse when fit to run. Such a state of higli 
training as will put the latter in condition would be impracticable for the 
former without wearing his legs out, and not only destroying his rounded 
and level appearance but taking away the air of high spirit and life which 
tends so much to gratify the eye. Hence the feeding suited to give the 
one nothing but muscle is not fitted for the other, who must have moro 
hay and less oats, as well as less work. So also in deciding upon the 
proportion, if any, of oats and beans, regard must be had to the amount 
of work which is demanded, for there can be no doubt that while admitting 
the good effects of beans in large quantities upon the severely tried cab 
or omnibus horse, they are injurious to the carriage horse, whose blood 
soon becomes heated under their constant use. Lastly, the pecuhar con- 
stitution of each horse must be studied before it can be known whether the 
average quantity and quality of food which will suit the majority of horses 
doing the same kind of work, will be enough or too much for him. Some 
washy animals pass their food through them so quickly that they do not 
absorb from it one half of the nutritive elements contained in it. These 
must be fed largely if they are kept at work, and those articles of food 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF FEEDING. 



237 



must be selected for them wliicli have a tendency rather to confine 
the bowels than to relax them. Independently of this extreme case it 
never can with certainty be pronounced beforehand what amount of food 
will keep an untried horse in condition, but in a large stable an average 
can easily be struck, and it is this quantity alone which can be estimated 
here. In the following pages, therefore, I shall give a description of the 
several alimentary wants of the horse, and then show in what propor- 
tions they are found in the varieties of keep which have already been 
described, so as to enable the horsemaster to make his selection according 
to circumstances. All these substances are found in the blood, but the 
composition of this fluid does not enlighten us as to the wants of the 
system, because it is continually receiving and giving off its various 
elements. The blood of a horse fed on highly nitrogeuized food does not 
differ on analysis from from that of another which has been kept on the 
opposite kind of diet. Phj'siological research, hoAvever, tells us that 
muscle is chiefly composed of fibrine, and that every time a bundle of its 
fibres contracts a certain expenditure of this material is made, calling for 
a corresponding supply from the blood, which cannot be afforded unless 
the food contains it. Hence the badly fed horse if worked soon loses his 
flesh and not only becomes free from fat, but also presents a contracted 
condition of all his muscles. And thus science is confirmed by every-day 
experience, and the fact is generally admitted that to increase the muscular 
powers of a horse he must have a sufficient supply of nitrogeuized food. 
As I have remarked above, the nutrition of muscle requires fibrine — but 
in addition the brain and nerves must be supplied with fatty matter, 
phosphorus, and albumen. The bones demand gelatme and earthy salts, 
and the maintenance of heat cannot be effected without carbon in some 
shape or other. But it is chiefly with nitrogeuized food that we have to 
deal in considering the present question, there being plenty of the other 
substances I have mentioned in all the varieties of food which are not 
largely composed of fibrine. It may therefore be taken for granted that 
the hardly worked horse reqvures oats or beans, or both, mixed together in 
varying proportions, together with such an amount of hay as will supply 
him with the starch, gum, sugar, fat, and saHne matters which his system 
requires, while on the other hand the idle animal does not use his mus- 
cular system to any extent, and therefore does not require much or any 
oats or beans. The following table exhibits the projDortions of these 
various elements in the several kinds of horse food most frequently used 
in this country: — 





Woody 


Starch and 


Fibrine & 


Fatty 


Saline 






Fibre. 


Sugar. 


Albumen. 


Matter. 


Matters. 




Cats 


20 


53 


U-4 


•6 


2-5 


12-5 


Beans . . 






14-5 


40 


26 


2-5 


3 


14 


Peas . . . 






9 


48 


24 


2 


3 


14 


Barley . . , 






14 


52 


13-5 


2-5 


3 


15 


Indian Cora . 






6 


62 


12 


5 


1 


14 


Old Hay . . 






30 


40 


7 


2 


7 


14 


Clover Hay . 






25 


40 


9 


3 


9 


14 


Barley Straw 






46 


34 


T5 





6-5 


12 


Oat Straw . 






50 


31 


1- 


a trace 


5-5 


12-5 


Wheat Straw 






55 


27 


•5 





5-5 


12 


Bran . . . 






54 


2 


20 


4 


7 


13 


Linseed . . 






9 


35 


20 


20 


6 


10 


Carrots . . 






3 


10 


1-5 





1-5 


84 



238 THE HORSE. 

Eacehorses are fed upon the best upland hay, of which about six to 
eight pounds are given to each on the average daily, and from tiiteen to 
twenty polmds of the best oats, in some cases beans being substituted for an 
equal weight of the latter. The quantity of hay varies accorcUng to the 
constitution, gross feeders being allowed less, and delicate, light-carcassed 
horses more than the above. The limit to the oats is the appetite, the 
trainer taking care not quite to satisfy the horse, which would produce 
satiety and disgust, but giving him as much of this food as he can without 
this effect. One-third of the hay is given in the morning after exercise, 
and the remainder at night. The oats are divided into four feeds, one 
being given the first thing in the morning, the next on coming in from 
exercise, the third at four o'clock in the afternoon, and the last at seven 
or eight in the evening, when the stable is closed for the night. Very little 
water is allowed in the morning, two or three " godowns " being all that 
is usually given, about half a bucket on coming in from exercise after the 
horse is dressed and fed, the same quantity in the afternoon, and a full allow- 
ance at night. Once a week, if required by the state of the bowels, a bran 
mash is given, but this is emitted when the time of trial is approaching. 

The Hunter is fed nearly in the same way as the racehorse, the chief 
difference being that a little more hay is allowed, and consequently less 
corn. Few hunters get more than five or six quarterns of oats, and 
indeed there are not many which will eat more ; for in order that the 
appetite for this kind of food shall be as Inglily developed as in the race- 
horse, the animal must have been reared on oats from the earliest period, 
which few hunters but those bred for the racecourse have been. The 
allowance, therefore, is generally about ten pounds of hay, and five or six 
quarterns of oats, or five quarterns of oats and half a quartern of beans. The 
hay and corn are given at the same times as in the racing stable, and the 
water also in the same proportions. Gruel is given when the hunter 
comes home after a hard day, as it restores the tone of the stomach after 
long fasting better than oats, which, moreover, the exhausted horse gene- 
rally refuses till he has had something to give his stomach a fillip. A 
bran mash should be given once a week, or every ten days, unless there is 
a tendency to purge, whdh of course it is not wanted. No change of 
food is required during the hunting season, but after this is over it is 
necessary to decide whether the hunter shall be turned out for the summer, 
or soiled in-doors. The advocates for the two proceedings are warm in 
support of their several opinions, which will be treated of hereafter under 
the head of Summering. 

Hacks requLi'e from tliree quarterns to a peck of oats, and ten to twelve 
pounds of hay daily. The latter is given in two portions, one at night, 
and the other in the morning, the former being divided into four feeds, 
which are put into the manger at six or seven a.m., ten a.m., four p.ji., 
and seven or eight p.m. In most stables some of the hay is cut up with 
an equal quantity of straw, into chaff, and of this about a peck a day is 
given with the corn, the object being to induce the horse to masticate it 
thoroughly. Tlie plan is so generally adopted now that I need not insist 
upon its advantages, wliich may be accepted as indisputable. If these 
horses are much exposed to the weather during the winter and early 
spring, a few beans in place of some of the oats may be used with decided 
benefit, especially if tliuy have been accustomed to them in previous sea- 
sons. It must always be remeuibered, however, that they have a tendency 
to produce iiitianimation, esjtucially in the feet and eyes ; and, therefore, 
in those animals which have a weakness in either of the organs named. 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF FEEDING. 23a 

beans should carefully be avoided. Generally speaking, hacks are of small 
size, and they do not, therefore, require more than an average allowanco 
of food, on which footing I have calculated their hay and corn ; but if it so 
happens that any of my readers have a hack of full size, he must mal-co 
allowance accordingly. These horses are now very commonly allowed a 
water tank, constantly supphed with water, and in that case there is no 
necessity for doing more than to see that it is daily cleansed, and that tha 
ball-cock acts properly. When they are watered from the bucket, tlio 
groom generally gives it them in moderate quantity early in the morning 
and in the afternoon feed, finishing with a full allowance at night. 

Harness Horses are fed much in the same way as hacks, but if they 
are used for a close carriage and are of full size they must have more hay 
than I have named, by fully a quarter of a hundredweight weekly. 

Ponies may be kept with very little corn, one or two quarterns a day, 
according to size, being all that is generally allowed. They will eat from 
sixty pounds to seventy-five pounds of hay weekly, and they are as much 
benelited by chaff as larger horses. 

Farm Horses are treated very differently in different localities, inde- 
pendently of the various fancies indulged in by individuals : their woric 
also being sulyect to great changes, according to the seasons, it is necessary 
to apportion their food in the same ratio. Again, it happens sometimes 
that oats or beans are scarce and dear, and the farmer, if he grows them, 
will be inclined to sell them and use some cheaper kind of food for his 
horses, or, if he has to buy, he will still more carefully look out for a sub- 
stitute at a lower price. The following are the most usual modes of 
feeding these horses, as far as I have been able to ascertain. 

Plan 1. — Adopted throughout the Midland counties. Weekly allow- 
ance per horse in !N'ovcmber, December and January — £ g j_ 
IJ bushel of oats, 1 peck of beaus, and 1 cwt. of hay, costing for three 

months ' 60O 

Ditto through February, March, and A-pril — 

2 bushels of oats, 1^ peck of beans, and 1 cwt. of hay, costing 7 

Ditto May, June, and July — 

3 pecks of oats, 1 peck of beans, and vetches or lucerne, costing .... 5 

Ditto in August, September, and October — 
1 bushel of oats, ^ bushel of beans, clover, pea straw, &c. costing .... 6 



Total yearly cost 24 



In districts where oats are scarce, bran or pollard is mixed with beans, 
and given as follows : — 

Weekly allowance in the autumn quarter — £ g ^l^ 

IJ bushel of oats, 2 pecks of split beans, and 1 cwt. of hay, costing for 

three mouths 7 10 

Ditto in the winter quarter — 
2\ bushels of pnllard, 2 pecks of split beans, SGlbs. of sweJes, and barley 

or pea straw, costing for the three mouths 5 10 

Ditto in the spring quarter — 
2| buihels of poUard, 2 pecks of split beans, and 1^ cwt. of hay, costing . 7 10 

Ditto in the summer quarter — 
•|J bushels of bran, 1 peck of split beans, clover, vetches, or tares, costing . .*> 

Total yearly cost 25 10 



240 THE HORSE. 

Sometimes cut straw, steamed potatoes, and the meal of oats and beans 
are given, as being the most economical kind of food. The horses are fed 
three times a day, each time receiving fifteen pounds of food, thus — 

In the morning at 6 o'clock, 41b3. of oat and beau meal, lllbs of chaff. 

At noon, 31bs. of oat and bean meal, 121bs. of chaff. 

At night, 21bs. of oat and bean meal, 21bs. of chaff, and lllbs. of steamed potatoes. 

In Scotland these horses are kept out-of-doors, or soiled in-doors till 
October, when they are put upon hard food, receiving 1 cwt. of hay and 
a bushel and a half of corn -weekly till December, when the hay is re- 
placed by straw, and the oats are reduced one half. In February 1| cwt. 
of hay, and a bushel and a half of oats are again given, and this is con- 
tinued till June, when thej'' are fed on grass witli a small allowance of 



BEDDING. 

The bed is generally composed of wheat straw, of which that thrashed 
by hand is by far the most durable, lasting nearly twice as long if pro- 
perly kept clean as the same quality thrashed by machine. Barley straw 
is eaten by most horses almost as readily as hay, and, therefore, it is kept 
as fodder for farm horses and cattle. It is excellent for cuttmg into 
chaff, especially when there is much clover grown with it. Besides wheat 
straw, sand, saw-dust, tan, forest leaves and bean straw are used either 
where economy is studied, or for some particular reason. I shall, there- 
fore, have something to say about each of these materials. 

Wheat Straw is by far the most general material for the horse's bed, 
and in private stables it may be considered as the only one used. It 
should be selected for its length, and the size and stoutness of its stalks, 
taking care that it is qvdte dry, but not so much so as to be brittle. It is 
tied up in trusses, or " boltings," as they are called in the Midland dis- 
tricts, which weigh about tliirty-six pounds each. Two of these ought to 
serve for a week, after the bed is once made, which will require from two 
to three trusses, according to the size of the stall or loose-box. Unless 
the straw is properly shaken up and smoothly laid, the horse is not made 
comfortable, but lies wdth uneven lumps under him, which he cannot 
scratch into shape, like a dog. Hence, the good groom takes great trouble 
with his horses' beds, and having first laid the old litter smoothly all over 
the stall, as far as the back drain, he spreads on the surface with his fork 
either the cleanest part of the former night's bed, or a fresh truss, according 
to circumstances. The straw should be raised against the travis or waU 
on each side, so that the horse in lying down has his back protected by it, 
the sharp spinous processes of the vertebra being uncovered by anytliing 
but skin, and causing considerable pain when pressed against the hard 
■wood or iron. The straw is also turned under at the lower end, so as 
to present a neat appearance to the eye, as Avell as to afford comfort to the 
horse. In the morning the wet and dirty parts are forked out, and the 
remainder turned back and pressed tightly under the manger, or it is put 
into some other convenient place, where it can be dried, which latter plan 
is an excellent one in point of economy and comfort. When the Htter is 
thus disposed of, the whole surface of the floor is carefully swept, the dirt 
being shovelled back into the gangway, and finally removed from the 
stable. A Mttle clean straw is then thinly spread over the stall, and left 
with a level edge beliind the heels of the horse, where natty grooms put 
.a border of plaited straw. During the day the droppings are collected in 



BEDDING. 241 

a basket, and removed as soon as they are perceived by the groom, by 
which the litter is kept clean, and the hind feet of the horse are prevented 
from contracting foul thrushes, which many are apt to do, if they are 
allowed to be constantly crammed full of moist droppings, as they often 
are by careless grooms. On the average of seasons country straw may be. 
hought for about 21. per ton, in which there are about sixty trusses, each 
therefore costing 8d., and, on the calculation of two trusses per week, the 
horse's bed will cost Is. id. for that period, without estimating the value 
of the manure, which varies greatly. In the neighbourhood of very large 
towns, where the supply of manure is greater than the demand, it is 
almost a drug, and will scarcely pay for the labour of removal, but in 
agricultural districts it is worth 5s. per ton, and then an arrangement is 
often made by the farmer to supply straw on condition of receiving back 
the manure made with it. It may, generally, be calculated that an allow- 
ance of one-third or one-fourth of the cost of the straw may be made for 
manure, and the litter may then be estimated as costing Is. per week. 

Sand is said to answer very well as bedding, and to have the great 
advantage of keeping the feet cool. I have never seen it used, but I am 
told, on excellent authority, that, excepting in very cold weather, it is a 
very valuahle substitute for straw. The fine dry sand of the seashore is 
that which is usually employed for the purpose, but inland sand would do 
jiist as Avell if collected and stored in a dry condition. It requires a well 
drained floor, the chief objection being that it clogs the openings to the 
drains ; but if the iron gutters are used which I have described at page 
199, they may be readily swept out, and there being none permanently 
covered, there is no difficulty whatever. Indeed, if the sand is changed 
as soon as it becomes saturated with moisture, which it ought always to 
be, the drains are not wanted at all ; but occasionally it will happen that 
the urine falls in or near the gutter, and then it is an advantage to have 
them in working order. The sand is laid about six inches deep, and 
every day the soiled parts are removed, and fresh sand, in proportion, 
spread over all, so that a very neat surface is maintained. The cost in 
sandy districts is very trifling, but of course elsewhere the plan would be 
prohibited by the charge for carriage. When sand is thus used, the feet 
must be stopped with cowdung more frequently than in the case of straw, 
or they soon become hard and brittle. 

Sawdust is seldom employed as litter, its cost being quite as great as, 
and often more than, straw. It is only in or near saw mills, where there 
is an unusually large supply of sawdust on the premises, that it can be used 
advantageously. During the summer months it answers well enough if 
laid down as I have described under the head of sand, but Hke that ma- 
terial it is too cold for use in our Avinters. It has the disadvantage, as 
compared with sand, that it soon heats when wetted witli urine, and am- 
monia is then given off profusely, so that great care must be exercised to 
change it as soon as it becomes soiled. 

Eefuse Tan is very commonly introduced as a bedding for horses 
while being summered, in the belief that it is much cooler to the feet 
than straw. It has all the disadvantages of sawdust, without the advan- 
tages of sand, and if the latter can readily be obtained, it should by all 
means be substituted for it. I have often seen a box in which tan had 
been left for Aveeks without change, the groom expecting that it would 
retain the urine of the horse without decomposition, although his nose 
ought to have convinced him to the contrary. It is a capital material if 
it is kept dry, but every one who has seen the heat which is given out by 

R 



242 THE HORSE. 

it in a liothouse, will understand that it is not to be allowed to come in 
contact with fluid, and especially urine, or decomposition will quickly 
supervene. The cost is seldom more than that incurred in carting it, 
which will depend upon the distance from the nearest tan-yard. 

Forest Leaves are not readily j^rocurable except in some very few 
localities, and I may therefore dismiss them with the remark that there 
ia no objection to theu' use with wliich I am acquainted. Ponies at all 
events may be comfortably bedded with them. 

Bean Straw is far too hard and unyielding to make a comfortable 
bed, and if it must be used I should prefer cutting it into chaff rather than 
employing it in this way. 



DRESSING, OE GEOOMmG. 

iJr THE TERM DRESSING is generally understood the purification of the 
skin which the horse requires. He is never in the highest health unless 
the pores are kej^t free from the scui'f which forms on them whenever he 
sweats, and the object of the strapping which he receives at the hands of 
his groom is to get rid of this mechaincal obstruction, as well as to brace 
the nerves of the surface by the friction of the brush or whisp. Tliis 
di'cssing must be renewed dailj', even if the horse has not been sweated, 
and each time that he comes in from work it is necessary to repeat it. 
The former operation is or should be conducted in the same manner every 
day, but the latter will vary according to the state of the aninral when he 
comes in, that is to say, depending upon whether he has been sweated 
and is cool again, or if he is still wet, or has been in the rain with or 
Avithout exercise enough to warm him, or lastly, if he has been ridden or 
diiveu through dirty roads or over a deep country. Each of these condi- 
tions will therefore require a separate consideration. 

The usual morning's dressing is commenced either as soon as the 
horse has done his early feed, or on coming in from exercise, if such 
is allowed or enjoined. The utility of grooming after work cannot 
be denied, for it would be absurd to contend that a horse coming in wet 
and dirty should be left in that state till the next day ; but it is perhaps 
necessary to explain to the idle groom that it is not a mere polislung of 
tlie surface of the coat wliich is wanted, but a deep steady pressure of the 
brush into the roots of the hair, so as to remove all the scurf which 
collects around them and clogs the pores, through which the sweat ought 
to be allowed to exude freely. Practically it is found that an hour's good 
.sU'a])ping daily, not only gives a polish to the coat, but it causes the 
secretion of a fine oU, which has a tendency to throw off water, and thus 
may save the horse exposed to the rain from catching cold. Moreover, it 
certainly stimulates the nerves so as to enable them to bear exposure to 
the weather, which would otherwise tell injuriously on an animal which 
is covered up with thick clothing in-doors, and stripped of everything, 
even of the long coat which nature gives him, when he is submitted to the 
" pelting of the pitiless storm." "When the horse is turned out to grass, 
lie is washed by every shower of rain, and though his coat continues to 
look dirty on the surface, yet the skin itself is braced by the winds and 
cleansed by the waters of heaven. Kot so, however, in-doors. Here his 
clothing keeps Ms coat short, and keeps up a continual state of insensible 
perspiration, the watery particles of which pass off through the wooUen 
tug or serge, leaving the salts and animal matters behind, as is apparent on 



DRESSING, OR GROOMING. 243 

examining tlie iuternal surface of any clothing -which has been worn for 
any length of time -without -washing, -when it -will he found to he lined 
with scurf, and matted -with oily animal matters. There are many drugs 
which will give a gloss to the skin, hut they will diminish instead of 
increasing its capability to hear exposure, and hence their use is altogether 
forbidden by those who know theh injuriovis effects. The horse which is 
little used requires di-essing to take the place of exercise, and if he has 
plenty of good strapping, his coat will look like satin ; but the hunter 
and the hack or harness-horse, exposed to all weathers, must be carefully 
groomed and receive plenty of elbow grease, or his coat will look hollow 
and stand out like " the quills of the fretful porcupine " Avhenever he is 
allowed tv stand for a few minutes in a cool wind. 

The Fir.sT THING WHICH THE GROOM does in commencing his morning's 
task is to turn the horse round in his stall, and fold the quarter piece back 
upon itself, so as to expose the whole of the fore quarters. Then, taking 
his brush in the hand nearest the head, whichever side he begins with, he 
■works away at the head and face till he has thorouglily cleansed those parts, 
carefully clearing out the dust and dirt from the roots of the ears, where 
it is very apt to lodge, and continually cleaning his brush with the curry- 
comb held in the other hand. Next proceedhig to the neck, he works at 
that part in the same waj', turning the mane over to the other side, and 
then going to the shoulders, bosom, and legs, and finishing off with a 
wliisp of hay slightly damped instead of tlie brush. Having thoroughly 
worked at this half of the body, the horse is turned round in his stall, 
and the hind cj^uarters and flank treated in the same way, the clothing 
being removed entirely while this is going on. In the spring and autumn, 
when the coat is being shed, the brush should never be used, and the 
wlrisp alone should be depended on. Notliing spoils the look of the new 
coat so surely as the brush, excei^t perhaps the currycomb ; but this 
latter should not under any circumstances touch the skin of a horse when 
it is in proper order, and it is scarcely necessary to forbid its use when 
the coat is being shed, at which time it would be positively cruel, as well 
as injurious to the appearance. The brush and whisp having effectually 
cleansed the skin, and given the hair itself a certain amount of polish, 
the finishing stroke is put to the dressing by means of the linen rubber, 
with the addition, in well-managed stables, of the leather. Either or both 
of these in succession are steadily passed over the surface in the direction 
of the hair of each part, and then the quarter piece or rug, as the case 
may be, is replaced, taking care to throw it lightly in front of its proper 
place, and then to draw it steadily backwards, so as not to disturb the 
proper position of a hair. The roller is smoothly put on, being first laid 
on the back double, and then the off side is turned over into its place, 
when the straps being laid hold of under the belly, it is properly tightened 
and the quarter piece smoothed beneath it. This completes the dressing 
of tlie bod}^, but there are several minor jDoints still to be attended to. 
A clean sponge is squeezed out, and with it the nostrils, eyes, and anus 
are sponged clean, and if necessary, the mane is damped, so as to enable 
the groom to comb and brush it smoothly down on its right side. The 
tail also is carefully combed out, beginning at the lower end if it is a 
full one, and not touching the top until the bottom is smoothly arranged. 
Lastlj', the legs and feet are attended to, the stopping, or whatever may 
be in the latter, being picked out, the legs washed if stained, and then 
carcfuUj'- rubbed dry. Many grooms, when they have white legs to keep 
clean, begin the dressing by washmg them, and then putting on flannel 

r2 



244 THE HORSE. 

bandages, they leave them on till they have done the body, when they 
are taken off and the legs rubbed -with the leather and linen rubber till 
they are quite dry, finishing with plenty of hand rubbing if they are at 
all inclined to fill. All this being done, the litter is put straight, and the 
horse is ready to have his second feed. A good deal of muscular exer- 
tion, and laid out in the right way, is necessary for the due performance 
or the groom's daily task. There is no royal road to make a horse's coat, 
Avhen in work, really look well, and not less than an hour's hard strapping 
will suffice for this daily. W,hite and light grey horses will take up even 
more time than this, as with all the care that can be exercised the thighs 
and legs will occasionally become stained by lying in the dung dropped 
during the night. Soap and water laid on warm, and well rubbed, will 
get rid of a great deal of the bro-\vn colour left, and if it is not suffered to 
increase by successive layers, it may be removed with comparative ease. 
The slight tinge which remains may be got rid of by the aid of washer- 
woman's blue, a bag of which is to be dipped into clean water and the 
skin washed Avith this after the soap has been got rid of A little experi- 
ence is required to ascertain the exact amount of bkie, but one or two 
experiments will soon teach an intelligent groom. 

Whenever a horse is wanted to go out, he must again be whisped 
over before his saddle or his harness is put on. The groom strips the 
whole of tlie clothes off, turns him round in the stall, and carefully clears 
all the dust away from the ears and head with the rubber ; then, pro- 
ceeding regularly backwards, the whole body is smoothed over, and the 
saddle and bridle or harness put on. Lastly, the feet are picked, and an 
oil-brush is rubbed over the outside of the hoofs, to give them a neat 
appearance, when the pillar reins are budded to the bit on each side, and 
the horse is left till he is wanted. 

Dressing after work depends upon the state in which the horse is 
returned to the stable, when he may be cool and clean, or in a profuse 
sweat still going on, or with his sweat dried in, or completely smothered 
with dirt, or wet from rain, but chilled rather than too hot; or lastly, 
when exhausted from a severe run or other hard work. 

When the horse returns cool and clean, the groom throws his rug 
lightly over his quarters, and, takiug a bucket and a brush, he proceeds 
to pick and wash out the feet, standing on the near side, with his back to 
the horse's head, so that he can use his left hand to hold the feet, and his 
right for the brush. If the legs are quite clean, there is no necessity for 
washing them at all ; but most grooms do so as a matter of course, and if 
they are properly dried afterwards, there is no objection to the plan. 
Hunters, and valuable horses of all kinds, are immediately protected by 
flannel bandages ; but in ordinary stables the legs are merely partially 
dried with a rubber, and are left in that state till the horse is dressed 
over. If the work has been continued for more than four or five hours 
without feeding, it wiU be well to piit on flaimel bandages, and let the 
horse have a feed of corn ; but, othenvise, it is better to finish the dress- 
i.ng first. The cloth being removed, a whisp of hay is taken in the 
hand, and first the head and neck, and then the body, is dressed over; 
finishing off with the rubber, as previously described. The clothing is 
then put on, the legs thoroughly dried, the litter put straight, and the task 
is finished. 

When brought in still sweating profusely, if the weather is warm, 
the horse must be led about in the shade, with the saddle on, till he is nearly 
or quite dry ; for if he is put into the stable before he is cool, he will break 



DRESSING, OR GROOMING. 245 

out again as badly as ever, and if the saddle is removed the back will become 
sore. A hemp halter is cooler and more handy than a head-collar, and it 
is' usually employed out of doors for all purposes connected Avith cleaning. 
In the winter, this exposure to the air out of doors is not necessary ; and, 
indeed, it would often be dangerous, the stable being generally cool enough 
to stop all tendency to sweat, even with a light rug on. At this season, 
therefore, after the legs are washed and the bandages put on, which they 
should be whenever the horse is in a sweat, the dressing may be con- 
ducted in the usual way, in the expectation, which will seldom be disap- 
pointed, that at the end of half an hour's strapping, the skin will have 
become quite cool, and will look all the better for the profuse cleansing 
which it has received by means of the watery fluid given off by it. A 
scraper Avill be necessary, which may be either of wood or iron ; and with 
tMs all the superfluous moisture is at once scraped from the surface, which 
greatly facilitates the process of drying. Two men ought then to set to 
work, each taking a side, and working first at the head, and then gradually 
backwards. In this way, no part is allowed to chill, and the moisture is 
removed as rapidly as possible. In the use of the whisp, the rubbing 
need not always be hard ; and it should be chiefly against the direction of 
the haii; tiU it is nearly dry, when the proper direction is again taken. 
There is a good deal of art in diying a sweating horse, and nothing but 
experience and practical teaching Avill give it. As a general rule, it takes 
two men nearly three-quarters of an hour to thoroughly dress a horse 
coming in profusely sweating, supposing the weather to be only moderately 
warm. In very hot weather, such an attempt Avould be quite fruitless, 
and the only resource is to wait j)atiently till the effects of exercise are 
abated sufficiently to allow of the ordinary clothing being worn. Expe- 
rience soon tells the groom how soon he can venture to begin, and no rale 
can possibly be laid down which will supply the place of this valuable 
power. Even when the horse is taken in, he must not at first be clothed, 
but he must be dressed without anything on him ; and in summer he must 
often be left for some time afterwards in a naked state. When there is a good 
open yard shaded from the sun, the dressing should be done out of doors ; 
and when this can be managed, it may be commenced much sooner than 
in the stable, unless this is a very cool one. Slight muscular action, either 
by walking, or in some other shape, is necessary to prevent congestion of 
blood in the internal organs ; but it matters not whether it is effected by 
simply leading the horse about, or by stirring him up, as is always the 
case in dressing even the dullest animal. In other respects, there is no 
difference from the plan last described. 

When the sweat is completely dried in, the hair is full of powdery 
matter, which must be thoroughly brushed out, before the skin will look 
well or the horse be properly dressed. To do this, nothing more is 
required than the use of the brush previously to the whisping over ; but 
a good deal of time must be spent in getting rid of all the foreign matters 
left behind on the evaporation of the watery particles of the sweat. There 
is an amount of grease in it, which makes the powder stick to the hair, 
and nothing but hard labour will get it away. For this reason, many 
grooms adopt the plan of washing their horses all over with soap and 
water, when they come home in this state ; and although I prefer dry 
rubbing, I would rather have water used than let the skin remain full of 
dry sweat. A common water brush is generally used, or, if the coat is 
thin, a sponge will be far better. ISTo time must be lost in the operation ; 
and unless two men can be spared, the rug must be thrown on as soon as 



246 THE HORSE. 

the water is scraped off with, the scraper, and the skin is just partially 
dried. In this state he may be left for a few minutes ; attention, in the 
meantime, being paid to the thorough drying of the head and neck, which 
cannot well be clothed advantageously. These parts soon dry ; for in 
washing them, there is no occasion to wet the mane, wliich may be turned 
over to the other side Avliile each is being cleaned, and the ordinary coat of 
the head and neck holds very little water. After they are made comfortable, 
the cloth is turned partly back over the loins, and the shoulders, ribs, and 
bosom are dried with the whisp and rubber ; after which the whole is 
stripped off, and the hind-quarters thoroughly dried. 

A HORSE SMOTHERED IN DIRT is by carelcss grooms too often left to dry 
with it all on ; and then it is brushed out, or, if idleness reigns triumphant, 
a besom is taken in hand for the purpose. Where the particles of mud 
are few and far between, and are already dry, or nearly so, there is na 
objection to their being removed by friction alone; but. if they are wet 
and (as they generally are) in large masses, water must be used to get rid 
of them ; and the whole of the legs, belly, flank, and tail will often require 
a good slushing with a brush and water before the dirt is removed, — the 
tail being placed in the bucket itself, if it is a long one, and thoroughly 
cleansed in that way. A scraper is then employed to get rid of tliie water, 
the legs are superficially rubbed and then bandaged, the clothing is 
thrown on, and the dressing may be commenced as usual. 

In case the skin is wet from rain, whether the work has been fast or 
not, it is seldom necessary to provide against a continuance of the moisture, 
for the chill of the rain will generally prevent any tendency to break out 
in a sweat. The horse is, therefore, at once taken into the stable, and, if 
very wet, he is scraped ; after which he is rubbed over, and his clothing 
put on while his legs are being attended to, by washing, bandaging, &c. 
The dressing is then conducted as in the case of the horse coming ia 
sweating in cool weather. 

An exhausted horse demands all the resources of the groom's art, 
without which he will suffer in more ways than one. An extreme case 
seldom occurs, except in hunters, who require the greatest care to bring 
them round after a severe run. On coming into the stable, if their powers 
have been taxed to the utmost, and their ears are cold and drooping, the 
first thing to be done is to get these warm by friction ; an assistant, in the 
meantime, preparing some gruel, while another puts some warm flannel 
bandages on the legs. It is Avonderful what a restorative is found in the 
friction of the ears, after a few minutes of Avhich, a moderately tired horse 
will look quite a different animal, evidently enjoying the process, and 
dropping his head to the hands of the groom with the most perfect air of 
enjoyment. Where, however, there is only one groom for the whole task, 
the bandages should be put on first — that is to say, as soon as the clothmg 
is thrown on ; then the gruel should be given, and as soon as this is 
swallowed, the ears should be warmed by friction. JSTo attempt at dress- 
ing should be made till the gruel is taken and the ears are warm ; and if 
they cannot be restored to their proper temperature, a warm cordial of alo 
and spices should at once be given. Usually, however, there is no occa- 
sion for this ; and, after getting the stomach attended to, the skin of the 
body begins to recover its natural temperature, and the extremities become 
warm again. In the course of an hour, the dressing may generally bo 
effected ; but no time should be lost in it, and the skin must not on 
any account be chilled. After it is done, a feed of oats and a few split 
beans may be given, if the appetite seems inclined to return ; but some- 



CLIPPING. 247 

times, wlien the exhaustion is excessive, no solid food can be taken wiUi 
safety till the next day ; and gruel, with cordials, must be resorted to as 
the only kind of support which the stomach will bear. 



clippi:n'g, siiTGEmG, and TRn^mma. 

The coat op the horse is changed twice a year, the long hair of w.inter 
coming off in April and May, or sometimes earlier when the stables are 
warm and there is no exposure to severe cold. A slight sweat hastens 
this shedding, as every horseman knows by experience, and even in 
harness the hairs are cast in the face of the driver to his great annoyance 
on a windy day. Clipped horses are longer than others in shedding their 
coats, and present a most disagreeable mottled appearance, which makes 
the state still more noticeable. The long hair on the legs is about a 
month later in coming off, and indeed it will not fall till Midsummer, 
unless some more violent means than are used in ordinary dressing ari) 
adopted. With some breeds and individuals the winter coat is not veiy 
much longer and coarser than that of the summer; but all, save blind 
horses, show more or less difference in favour of the summer coat. 
Curiously enougli, horses which are totally deprived of sight, have almost 
invariably a good winter's coat, often better than that which they show 
at other seasons ; but why this is so no one has ever been able to explain, 
though I have never known the fact disputed. About the middle of 
October, or early in N'ovember, the summer coat is thrown off; but sonio 
of the hair appears to remain as a 'sort of undercoat, among which the 
long, coarse hairs of winter make their appearance. These continue 
growing for six weeks or two months if they are clipped or singed, and 
even after Christmas, if the weather is cold and the skm is much exposed, 
there will be an evident increase in length of some of the hair. lu 
accordance with the growth of this on the body is that of the hair on 
the legs, which become feathered all the way down below the knees h\ 
the fore legs, and half way down the backs of the canna bones in tlio 
hind legs. Low-bred horses have more hair on these parts than thorough- 
breds ; but even these latter, if they are not stabled tolerably warmly, 
exhibit a great deal of hair on their legs. Those Avho can see no possibilil y 
of improving on N^atixre come to the conclusion that this long hair is a 
defence against the cold, which ought not to be removed, and they argue 
that clipping and singeing are on that account to be rejected altogether. 
But these gentlemen forget that the horse m his native plains has always 
a short coat, and that the winds and rains, which cause him here to 
throw out an extra protection, are not natural to him. Moreover, if tho 
animal is left to follow his own impulses, even when turned out in this 
country, he will be all the better for his long coat, for while it has the 
great advantage of protecting him from the cold, it is not wetted by 
sweat, because he does not voluntarily gallop long and fast enough to 
produce that secretion. The natural protection is therefore undoubtedly 
good for the horse when left in a state of nature ; but when man steps in 
and requires the use of the horse for such work as will sweat him severely, 
he discovers that a long coat produces such great exhaustion, both during 
work and after it, that it entirely forbids the employment of the horse for 
hunting, or any fast work. I have myself many times found it impossible 
to extend a horse for any distance on account of his long coat, which dis- 
tressed him so mu.ch as to make him blow directly, whereas on removing 



248 THE nORSE. 

it with the clipping scissors he could gallop as lightly as a racehorse, and 
be able to go as fast and as far again as before. When this happens in 
the course of the week following the previous failure, the only change 
made being in the coat, there can be no mistake made, and a constant 
repetition of the same result leaves no room for dispute as to the bene- 
ficial effects of removing the hair. But, say the opponents of the plan, 
" AU. this may be true, yet it is unsafe to expose the clipped horse after 
he has been warmed, or indeed at any time." Experience tells a very 
different tale, and informs us that so far from making the horse more 
liable to cold, clipping and singeing render him far less so. Suppose one 
of ourselves to be exposed to a cold wind, should we rather have on a 
thin dry coat or a thick wet one 1 Assuredly the former, and undoubtedly 
the wearer of it would be less liable to cold than he who has the wet one 
on. So with the horse. As long as his vsinter coat can be kept dry he is 
protected by it, and the slow worker, who is not made to pull such heavy 
weight as to sweat him, will be all the better for its protection, but the 
moment the pace is sufficiently accelerated to warm the skin the sweat 
pours forth, and is kept up in-doors by tlie matted mass of moist hair 
with which the horse is covered. In former days I have had horses wet 
for weeks together, from the impossibility of getting them dry in the 
intervals of their work. They would break out afresh when apparently 
cool, and by no possible means could they be thoroughly dried. This of 
course wasted their flesh to a frightful extent, but on clipping them it 
was soon put on again, showing the great advantage of the plan. A 
chronic cough almost always accompanies this state of constant sweat, 
and it will be lucky for the owner of a horse so treated if it does not 
become acute and put an end to the miserable existence of the poor ill- 
treated brute. The case is not always fairly put, as for instance by 
Stewart in his Stable Economy, at page 120, where he says, " A long coat 
takes up a deal of moisture, and is difficult to dry ; but whether wet or 
dry it affords some defence to the skin, which is laid bare to every breath 
of air when deprived of its natural covering. Everyone must know from 
himself whether wet clothing aijd a wet skin, or no clothing and a wet 
skin, is tlie most disagreeable and dangerous. It is true that clipping 
saves the groom a great deal of labour. He can dry the horse in half the 
time, and with less than half of the exertion which a long coat requires ; 
but it makes his attention and activity more necessary, for the horse is 
almost sure to catch cold, if not dried immediately. When well clothed 
with hair he is in less danger, and not so much dependent on the care of 
his groom." Now, I maintain that this passage is full of fallacies and 
misstatements. The comparison is not between wet clothing and a Avet 
skin, and no clothing and a wet skin ; but, as I have before observed, 
between a wet long coat and a dry short one. The clipping removes the 
tendency to sweat, or if this secretion is poured out it ceases directly the 
exercise which produced it is stopped. But taking Mr. Stewart on liis 
own terms, who has not experienced the relief which is afforded by 
taking off wet gloves and exposing the naked hands to the same amount 
of wind and cold? This is exactly the case as he puts it, and tells 
directly against his argument; but it is scarcely worth while to discuss 
the subject at any length, for I know no horseman of experience in the 
present day who does not advocate the use of the scissors or the lamp, 
whenever the winter coat is much longer than that of summer. That 
horses are occasionally to be met with which show httle or no change in 
the autumn I know full well ; but these are the exceptions to the rule, 



CLIPPING AND SINGEING. 249 

being few aud far between. Tbe vast majority would have tlieir liair 
from one to two inches long if left in its natural state, and they would 
then be wholly imfit for the uses to which they are put. We may there- 
fore consider that it is admitted to be the best plan to shorten the coat in 
the autumn, and all I have to do is to discuss the best modes of effecting 
the purpose, with a view to decide whether clipping or singmg is to be 
preferred. 

Clipping is seldom performed by any but the professed artist, inasmuch 
as it requires great practice to make the shortened coat look even and 
smooth. When a horse is well clipped his skin should look as level and 
almost as glossy as if he had on his ordmary summer coat ; but inferior 
performers are apt to leave ridges in various directions, marking each cut 
of the scissors. It should not be done till the new hair has attained nearly 
its full length, for it cannot be repeated at short intervals like singeing. If 
it is attempted too soon the new coat grows unequally, and the skin in a 
fortnight's time looks rough and ragged. A comb and two or three pairs 
of variously curved scissors are all that are requu'ed, Avitli the exception 
of a singeing lamp, which must be used at last to remove any loose hairs 
which may have escaped the blades of the scissors. Two men generally 
work together, so as to get the operation over in from sixteen to twenty 
hours, which time it will take to clip an average-sized horse properly. 
These men were formerly in great demand at the clipping season, and it 
was extraordinary how little rest sufficed for them, but now the use of 
the gas siugeing-lamp has nearly superseded that of the scissors, and 
cHppers are not so much sought after. While the process is going on, 
the horse ought to be clothed as far as possible, careful men removing 
only as much of the quarter piece as is sufficient to expose the part they 
are working at and no more. As soon as the whole body is gone over as 
well as the legs, the singeing lamp is hghtly passed over the surface, which 
will leave the hair burned to such an extent as to require either washing 
or a sweat, which latter is generally adopted, in the belief that it has a 
tendency to prevent cold. My own opinion is that this is a fallacy, and 
that soap and water used quickly and rapidly, followed up by a good 
strapping and the use of plenty of warm clothing, is far less likely to 
chill the horse than the exhaustion consequent upon a sweat. I have 
tried the plan repeatedly, and known it tried by others stUl more fre- 
quently, but I have never heard of any ill effects residting. Very often 
a sweat is exceedingly inconvenient, either from the difficulty in getting 
ground, as happens in toAvns, or from the infirm state of the legs. Eut soap 
and water can always be obtained, and if carefully used there is not the 
shghtest danger attending them. Of course after the removal of a long 
coat the skin requires an extra protection in-doors in the shape of a 
double allowance of clothing, and it will be necessary to avoid standing 
still out of doors, though, as I before remarked, on the whole the risk of 
taking cold by horses worked hard enough to sweat them is less if they 
are cHpped than if they have their long coats on. 

Singeing requires less practice than clipj^ing, but it cannot be done 
without some little experience of its difficulties, and a novice generally 
burns the skin as well as the hair. To keep a horse's coat in good order 
it must be singed several times in the course of the autumn, beginning as 
soon as the new growth has attained a length of half an inch beyond 
what is usual The singeing-lamp is then passed lightly over the whole 
body, and soap and water being used, as I have described under the head 
of clipping, or a sweat given if that plan is preferred, the coat is left for 



250 THE HORSE. 

a fortnight or three weeks till it has grown another half-inch, when the 
process is repeated, and again a third, and even a fourth time if necessajy. 
On account of these repeated applications of the lamp, tlie professed 
singer is not so often employed as the clipper, especially as the former's 
work is not so difficult to perform as that of the latter. 

The lamp now in common use is attached to a wide copper comb made 
like a rake in principle, and so arranged that the teeth raise the hair and 
draw the ends into the flame. Where gas is procurable the comb is 
attached to the gas pipe by a flexible tube, and the lamp consists merely 
in a number of holes perforated along the edge of the comb, so that a 
series of jets of gas are lighted, and burn so strongly, that the coat is com- 
pletely removed as near the skin as the teeth of the comb raise it. If gas 
cannot be obtained, a wide wick of cotton is inserted in a flat holder, and 
the ends protruding to the level of the teeth, while a reservoir filled with 
naphtha supplies them with that inflammable fluid, a constant flame is 
maintained, but not nearly equal in strength to that from gas. As the 
coat is not allowed to grow so long before it is singed, so the clothing need 
not be much increased after its removal, and, indeed, in M'ell regulated 
stables there is little or no change required. Singeing is performed in less 
than one quarter the time of clipping, and a shilling's worth of najththa is 
enough for one horse, unless his coat is unusually long. 

Shaving was introduced some years ago to a limited extent, but it 
requires so long a continement of the horse after it is performed, that it 
was soon abandoned. The hair is lathered and cut oft' with the razor as 
closely as from the human chin, and unless this is done exactly at tho 
right time, the growth subsequently is too short or too long. Instances 
have been known in which horses have remained naked until the next 
spring, and were thereby rendered perfectly useless, as they were chilled 
directly their clothing was removed. The only advantage in sha\'ing over 
clipping is to be found in the reduced labour required ; a good razor, or 
rather set of razors, soon going over the surface. But the invention of 
singeing did away with this superiority, and the shaving of horses is there- 
fore one of the fashions of a day which have now disappeared. 

Trimming. The jaws, nostrils, ears, legs, mane, and tail, are all more 
or less subjected to the care of the groom, who removes superfluous hairs 
from each or all by various means, as follows : — 

The jaivs, nostrils, and ears are singed, the last named not being touched 
inside, as the internal hairs are clearly a protection of the deUcate lining 
membrane of the ear from the cold and wet. The long bristles of the 
nostrils may either be cut off, pulled out, or singed off", but the first plan 
is the easiest and the most humane. There are, also, some bristles about 
the eyes wliich are generally removed, but it is very doubtful whether 
many an eye would not be saved from a blow in the dark if they were left 
untouched. Fashion, however, dictates their removal, and her orders must 
generally be complied with. The hair which grows an inch or more in 
length beneath the jaw, bemg of the same nature as the rest of the coat, 
can only be singed off with advantage, and it should be done as fast as it 
grows, especially if the singeing is not universal, or there will be a different 
colour presented in these parts. Nothuig gives a horse such a low-bred 
appearance as a goatlike beard, and the trimmmg of this part alone will 
completely alter the character of the animal where the hah- has been at all 
long. The legs are trimmed partly by singeing, and partly either by clip- 
ping or pulling out the hairs. Great dexterity is required to manage 
this performance in a workmanlike manner, so as to avoid the stale and 



TRIMMING. 2:1 

poster-like appearance wliich is presented by a leg clipped all over (without 
a corresponding clipping of the body), and at the same time to remove all, 
or nearly all, the superfluous hair. In the summer, a clipped leg is totally 
inadmissible, and even from the legs of a badly bred horse the hair may 
be pulled by gradually working at it for a little time every day with tho 
fingers, armed with powdered resin. This prevents the hair slipping 
through them, and by its aid such a firm hold may be obtained that, as I 
said before, perseverance will enable the groom to clear the legs entirely, 
■with the exception generally of a strong lock of hair behind the pastern. 
When this is very obstinate, it is allowable to use the scissors to clear 
away the hair below the horny growth which is found there, but thero 
should always be left a slight fringe roimd this, so as to avoid the sharp 
and stiff outline presented by the clipped leg. In the winter, the arms 
and backs of the knees, as well as the bosom and the insides of the quarters, 
will generally want singeing, Avhether the body is submitted to the lamp or 
not ; but in the summer, even if any long hairs are left there, they are 
easily removed by the hand armed with resin. Unless general clipping 
or singeing is practised, the fi-ont surfaces of the legs do not require 
trimming at any season of the year. 

The mane is not now usually cut, but formerly it was a very common 
practice to "hog" it, that is, to cut it to a sharp-pointed ridge, sticking 
straight upwards from the crest, and giving that part the appearance of 
extraordinary height. Sometimes, however, the mane is very thick, and 
then for the sake of appearances it is necessary to thin it, which is done by 
twisting a small lock at a time round the comb, and pulling it out ; this^ 
gives some little pain, but apparently not much, and evidently not more than 
the trimming of the legs, and not so much as in pulling out the feelers or 
bristles growing from the nostrils. A small lock of the mane is generally 
cut just behind the ears where the head of the bridle rests, as it would 
otherwise lie beneath that part in an untidy manner. 

In trimming the tail various methods are adopted, Avhcn it is cut square ; 
for if the hairs are allowed to grow to the full length, no interference is 
necessary beyond an occasional clipping of their points to prevent them 
from breaking or splitting. A square tail, however, whether long or short, 
demands the careful use of the scissors or knife, without Avhich the horse 
to which it belongs is sadly disfigured. Two modes are practised, — in the 
first the tail is carefully combed out, and then allowing it to fall in its 
natural position, it is gathered up in the hand just aboA^e the part to be 
cut off, and here a sharp knife is drawn across it backwards and forAvards 
without notching it, till it passes clean through. The tail is then released, 
and any loose hairs projecting are remoA^ed with the scissors. The second 
mode is not so easy, but Avdien well carried out is more satisfactory to the 
eye, inasmuch as it is capable of giving a sharper and more defined edge 
to the square tail. As in the first method, the tail is carefully combed 
out j it is then held by an assistant's hand, placed beneath the root of the 
dock, as nearly as may be in the position Avhich it assumes in the animal , 
oi;t of doors. While thus poised the operator takes a pair of sharp 
scissors, and holding the blades horizontally open, he insinuates one of 
them through the middle of the tail at the place to be cut, passing it 
straight backwards, and cutting the hair quite level from the central line 
to the outside on his OAvn left. Then rcA'ersing the blades, and keeping to 
the same level, he cuts towards the right, and if he has a good eye and 
can use liis hands in accordance Avith its dictates, he will have presented 
a very prettily squared tail. On the other hand, if these organs are defec- 



252 THE HORSE. 

tive, xiT if he wants experience, he will have notched the end of the tail 
in a most unsightly manner. If the groom wishes to try his hand in this 
operation, he should get hold of a long tail, and begin far below the point 
where the squared end is intended finally to be. This will aflord him five 
or six experimental cuts, and if he cannot satisfy himself, as he nears the 
proper length, that he will be likely to succeed, he can still caU in the 
aid of a more skilful operator before it is too late. The hair of the tail 
grows so slowly, that two or three months are required to remove the 
disfigurement which is sometimes caused in this way, and consequently 
it behoves the groom to be doubly careful, for his own sake as well as his 
master's. 

To make the mane lie sinoothly on its proper side, which it sometimes 
obstinately refuses to do, it must be plaited in small locks, and the ends 
loaded with lead, if it cannot be made to lie down without. An expe- 
rienced groom, however, mU generally succeed in so managing the plaits 
that they lie close to the neck, which is all that can be effected by the aid 
of lead, but sometimes the hair is so obstinate that nothing else wiU effect 
the object in vieAV. 



USE AND APPLICATION OF BANDAGES. 

Bandages are applied to the legs of the horse for three different pur- 
poses. First, to give support to the blood-vessels and synovial capsules ; 
secondly, as a vehicle for applying cold lotions ; and thirdly, for drying 
and warming them. 

. For the mere x>ur'pose of supjjort either linen or flannel bandages may be 
put on, according to the weather, and the tendency to inflammation. The 
legs of seasoned old horses are seldom so prone to become hot as those of 
young ones, and excepting in very warm weather, flannel bandages seem to 
suit them better than linen. On the contrary, if flannel is applied to the 
legs of a colt, even if they are not inclined to inflame, they will become 
hot and uncomfortable, and he will learn to tear them off, in which some 
horses become perfect adepts. "Whichever kind of bandage is put on, it 
should be previously tightly rolled with the strings inwards, then taking 
it in the right hand, and unwrapping about six inches, they are laid 
against the canna bone on the side nearest to the groom, so that the folds 
shall have a tendency to unrol from him and not to him. Wliile the left 
hand keeps the end from slipping, the right passes the roll of bandage 
closely round the leg till it meets the left, when the latter, still pressing 
the end against the leg, lays hold of the roll, and allows the right to be 
brought back to meet it on the other side. After which the coUs are 
repeated till the whole bandage is run out and the leg encased, one row 
being slightly above or below the level of the next, as may be required. 
The great art consists in avoiding unequal pressure, and yet giving 
sufficient to accomplish the purpose for which bandaging is designed. 
From the projection backwards of the pastern-joints it is impossible to 
make the folds lie perfectly smooth, and there must be loose parts, which 
however are covered over by the next turn. No written description, 
however, will sufl&ce to teach this little operation, and the young groom 
should watch a good bandager, and imitate him as exactly as he can. The 
strings at the end serve to tie the bandage on, and these also must neither 
be so tight as to cut the leg, nor so loose as to allow the bandage to fall 
down. 



MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET. 253 

When cold lotions are to be applied by means of bandages, linen is the 
proper material, as flannel is too bad a conductor of heat, by evaporation, 
for the purpose. The whole bandage, after being rolled up moderately 
tightly, should be dipped m cold water, or in the lotion which may be 
recommended, and then while quite wet it is to be applied in the way 
which I have just described. The following lotion is useful for the 
purpose : — 

Ttike of Tincture of Arnica a wine-glassful. 
„ Nitre | oz. 
„ Sal ammoniac 1 oz. 
„ Water half a bucketful, 
Mix and use by clipping the bandages in before applying them, and by wetting 
them with this solution afterwards by means of a sponge. 

If the gToom is careful, he may remove inflammation of the legs better 
by means of dipping them in cold water, or the above lotion may be 
applied with a sponge every half-hour, holding each leg over the bucket, 
than with the aid of bandages. A cold douche by means of a forcing 
•garden engine is also extremely beneficial to the legs, but it must be 
used out of doqrs, as it will wet the litter and the walls of the stall if the 
water is splashed over them within doors. 

For Drying and Warming the Legs when the horse is being di-essed, 
flannel is the only proper material for bandages. Its mode of application 
is not of much consequence, provided the bandages are put on moderately 
loosely, for tight pressure has a tendency to prevent the return of natural 
heat, wliich is so much desired. After wetting the legs the bandages 
should be applied somewhat more tightly, so as to absorb the moisture as 
much as possible. 

MA^AGEI^IEXT OF THE FEET. 

In the stabled horse the feet require constant care, for they are not 
only artificially shod, but they are allowed to stand on a material \\'hich is 
a much, worse conductor of heat than the surface of the earth, by nature 
designed to bear them. Hence, if neglected, they either become hard and 
brittle, or they are allowed to be constantly wet, and then the soft covering 
of the frog is decomposed, and emits a disagreeably smelling discharge, 
which soon wastes it away, leaving no other protection to the sensible 
organ beneath, and constituting what is called an ordinary tlnaish. Again, 
it is found by experience, that not only must the shoes be renewed as they 
wear out, but even if no work is done, and consequently they are not 
reduced in size, they no longer fit at the expiration of about three weeks, 
and they must then be removed, to allow of a portion of the sole and crust 
being cut away before they are again put on. The groom must therefore 
attend to the following points : — First, to prevent the feet from becoming 
too dry ; secondly/, to take measures against their becoming thrushy 
from wet ; thirdly/, to see that the shoes are removed at the end of every 
three weeks, or more frequently if necessary ; and fowthly, to examine 
carefully every day that they are securely nailed on without any of the 
clenches having started up from the surface, so as to endanger the 
other leg. 

Dryness of the veet is prevented by the use of what is called stopping, 
which is composed either of cow-dung alone, or cow-dung and clay mixed, 
or of cow-dung and pitch. The"first is by far the most powerful applica- 
tion, but it moistens the sole too much if employed every night, and then 



*2o-l THE HORSE. 

produces the opposite evil in the shape of thrush. A mixture of equal 
parts of cow- Jung and clay may be used every night with advantage, and 
this I believe to be the best of all stoppings. It should be kept in a 
^•^jtrong box of wood, about a foot long and eight inches wide, with a 
handle across the top, and it should be ajiplied the last thing at night to 
the soles of the fore feet only, by means of a thin piece of wood, a foot 
long and a couple of inches wide, with which the space within the shoe is 
completely stuffed. If the feet are obstinately dry, in spite of repeated 
stoppings with cow-dung alone, which will rarely be the case, a table- 
spoonful of salt may be added to the cow-dimg, and this will never fail. For 
most horses stopping with cow-dung alone once a week is sufficient, but 
the groom can judge for himself, by their appearance, of the number of 
stoppings required. If three parts of cow-dung and one of clay are used, 
the feet may be stopped twice a Aveek, or, perhaps, every other night, and if 
oqual jDarts of each are adopted as the composition, almost any feet will 
bear being stopped every other night, with the exception of flat or 
pmniced soles, wliich should never be stopped at all. On the night before 
shoeing, every horse, even if he has flat soles, will be the better for having 
his feet stopped, the application softening the horn so as to allow the 
smith to use his knife to sKce it without breaking it into crumbling frag- 
ments. Several patents have been taken out for felt pads, to be soaked 
in water, and then inserted in the hollow of the shoe, but they do not 
answer nearly so well as cow-dung stopping, which has far more emollient 
<iualities than mere water. I believe nothing has yet been discovered 
V'hich has qualities at all equal to this old-fashioned natural remedy. 

TiiuusHES are ]ireventcd by keeping the frogs free from ragged layers 
of the elastic substance of which they are partly composed, and at the 
€ame time by maintaining a dry state of the litter on which the horse 
stands. I am not now considering the management of the horse at grass, 
where thrushes are generally produced when the weather is very wet, or 
when the pasture is of too marshy a character, but the frogs of the stabled 
horse, which ought never to be allowed to be so moist as to become 
-decomposed. Some ulcerated conditions of the frog which are still 
■considered to come under the general denomination " tlirush," are due to 
severe internal disease of the bones of the foot, and are not caused by 
moisture at alL Still these are rare exceptions, and the ordinary thrush 
of the stable may be considered as invariably caused in the latter way. 
Oases are also occasionally to be met with, in wliich, from general gross- 
iiess of the system, the sensible frog throws ofl" part of its horny covermg, 
iind secretes a foul matter instead. The management of these diseased 
conditions comes within the province of the veterinarian, and I shall 
therefore not enter upon its consideration ; but the prevention of the mere 
decomposition of the external surface by moisture is a part of the duties 
of the groom, and so is the application of the proper remedies for it, as 
soon as the nature of the case is clearly made out. Here antiseptic 
astringents, which are quite out of jilace in inflammatory thrush, are the 
only useful applications, and by their means alone can the decomposition 
be stoijped. Of these Sir W. Burnett's solution of cliloride of zinc is the 
best, but in mild cases, Condy's fluid, which is the permanganate of potass, 
will answer well, and is not so poisonous in its nature if carelessly left 
about. Friar's Balsam, with as much of the sulphate of zinc dissolved in it 
as it will t dv(! up, is the old-fashioned grooms' remedy for thrush, and a very 
good 1)11(1 it is if carefully insinuated into the cleft of the frog on a piece 
of tow w.'ited with it. The grand principle, however, is to prevent thrush 



DAILY EXERCISE. 255 

rather than to cure it, but when horses are bought, or come home from 
grass -with it, the curative method must be carried out. 

The kemoval of the shoes at regular intervals, whether they are worn 
out or not, is a most important part of the duties of the gi'oom. On 
examining the shape of the foot it will be seen that the diameter of the 
circle in contact Avith the shoe is greater than that of the coronet, and 
hence as the shoe is forced away from its original position by the growth 
of the horn it confines the walls to the extent of the difference between 
the diameter of the foot at its old position and that of the part which it 
now occu2)ies. For if two lines from the surface of the coronet on each 
side were continued through the outside surface of the crust to the new 
seat of the shoe, they would bo far from parallel, and yet the shoe nails 
must have been carried on in perfect parallel lines on account of the 
unyielding nature of iron. For this reason a shoe, when it has not been 
removed at the end of a month, will be found to lie within the heel of 
one side or the other, by which to some extent contraction is prevented, 
bat at the expense of the heel, into which the corresponding part of the 
shoe has entered. Tliis is a frequent cause of corns, and horses which 
have once been subject to that disease should have their shoes removed 
once a fortnight. 

OxE OF THE MOST ANNOYING ACCIDENTS to the horseman is the loss of a 
shoe, whether it happens in the hunting field or on the road. Some 
horses can scarcely be prevented by any care of their grooms from pulling 
off a shoe in hunting when they get into deep ground, but on the road 
there is no such excuse, and the frequent loss of a shoe by the hack or 
harness-horse is sufficient to condemn the groom of carelessness in this 
jiarticular. Every morning when the feet are picked out it is easy to look 
the shoes over and feel if they are tight. The clenches also ought to be 
examined, and if they are not raised at all it may safely be predicated that 
the day's journey Avdl be completed without the shoe being lost. A raised 
clench may severely cut a horse on the inside of the other leg, and in 
those Avho are predisposed to "speedy cut" it may cause severe injury, 
and jierhajos occasion a fall of the most dangerous character. 



DAILY EXEECISE. 

Without regular exercise no horse can long be kept in liealth, and 
I believe that as far as this jioint is concerned even those which are hard- 
worked Avould be the better for half an hour's airing every morning as 
eoon as they have been fed and before they are dressed. Eut those 
masters who are particular about the mouths of the animals they ride or 
drive, find that the hands of their grooms are generally so heavy that they 
spoil the delicate " feel " on which the comfort and pleasure of riding and 
driving so much depends. Hence in such cases the poor horse is con- 
demned to confinement in his stable, not only on the day when he is to 
be ridden or driven, but on those also when he is to be idle. The health 
of the body is sacrificed to the maintenance of that delicate condition of 
the mouth which is so highly prized by good horsemen and accomplished 
whips, and I confess that 1 plead guilty to having for a long series of 
years acted on tliis principle. A fair share of health may be maintained 
without exercise if the work is never interrupted for more than a single 
day, and at the same time there .being only one pair of hands to interfere 
with the mouth, its delicacy is not impaii'ed, that is to say if they are not 



256 THE HORSE. 

as bad as those of the groom. Sometimes a large and smooth snaffle is 
allowed as an exercise bridle, in the hope that it cannot injure the mouth, 
but even this will do mischief if the weight of the rider is thrown upon it, 
as is too often the case. Leaving out of the question this objection to the 
adoption of exercise, there can be no doubt that a daily walk out of doors 
for half an hour or an hour, especially if it can be managed on turf, will 
be of the Greatest service to the horse's health. 



CHAPTER XY. 

STABLE MANAGEMENT CONTINUED, 

RECAriTULATION OP DAILY DUTIES — PEOPER TEMPERATURE— REMEDIES FOR STABLE 

VICES AND BAD HABITS — PREPARATION FOR WORK — ORDINARY SWEATING THE 

TURKISH BATH — PHYSIC FINAL PREPARATION TREATMENT AFTER WORK — SUMMER- 
ING—A winter's run THE STRAW-YARD CARE OF SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 

In the last chapter I have entered at length upon the consideration 
of the several duties of the groom ; I shall now recapitulate them, so as to 
enable the master to see at a glance whether his servant is at any parti- 
cular time doing what he ought to do. 

RECAPITULATION OP STABLE DUTIES. 

A.M. 5 to 6. Feed, and give a few "go-downs" of water ; while the corn is being 
eaten put the stable straight, by separating the soiled part of the 
litter and forking it back into the gangway, while the rest is tucked 
up under the manger. Then sweep out the stall quite clean, and 
carry the dirt as well as the foul litter at once out of the stable. 

6 to 7. Put exercise saddle and bridle on, take the horse out for half-an-hour 

or an hour, or more, according to the work he has to do. Bring 
him home, take off saddle and bridle, shake down a little litter, 
and go to breakfast. 
8 to 8.30. Dress each horse for an hour; put all straight; feed, and water lightly; 
I'ack up if going out to work, if not allow horse to lie down, 
arranging a light bed for the purpose ; put on bandages when worn. 
P.M. 3 to 4. Feed again and give hidf a bucket of water ; remove droppings. 

7 to 8. Remove droppings ; bed up ; water and feed ; stop feet on those nights 

when I'equired ; take off bandages. 

These hours will vary according to circumstances, but in private stables 
they are the most convenient that can be arranged for hacks and harness- 
horses. Hunters are sometimes fed once more, — that is, at six, nine, 
twelve, five, and eight ; but I believe four times a day often enough to 
give any horse food. When one man has to do three horses, he cannot 
of course finish them all by the hour named, and even if lie begins at 
five o'clock, he cannot complete all he has to do before eleven or twelve 
o'clock. 

PROPER TEMPERATURE OF THE STABLE. 

There is scarcely any point upon which there is so much difference of 
opinion, as in relation to the temperature of stables. Some contend for an 
amount of heat which would raise Fahrenheit's thermometer to 65° or 70°, 
while others would never have their stables, if they could help it, above 
4.5° So much depends upon the kind of horse in them, and the work 



REMEDIES FOR STABLE VICES. 257 

he has to do, that is to say, whether he is much exposed to the cold or 
not, that no rule can be laid down which is applicable to all stables, 
but I believe it may be asserted that none should be above G0°, or below 
50°, if it can bb avoided. There are days in the summer season, when 
the air out of doors in the shade stands at 90° or 95°, and, of course, in 
such weatlier, it is impossible, even with the doors and wiaidows wide 
open, to keep the stable at a loAver degree, or even within several 
points of those above stated. So also, with a thermometer scarcely above 
zero, it will be difficult to keep the air wholesome, and yet to i^revent its 
temperature falling loAver than 45°, which, at such seasons, feels very 
warm to those who come in from the external air. But, with these excep- 
tions, I think the rule which I have laid dovm is a good one. The 
war)ner the stable, the better the coat looks, till it is exposed to the 
weather, and even if it is so, it will take no injury if the horse is kept 
* moving, but if not, it soon becomes chilled, and not only does the general 
health suffer, but the appearance also. There is, however, another, and 
very serious objection to hot stables, consisting in their ill-effect upon 
the legs and feet, which inflame much more readily in 'a warm atmos- 
phere than in a cool one. I have often known horses stand severe rat- 
tling for months together, while standing in a stable which was so cold 
as to make their coats as rough as badgers, but when removed to warmer 
quarters, they have at once gone "all to pieces," their legs or feet 
becoming inflamed from missing the refrigerating effect of cool air after 
their daily work. The body may easily be kept warm enough by extra 
clothing, and, if necessary, a hood and breastplate may be worn all day 
and all night, but not even wet bandages will cool the legs if they are 
surrounded by hot air. On the whole, therefore, for the private gentle- 
man's stable, including those for hunters, hacks, and carriage horses, I 
should advise a regular temperature to be preserved as near 55° of Fahren- 
heit as possible. In coming in from the external air this will appear very 
warm to the sensations, but it is far below the high state of heat at 
which many of our stables were kept, until within the last few years. I 
have often known 70° to 75° of Fahrenheit insisted on as the lowest which 
would suffice to get a hunter into condition, but practice proves the reverse, 
and that with plenty of clothing he will do in a cool stable of the tem- 
perature I have recommended, far better than in one possessing a 
higher range. The celebrated "ISTimrod" (Mr. Apperley) was a great 
advocate for a hot stable, which he thought ought never to be reduced 
much below 70° or 75° ; but his opinions, valuable as they undoubtedly 
are in the main, cannot be looked upon as in all points to be relied on. 

EEMEDIES FOE STABLE VICES A^D BAD HABITS. 

Crib-biting is a diseased condition of the stomach, for which there ha s 
never yet been a cure discovered, except on the principle of restraint. It 
may, therefore, be considered under the present head. In crib-biting the 
teeth are applied to some fixed object — generally the manger, so as to 
afford a fulcrum for the muscles of the neck to act from, and by pre- 
venting this, or by contriving so that the contraction of the muscles of 
the neck shall give pain, the vicious habit is got rid of for the time. The 
most common method is to buckle a leather strap so tightly round the neck, 
just behind the jaw, that when the horse attempts to crib, he tightens the 
muscles of that part, and these being pressed against the strap, occasion 
such pain that the act is not completely carried out, and even if it is on the 

s 



258 THE HORSK 

first occasion, the attempt is not repeated. The strap is buckled suffi- 
ciently tight to do this, without much impeding the act of swallowing, or 
the flow of blood from the head, tlirough the jugular veins to the body; 
but in confirmed cribbers no ordinary pressure will suffice, and then the 
head often becomes affected from the impediment which is caused to the 
return of the blood from the brain to the heart. To remedy this defect 
Mr. Cook, Saddler, of Long Acre, two or three years ago, invented a 
neck strap, containmg a number of prongs, which pass through holes in a 
spring guard, and unless this is strongly pressed, they do not touch the 
skin. It is applied by throat straps to an ordinary head collar, and in 
slight cases it is found to answer most perfectly, but when the vice has 
become confirmed, and the desire to indulge in it is very strong, the pain 
occasioned by the prongs is endured, and no effect at all is produced. It 
is not therefore of much use, as the common strap does no injury in 
those cases where Mr. Cook's is effectual, and the latter will not avail 
when the plain strap is forbidden, on account of the extreme pressure 
required. I cannot, therefore, recommend any plan but such as will 
totally prevent the prehension of the manger, and this is accomphshed by 
one of two ways. In the first of these, the manger itself is either 
concealed, on the principle shown at page 208, or the corn and hay are 
placed on the groimd, in a space slightly separated from the rest of the 
staU. by a row of bricks, or other similar bodies, which cannot be laid hold 
of. To the concealed manger and rack there is the objection, that while 
the horse is feeding, he can go on cribbing mthout interruption, and as 
this is the time chiefly chosen for the act, success is only partly achieved. 
Placing the food on the ground is entirely successful in stoj^ping the 
habit, but it leads to some waste of provender, as the horse is apt to tread 
upon it, after which he will refuse to eat it. By far the best preventive, 
in my opinion, is the bar muzzle, consisting in an iron frame work, 
covering the lips and nose, and suspended from the head by a leather 




BAR MUZZLE FOR CRIB BirEBS. 



head collar, so that the lips can reach the corn or hay, but the teeth are 
too wide to pass through the bars and seize the manger. This mechanical 
contrivance IS entirely harmless, and perfectly effectual, the sole objection 
to It bemg the fact that it proclaims the wearer to every one who looks into 



REMEDIES FOR STABLE VICES. 2uy 

the stable as a cribber. This may be a valid reason for rejecting its use 
Ibr dealers' horses, but in a gentleman's stable, utility and humanity 
ought to have precedence of such a feeble argument. The price of the 
bar muzzle is 1 5s., which to a poor man is a consideration, as compared 
with the plain leather strap to be obtained for Is. 6d. When the bar 
muzzle is adopted, it should always be kept on, excepting, of course, when 
the bridle replaces it for work or exercise, or while the head is being 
dressed. 

Kicking the wall or stall post is sometimes a very annoying trick, 
and though not always done in a vicious manner, it is objectionable, 
because the kicker is liable to lame himself, or one of his neighbours. 
In mares it is often of a sexual nature, and in them it is much more 
common than in geldings, — the extent to which it is carried by them being 
generally greatest at the beginning and end of their being " in use." At 
such times some mares go almost mad, if they have an irritating neigh- 
bour, wlio keeps smelling them, and I once had one who kicked herself 
to pieces in a paroxysm of tliis kind, which nothing but tying up the 
fore-leg could restrain. There are several remedies in common use, but 
none can be relied on in all cases. Foremost among these is* the use of 
gorse, nailed to the stall-post, wliich will almost invariably quiet a low 
bred animal, especially if a gelding, but high bred mares will sometimes 
kick at it all the more, fur the punishment they receive. A padded 
leather strap, buckled round the canna bone, with a common sinker 
attached to it, or, instead of this, a few links of heavy chain, will gene- 
rally keep the horse from kicking, because in making the attempt he gives 
his coronet and pastern a heavy blow. If, however, this plan is unsuc- 
cessful, it is liable to cause lameness, from the inflammation produced by 
the blows, and, therefore, the effect must be carefully watched. Few 
horses kick out with both legs, and a pair of hobbles buckled round the 
hind fetlocks will, in a vast majority of cases, put an end to the trick as 
long as they are worn, without any risk, or producing any serious annoy- 
ance, save only what is inseparably connected with the proliibition of the 
indulgence in the desire to kick. A narrow strap buckled round the part 
just above the hock, so as to confine the ham string, will have the desired 
effect, by giving intense pain when any attempt to strike out is made, but 
it is a most annoying infliction to the horse, and generally prevents his 
lying down, from the necessity which there is for bending the hock, in 
reaching the ground. I should, therefore, give the preference to the 
bujich of gorse, or if that is not readily procurable, to the sinker of wood 
or iron suspended to a strap romid the leg. 

In scratching the ear with the hind foot, the horse is very apt to 
get his leg over the collar rein, if the sinker is not heavy _ enough to keep 
the rein tightly stramed between the head collar and the ring in the 
manger. Impatient animals, also, which are continually pawing at their 
Ktter, will sometimes get one of their fore feet over it, but this is not so 
serious an accident. To prevent the mischief occasioned in either case by 
the struggles to get free, especially Avhen the hind leg is thus caught, the 
rings for the collar reins are sometimes made to draw down with a spring- 
catch, which releases them when pulled in that direction, but in no other. 
When, however, the sinker is properly weighted, it is almost impossible 
for such an accident to occur ; and this simple invention ha,s now become 
obsolete. 

Tearing the clothes off is by no means an unusual stable habit, 
and it is one very difficult to cure. There are two effectual preventives, 

8 2 



260 



THE HORSE. 



however : one of wliich consists in the regular employment of a rougli 
liorseliair cloth, made like that for hops, outside the rug, and which is so 
iisagreeable to the teeth, that no horse will attempt to tear it ; the other 
is carried out by means of a pole of ash, about three-quarters of an inch 
in diameter, with an iron eye attached to each end. One of these is 
fastened, by means of a short leathern strap and buckle, to the side of 
the roller-pad, while the other has a strap or chain about a foot lone, 
which attaches it to the head collar. The pole should reach about fifteen 
inches beyond the point of the shoulder, and it should be fixed on the 
side which is generally uppermost when the horse lies down, so as not to 
be under him in that position. It is a very simple and cheap apparatus, 
and any village blacksmith can make and apply it. The following 
engraving will illustrate my meanmg better than the most detailed 
description without it. 




REMEDY FOR TEARING THE CLOTUES. 



Weaving is a mark of an irritabie nervous system, beyond which it is 
harmless, but quite incurable. It consists in a perpetual moving of the 
head from one side of the manger to the other, with an action like that of 
a wild beast in his den. The constant friction soon wears out the collar- 
rcius when there are two, and on that account a single rein may be 
adopted in this particular instance with advantage. 

Eating the litteu is a peculiar appetite, which chiefly occurs either in 
those horses which are kept short of hay on account of their tendency to 
fatten, or when the animal possessing it has been stabled for a very long 
time together and requires a change. In the former case nothing but 
the muzzle will be of the slightest service, but in the latter a run at grass, 
or soiling indoors for a month or two, will remedy the disorder of the 



rPvEPARATION FOK WORK. 2()1 

stomach. Eook salt in the manger will sometimes have the desired effect, 
producing a degree of thirst M^hich Avill make dry litter distasteful. 

Kicking and biting savagely are marks of actual vice, and scarcely 
come within the limits of the present section. Still the groom must 
know how to guard against them in the best way, so as to save himself 
from danger without unnecessarily punishing the horse. There are 
some animals which cannot be effectually restrained without severity, 
but on the average, kindness and firmness united will overcome any 
horse. Sometimes it is necessary to put on the muzzle while the dressing 
is going on, but this is chiefly because the skin is so irritable that the 
brush or whisp excite sensations which lead to the use of the teeth or 
hind legs to prevent their recurrence. In such cases as these Mr. Earey's 
method of subduing a savage horse is extremely valuable. 

PEEPAEATION FOE WOEK. 

I HAVE ALREADY OBSERVED that these pagcs are not intended to serve 
as a guide for the trainer of the racehorse, and that they chiefly apply 
to the management of the hunter, hack, and carriage-horse belonging to 
the private gentleman. The description of the mode of preparation for 
work will therefore include the mode of fitting the hunter for his duties, 
and of getting the hack and carriage-horse into condition, from the state in 
which they are usually first brought into the stable, either from grass or 
the dealer's hands. 

In the present day, the hunter is prepared almost as carefully as 
the racehorse or steeplechaser, when he is intended for any of the grass 
countries. !N"othing short of a regular preparation will enable a horse to 
go through a fast thing in I^"orthamptonshire or Leicestershire, and no 
man in his senses would ride a horse there in the front rank, unless he 
was thoroughly fit. The stud-groom, therefore, requires for his purpose a 
training-ground where he can give his horses their sweats, without Avhich 
it would be impossible to get them into condition. A very large space is 
not necessary, but a very small one will not sufiice, the constant turning 
incidental to a limited gallop producing a great strain upon the joints. 
If possible a gallop measuring at least a mile and a half or two miles in 
circumference should be obtained, and with this length, including a mode- 
rate rise in its extent so as to open the horse's pipes well at the finish of 
the sweat, it is the groom's fault if his charge is not brought out thoroughly 
fit when the hunting season commences. Of course, Avhcn making this 
assertion, I am calculating that he has been allowed sufficient time, which 
will depend greatly upon the state in Avhich he finds his horses in August. 
If they have been at grass, it is almost impossible to get them ready by 
the middle of ^fTovember, but a well summered horse soiled in a loose-box 
with a proper allowance of corn, may be thoroughly prepared by that 
time if he is set to work by the middle of August. This will allow of 
two clear preparations, with an intervening week for cooling physic. 
Should the horse be up from grass, another month or six weeks at least 
will be required, which must be employed in giving him nothing but 
walking exercise, with a dose of physic at the beginning, and repeated at 
the end of three weeks or a month. Horses at grass in the summer are 
seldom allowed any corn, and the change from grass to the more stimulat- 
ing food of the stable must be made gradually, or some of the important 
organs will assuredly fail. Hence the necessity for extra time, and the 
addition which I have made to the calculated period for conditioning a 



262 THE HORSE. 

hunter summered indoors, is barely sufficient for this purpose, when he 
is full of grass or of the fattening food which is given to make him up 
for the dealers. In either case great care and some experience are neces- 
sary in altering the entire management of the animal, so as to give him 
corn and exercise enough to prepare his frame gradually for the strains 
which it -will have to bear in the hunting field, without producing inflam- 
mation. With all the objections which I hold to physic, I must confess 
that here I think it to be indispensable ; and invariably, as soon as a raw 
horse is settled in the stable, I should get him thoroughly cleaned out 
before 1 Toegan to give him hay and corn. I have always ibund it advan- 
tageous just to allow a couple of days to elapse before giving the physic, 
wliich will serve to fill the large bowels with the new kind of food. A 
mash should then be administered at night, and repeated if necessary till it 
has had the desired eflect in softening the dung, when the physic may be 
given. Two or three days will elapse before it has set sufficiently to 
allow of walking exercise .; but as soon as this can be ordered Avith safety, 
the horse should be walked out twice a day for an hour and a half each 
time, or two hours in the morning and one in the evening, whichever may 
be preferred. The division of the exercise into two periods is far better 
than keeping the gTeen horse out for so long a time as three hours, which 
will make him weary ; whereas, the shorter period will not tire any 
horse, and a mid-day rest will restore his whole frame, and enable him to 
go out again in the evening as cheerfully as ever. I need scarcely observe 
that the shoes should be attended to, and the feet put in proper order, for 
three hours' walking exercise in ill-fitting shoes will do great harm, espe- 
cially to feet that are not accustomed to their pressure. By persevering 
with steady slow work, and feeding on a moderate allowance of hay and 
corn, the latter not exceeding two feeds at first and three at the end of 
the month, the horse Avill be ready by the middle of August to have a 
second dose of physic, after which he may commence m earnest his Jirst 
real preparation. This also is chiefly confined to slow work, but if the 
horse is gross he may have in the course of the four or five weeks to 
which it extends one or two sweats of moderate length and speed. Great 
caution must always be exercised by the groom at this time ; on no ac- 
count should any fast Avork be given, unless he is satisfied that his horse 
is in perfect health and in good spmts. Every increase in the food and 
work should be carefully watched, and its effects noted, so as to guide him 
in deciding Avhether he can venture to take another step. It must be 
remembered that hitherto the feeds of corn have been only three quar- 
terns of oats daily, and the exercise has not extended beyond a walk ; 
but during the next few Aveeks the former must be doubled, or nearly so, 
and the latter must go on into a daily slow trot of tAvo or three miles on 
turf, Avith an occasional steady gallop in place of this, and, as I have 
before remarked, one or two sweats if the system is overloaded Avith fat. 
But unless the hunter is very fleshy, nothing more than slow trots and 
canters Avill be required until after the next dose of physic. The increase 
in the quantity of corn Avill seldom tend to put on fat, and as the amount 
of hay should be small, not exceeding 10 lbs. a day, unless the horse is 
gross in his nature, he will have put on muscle, and lost some of the 
iiitcirnal fat Avhich is so prejudicial to condition. 

The object op the sweating process is to remove superfluous fatty 
matters, Avhich act prejudicially in a tAvofold manner. In the first place 
the fat itself is so nmch dead Aveight to carry, and on the calculation that 
seven pounds are equal to a distance in an average Icng^^h of race, it may 



I 



\ 



PREPARATION FOR WORK. 'zb-b 

readily be understood that the huge quantity of adipose tissue, which is 
carried by a fat horse, will, by its weight alone, retard any attempt at lugh 
speed. But, not only is fat to be objected to on this score; for it is also 
known by experience, that its pressure on the important internal organs, 
when it is deposited around them, interferes with the proper perform- 
ance of their several functions. The muscles of the limbs, when they ai'e 
marbled with fat, as we see them in the slaughtered ox and sheep, are 
unable to contract vigorously, but when a similar condition occurs in 
the muscular tissue of which the heart is composed, violent exertions are 
interdicted, or, if they are attempted, they are attended with dangerous 
and often fatal results. Again, it is ascertained that sweating has a local, 
as well as a general effect, and that, by producing a copious discharge of 
fluid from the skin covering any particular part, there will be a removal 
of any superfluous fat which may be lodged beneath it, before the rest of 
the body is perceptibly acted on. Hence, when the groom thinks that his 
horse is loaded with fat about the heart, he puts on extra "sweaters'" 
over that part, or on the contrary, if his object is to unload the ridge of 
dense adipose membrane, which constitutes a high crest, he puts on two 
or three extra hoods, and sweats chiefly in that region of the body. The 
local effect of these jiartial sweats is, perhaps, a good deal overrated, but 
undoubtedly there is some foundation for the general belief. The use of 
clothing for sweating is not nearly so frequent as it used to be, even in 
racing stables, and horses are not now drawn so fine, by a great deal, as 
they were twenty or thirty years ago. At that time runners in the Derby, 
or in any other great race, when they were saddled, looked like living 
skeletons, and to an eye unaccustomed to the hard lines presented by their 
limbs, the beauty of their forms was entirely gone. Now a different 
system prevails; the object is not to reduce the horse as much as he will 
bear, but to bring him out as big as he can be, consistently with good 
wind. The celebrated trainer, John Scott, has shown what can be done 
in this way, and his example is now generally followed. So also with 
hunters, although they are often required to do more, perhaps, than any 
other variety of the horse, and in the grass countries are made as fit as if 
they were going to run in a steeplechase, yet they are brought to covert 
looking big and full of muscle, without an}'' pretensions to be considered 
as drawn fine. Still the sweat, either in clothes or without them, must be 
occasionally carried out, or the internal organs will continue loaded with 
fat, as is natural to them when they have been for some time in a state of 
rest, coupled with high feeding. The use and amount of sweaters must 
be proportioned to the constitutional peculiarities of the individual ; in 
one horse a slow gallop will produce a perfect lather on the skin, while 
in another treated in all respects in the same way, there shall be harLlIy a 
hair turned. So also the effect of apparently the same degree of sweating 
on different horses is very variable, producing a great relief in one 
case, and scarcely any in another. The groom must not attempt to carry 
out any fixed rule, but must watch the effect of each day's work, and 
increase or diminish the amount next day according to circumstances. 
As I before remarked, a sweat may be with clothes or without, the 
object in each case being not so much to do a certain amount of work, 
but to get rid of a fixed quantity of superfluous fat and humours. On 
the other hand, a gallop has quite the opposite end in view, being in- 
tended to brace the muscles, heart, blood vessels and lungs, by stimulating 
them to act in an extraordmary degree, but without any view to reduce 
the weight of the body or any part of it. In a sweat, therefore, the 



26-t THE HORSE. 

pace is slow and long continued ; no exertion is made to render it smart, 
or to develop action in any shape, the whole attention of the groom being 
devoted to the single object which is connected with the removal of fat. 
It is usual, therefore, to send the horse along at a slow, steady, hand gallop 
for four miles, or in very gross animals for five or six, the last half mile 
only being done at anything like a fast pace, and even then the horse 
should not be extended to the utmost, on account of the great extra weight 
he has to carry, if he has two or three sweating blankets on. It is quite 
necessary to bear in mind this special object of the sweat, inasmuch as it 
has lately become the fashion to sweat without either clothing or exercise, 
by means of the Turkish bath. The opponents of this practice contend 
that it can never supersede the old plan, because, though it will get rid of 
superfluities, it will not develop muscle ; but they forget that it is not 
used for the latter purpose, but is solely confined to the one object, which 
by the employment of sweating blankets out of doors is accompanied with 
considerable risk. The Turkish bath is, in fact, a means to one end only, and 
must not be employed for any other. IS'o horse could have his muscles 
and heart, his wind and limbs, made more wiry and enduring than before 
by any number of baths ; but he may be put into a condition which shall 
fit him for being so, "without the risk to the legs and feet which a number 
of sweats in heavy clothing will always cause. i!^o wonder, therefore, 
that trainers eagerly resort to the use of the bath, especially as every 
year their horses seem to be getting more and more liable to break down. 
It is quite true that the old fashioned sweat combines muscular exercise 
with the process of imloading the system, but in so doing, the time of the 
groom is the only tiring saved, and no one would take that into the calcu- 
lation, as being worthy of consideration. In the new mode, when he is 
too gross, the horse is sweated on one day, and on the next he may be 
galloped if necessary, the bath producing so little fatigue, that he may 
have any amount of exercise directly after it, to which he is accustomed. 
JSTewmarket trainers are not very easily induced to adopt a novelty, but 
many of them have made up their minds as to the advantages of the 
bath, and several of those who are to be regarded as the highest 
authorities, have erected one on their premises. Indeed, so strong is 
the desire to carry out the new system fully, that an offer has lately been 
made to one of the Turkish Bath Companies by some of the trainers of 
JSTewmarket, to take shares to the extent of 1,200^. if the Directors would 
build a public bath there. In resorting to the bath at first the attempt 
was made to save doubtful legs only, but the good effect was soon found 
to extend beyond this, and in almost all cases where there would be any 
necessity for sweats and clothing, the Turkish bath is adopted instead, by 
those Avho have the means at their disposal. I shall, therefore, describe 
each of these plans in detail. 

OEDIXAEY S\VEATI:N'G. 

"\TnEN THE OLD FASHIONED SWEAT is intended to be given, and it is not 
proposed to reduce any part in particular, it is usual to put on an old rug 
next the skin, or, in large stables, a sheet kept expressly for the purpose, 
and hence called a " sweater ;" then an old hood and breast-cloth, next a 
second quarter-piece is put on, and even a third in some cases, and lastlj^, 
a complete set of clothing over all, the saddle, as usual, completing the 
arrangement. If any special part is to be reduced, as for instance, the 
brisket or bosom, an extra cloth is folded like a shawl, and the ends being 



ORDINARY SWEATING. 2(;.> 

crossed over the withers, it is kept in its place under the breast-cloth, bj tho 
pressure of the saddle; or a rug may be folded and placed round the chest, 
without extending to the loins, in case the heart is sujiposed to be oppressec? 
with fat. All these points of detail will call upon the groom for an exercise 
of ingenuity and tact, and if he possesses these qualities, he will have no diffi- 
culty in placing his sweaters where they will be required. "When they are 
all securely fixed the horse is ridden out, and after walking for a short time 
to empty himself, he is started off to go his sweat, which is generally four 
miles, doing three-quarters of the distance at a slow pace, and then being 
set going a little faster, and at last brought out to his top-speed, if iu 
full training, or nearly so if in his second preparation. By his top-speedy 
however, is not to be understood the very outside pace which, can be got 
out of the horse, but only such a speed as is short of that by so much as- 
will preserve his stride in full vigour, and prevent that over-pacing whicli 
leads to the rupture of muscular or tendinous structure. In his first pre- 
paration he should seldom be extended, and it is better to increase the 
distance rather than to accelerate the speed beyond the steady gallop ; but 
few horses refuse to sweat at a slow pace in this stage of training. As soon^ 
as he has finished the distance, the trainer examines his state, and either 
directs him to be walked or trotted on to the rubbing place, which should^ 
be a box set apart for the purpose, either on the training-ground or at the 
usual stables ; or if the ground is at a distance from any available- 
stable, the shelter of a haystack or high hedge should be sought- 
for. The full benefit of the sweat is not obtained unless the fluid i* 
scraped off before it has had time to be re-absorbed, which is the result^ 
if it is allowed to remain on the skin after this has ceased to give out 
any fluid. Its vessels in that case, uistead of perspiring, adopt the oppo- 
site extreme, and appropriate the sweat by their own power of absorption j. 
thus doing away with the chief benefit which was expected and desired' 
from the sweat itself. V/'hen the hand of the gi'oom, applied to the 
shoulder of the horse under his breast-cloth, tells him that the sweat is- 
coming kindly, the horse may have a couple of rugs heaped upon him, 
and be suftered to give out fluid for a very few minutes only ; but if 
it does not break out at once, three or four must be put on him, and he 
must wait a quarter of an hour or twenty minutes before he is fit to scrape. 
If he sweats freely, the groom in charge of his head may rub his ears and 
wipe his eyes, so as to refresh him slightly ; but if there is any difficulty 
in bringing on the sweat this will only retard the process, and he may be 
allowed to stand quite quietly, and withoiit any attempt to refresh him by 
the above little attentions, or by rubbing his legs, or wiping his thighs or 
bosom. As soon as the groom is satisfied, the hood is taken off, and the 
head and neck rapidly scraped, together Avith the bosom, from which 
the breast-cloth is removed, and the rugs and quarter-piece turned back so 
as to expose the whole neck and the points of the shoulders. One or two 
strappers may be employed in scraping and afterwards drying this part, 
besides the one holding the bridle ; but if the horse is quiet enough, this 
may be removed, and the head dressed all the more effectually, A very 
few minutes suflice for drying this half of the horse, when the bridle 
should be readjusted, and the qxiarter-piece and sweaters Avholly turned off 
over the croup ; upon this the strappers again set to work wuth their 
scrapers and rubbers, they soon get rid of eveiy particle of sweat, and 
have the coat perfectly dry and smooth. Much depends upon the stage 
of training ; in the early part, the sweat is profuse, thick, and soapy, and 
takes more time to dry; while in the latter stages, when the horse is getting; 



266 THE HORSE. 

fit, it is watery and scanty, the horse will scarcely scrape, and dries with- 
out the slightest trouble. This is a good sign of condition, and the neces- 
sity for a repetition oi the sweat may generally be gathered by the 
appearance of the fluid, which, when thick and lathery, shows that there 
is much gross fat in the system requiring removal ; but, nevertheless, it 
also shows that great care must be taken in the process, lest mischief 
should be done, by calling upon natiu-e too rapidly while the animal is in 
this fat state, and liable to inflammations of all kinds. After rubbing 
all the coat dry, and smoothing it down with the leather rubber, the usual 
clothing should be put on, and the horse allowed his exercise, Avhich 
he may have as usual, care being taken that he does not catch cold if the 
weather is severe. The reason why the horse is taken out again is, that if 
he were left in the warm stable he would break out into a second sweat, 
and if he were placed in a cool one he would surely take cold. Walking 
exercise, therefore, with a short canter, is adopted as a means of avoiding 
both of these injurious conditions; but he should n: t continue it longer 
than to put hiin into a cool state, and restore his nerves and blood-vessels 
to their usual condition. The length of ground and pace for sweating 
vary with the age, condition, and purpose for which the horse is trahied, 
the maximum length being six miles, and the 7ninimum two to three, witli 
a speed varying with every individual case, and depending upon tlie age, 
breed, and action of the horse, as well as his constitution and legs, and 
the state of preparation in which he is. Sweats are given at periods 
varying from once a week to once a fortnight after the flrst preparation, 
but seldom so often during that time. When sweats are given without 
clothing, they are in other respects just the same as described above, and 
the strappers are required in a similar way to dry the horse at once ; but the 
quantity of sweat is not nearly so great, and two good hands will generally 
suffice for the purpose. In almost all cases, even where clothing is not 
used, it is heaped on when the horse is taken into the stable, in order to 
encourage the flow of perspiration. (For "Sweaters," see page 217.) 

THE TUEKISH BATH. 

The Turkish bath when employed for horses, requires two boxes to be 
prepared, contiguous to each other, and, if economy is an object, to the 
saddle-room also, in order that one fire shall serve for all. The annexed 
plan has been carried out on this principle, the fire-place A being 
placed in the saddle-room, and heating it, as well as a boiler for hot water. 
It is sunk eighteen inches beneath the floor of the saddle-room, so as to 
allow of the commencement of the flue at B entering the bath-room, with 
its bottom two feet from the floor of that apartment, and to pass beneath 
the final exit of the flue, as it leaves to enter the chimney at F. The 
flue is supported on arches, clear of the wall, from B to C rising two 
inches in the foot, so that when it reaches the corner C, its bottom is four 
feet from the ground. It is built exactly like the usual flue of a hot- 
house, Avith dampers, and all the arrangements peculiar to that apparatus. 
From C to D it may be either on arches, or supported on slate built into 
the wall, as the heat is from this point not sufiicient to crack that 
material. At D the bottom is about six feet high, and when it reaches the 
entrance B, it will give plenty of head room for a horse to pass beneath. 
On this side it is built in the wall, but still on arches so as to expose as 
large a radiating surface as possible, and serves to heat the other box H 
to the temperature ro( pared to prepare the horse for his sweat. Finally, 



THE TURKISH BATH. 



2b/ 



it passes along tlie upper part of tlie fourth wall, in whicli also it is built 
in the same manner, and makes its exit over the part where it entered, 
at F. Here the flues are so arranged by dampers, that the current of 
warm air may either be du-ected along the flue B C D E F, or it may be 
turned off into the chimney F, entirely or partially. Ventilators must 
be introduced freely in the walls, so as to give plenty of fresh air 




when it is required, or to shut it off completely, to raise the temperaturo 
to the proper degree before the horse is admitted. One or two valves, in 
addition to the door I, all capable of being opened and closed at wO], 
must also be fixed in the wall, between the boxes G and H, and by their 
means, added to the heat given off" by the flue in it, this preparatory box 
may be heated to 80° or 90° of Fahrenheit, so as to bring on a gentle 



268 THE nORSE. 

action of the skin, "before the horse is introduced to the actual sweatiuf^- 
box — G. The preparatory-box, H, may be fitted up like a common loose- 
box, and may be used as such, whenever the bath is not required, but the 
latter should have no manger or any other projecting body of metal, for 
when the heat is raised to 160° the contact with the teeth and tongue is 
by no means pleasant. Tan forms the best material for the floor, or, if 
this cannot readily be obtained, ^aAvdust will answer nearly as well, if the 
wetted parts are changed after each bath. A brick floor feels too warm to 
the feet, and when the bath is given very hot, it may injure them, if un- 
covered by some non-conductor of heat, so that it is better to avoid all 
risk, by using tan or sawdust. With this apparatus in Avorking order, 
and the fire lighted in the stove A, the box H is heated to 80° or 90** 
of Fahrenheit, by robbing G of its warm air through the open door I, and 
the valves in the wall between the two to which I have already alluded. 
As soon as this is prepared, the horse is brought into it with his clothing 
on, and allowed to remain for a short time, which may be tAventy minutes, 
lialf an hour, or an hour, according to the state of his skin, and the 
Avarnith of the box. As soon as he is settled in it, the clothes may all be 
removed, and here he may remain, with a whisp of hay in the rack, to 
amuse him, and chilled wat^er in the tank, till his skin shoAvs evident 
symptoms of breaking out, and the bath is prepared, that is, until the 
latter is raised to a temperature of 140° at the least. To effect this the 
door I and the adjacent A'^alves may have been closed, if necessary ; for a 
small box once raised to 80° or 90°, will keep its temperature Avith the 
horse in it for the time Avhich is required. The groom must be careful 
not on any account to take his charge into the bath till his skin is begin- 
ning to sAveat, for if he does, the blood may be driven too forcibly to the 
brain, without the relief Avhich is aff"orded by the natural discharge from 
the skin, and dangerous mischief may be produced. On being taken into 
the bath G, a bucket of chilled water is' placed Avithin reach, and he is 
tied up with his head in the corner nearest the entrance door, AA'hich 
must be left open, so as to alloAV him plenty of fresh air. In about a 
quarter of an hour the sweat begins to pour out in large volumes, and 
this should be encouraged by friction v/ith the hand, which may be 
guarded Avith horsehair gloves. As it becomes very profuse, a scraper 
may be applied occasionallj"", but two grooms, each Avith horsehair gloves 
on, Avill be able to remove it by keeping up continuous, deep, and steady 
pressure ui)on the skin, so as at once to squeeze out the watery particles 
from the hair, and to remove any scurf and other tenacious matters which 
accumulate there. According to the amount of reduction which is re- 
quired to be made in the fatty deposits, and to the action of the skin, will 
be the time required to be devoted to this operation, but in general it is 
completed in half an hour. Some horses, however, have been kept sweat- 
ing for a full hour, as I am informed, Avithout apparent injury, and have 
afterwards gone out to exercise as full of life as cA^er. Indeed, it is said 
that the effect is usually to increase the spirits and liveliness of all the 
horses submitted to it. During the operation of the bath, the prepara- 
tory^ room should have had its doors and windoAA^s throAATi freely open, and 
it should be left in this state Avhen the horse returns to it, some grooms 
liking to haA'e a strong draught through it Avhile the horse is being cooled. 
In this process there is a considerable A^ariation in the practices adopted in 
those stables AA'here this novel kind of SAveating is introduced. Some 
grooms wasli the horse all over with cold Avater ; others dash the Avater 
over the Avhole body the moment he comes from the bath, while a third 



PHY'SIC. 269 

set content tliemselves with the free admission of a current of cold air to 
the skin. 'J'inie must determine Avhich of these plans is the best, but 1 am 
told on excellent authority, that they have all been tried with advantage. 
The fact is that when the skin is sweating freely mider the stimulus of 
lieat, and before its vessels are beginning to flag in their action, cold in 
any shape may be ajjplied, so long as it is not continued long enough to 
reduce the pulse below its natural standard. Again, .there are some 
grooms, who, after they have applied cold water, return the horse to the 
bath for a few minutes, the air in it being reduced to about 100° of 
rahrenheit, and on bringing him out, take him at once to his box or stall, 
Avlien he is dressed as usual, till he is perfectly dry, after Avhich he is 
clothed and fed. 

As MAY NATURALLY BE EXPECTED, " the stable mind " is very much 
agitated by tins innovation on established usages. On the one hand, it is 
argued by the thick-and-thin supporters of the bath, that, with the aid of 
walking exercise alone, and without a single gallop, a horse may be got 
into perfect condition, either for the racecourse or the hunting-field. I 
have been told by a gentleman whose authority is fairly to be relied on, 
that he has ridden a stableful of horses thus prepared, in the front ranks 
of the crack countries, and that he never was so well carried in his life. 
Kone of them were galloped, except by himself; and until the season 
(18G0-1) began, not one of them had been taken off a walk, as far as he 
knew, and he said he had the greatest confidence in his groom. On the 
other hand, the opponents of the bath hold that it only removes fat and 
fluids of all kinds, and that fast work must be given to the same extent 
as without it, the additional sweat produced by the former exhausting the 
horse very materially, to the prejudice of his condition. As far as my own 
opinion goes, I am inclined to believe that the truth lies between these 
opposite extremes ; and that though a horse may be made light and airy 
by means of the bath and walking exercise alone, his muscles cannot 
be braced and rendered l)igger, as they are by actual fast work. In- 
credible as it may appear, I have been told on very high authority, that a 
horse sweated twice, or even three times in the week, will do as much 
Avork, and as fast too, as if he had not gone through the process. If the 
bath has removed all fat and humour, he Avill not sweat in his gallops ; 
and if any of either is left, it will do him no harm to get rid of it. In- 
deed, after all, the diti'erence fi'om the old plan of sweating in the stable 
Avithout exercise is not very great in principle ; and that Avas always 
found to be of service when the legs or feet Avere unsound. Under that 
plan, the horse Avas heavily clothed, and being just gently trotted, Avas 
taken back to his box, loaded Avitli more clothes until he SAveated freely, 
and Avas thus relieved of his fat Avithout being gaUopecL 

PHYSIC. 

In my prea'IOUS remarks I have alluded to physic as necessary for the 
purpose of getting lid of the food Avhich the horse may have been taking, 
before he comes into the stable, Avithout injury, but the effects of Avhich 
are someAvhat in opposition to the condition required for hard work. li 
addition to this object, however, physic is given Avith several other pur- 
poses in view • but these may be said to bring it Avitliin the province of 
the veterinarian rather than of the groom. Thus, in the horse recently 
brouglit up from grass, it Avill often be necessary to expel Avorms ; and 
iLough the experienced groom may be able to do this Avithout risk, yot 



270 THE HORSE. 

it is scarcely safe to recommend the young hand to attempt the task. At 
all events, if ho does, he must be guided by the directions given in another 
part of this book ; and T shall merely direct my attention to the effects of 
physic — firstly, in getting rid of injurious food ; secondly, in cooling the 
stomach and general system, and thus enabling the latter to bear the 
increased stimulus afforded by extra food; and thirdly, to get rid of 
internal fat and humours in conjunction with sweating. 

To THE EFFECTS OF PHYSIC IN GETTING RID OF INJURIOUS FOOD, I have 

already alluded ; but I may here mention tAvo or three circumstances 
which will serve to modify the dose, or to forbid it altogether. Curiously 
enough, when a horse comes in from grass, his bowels being in the usual 
loose state wliich accompanies that kind of feeding, he wUl generally 
require more aloes than when fed upon dry food. The reason of this 
seeming paradox is simple enough : his bowels have become accustomed 
to the stimulus presented by grass to their lining membrane, and are not 
easily roused to action by aloes, which is only a vegetable, stdl more 
stimulating, it is triie, but simply in degree. A man accustomed to drink, 
vvdll not be so much affected by swallowing a pint of brandy, even if he is 
already half drunk, as a perfectly sober man would be, if he had not pre- 
viously been inured by long usage to its effects. The groom must not, 
therefore, fancy that a physic-ball of three drachms, or even sometimes 
four drachms, will be sure to act on a horse of average size and constitu- 
tion, just up from grass ; for he will find from four and a half to five and 
a half di'achms more likely to serve Ms purpose. Unless he knows the 
constitution of the animal, he had better content himself with the former; 
but generally this quantity will not have much appreciable effect beyond 
a very gentle clearing out of the bowels, l^o mash is necessary, because 
the grass has already prepared the boAvels quite sufficiently. Of course, 
if the horse is already too low in flesh, no physic should be given at 
this time. 

The COOLING powers of physic are those which render it particularly 
valuable in aiding the preparation of the horse for fast work. If at any 
time the legs become hot, a dose will carry off the plethoric condition 
which shows itself in this way, and the rest which must be given after it 
will assist in relieving them. Ai this time, a mash should always precede 
the physic ; and a second on the following night will often be necessary 
before the dose can safely be given. The same effect would be produced 
by permanently taking aAvay some of the corn ; but this would put an end 
to the j)reparation altogether, and it is to avoid this alternative that the 
physic is given. The old plan was in all cases to give a course of three 
doses, at intervals of nine days, to every horse when first taken into 
work ; but if plenty of walking exercise is used, and the corn is gradually 
increased, with an ounce of nitre in the mash every Saturday night, this 
routine is quite unnecessary, and a couple of doses at the intervals I have 
fixed will suffice. Very gross, lusty horses will, perhaps, require one, or 
even two additional doses ; and, on the contrary, light herring-gutted 
animals A\ill do without any. The art of the groom consists in fixing 
upon the proper quantum, beyond or below which he ought not to go. 

The third object of physic is that which is superseded by the use of 
the Turkish bath, with much less injury to the system. Both act by 
removing superfluous fluids from the body, through the agency of the 
blood-vessels, absorbents, and secreting organs ; all of which must co- 
operate in either case. The fluids lie stored up in the meshes of the 
cellular membrane, either in the shape of oily or watery matters. To 



FINAL PREPARATION. 271 

remove them, the blood in circulation must first be called upon to part 
with some of its corresponding materials, "whieh it does eitlier tlirough 
the mucous membrane of the bowels, when physic is given, or by means 
of the skin, when sweating is adopted. This sudden drain from the blood 
is then made up from the store which has been previously taken from it, 
and laid by in case of such an emergency ; and thus, though the external 
meacs employed are very ditferent, the real effect is the same. Both drain 
the blood of large quantities of water, containing certain soluble matters ; 
and tliis sudden call upon the vital fluid compels its vessels to fall back 
upon the stored-up materials which are lodged around the heart and other 
internal organs, and which it is the grand object of the training-groom to 
reuiove. 

But the effects of physio are not always so simple and innocent as 
those to which I have alluded. A strong horse is sometimes over-purged 
by a very mild dose, and a weak one will occasionally die from this cause. 
Ilence, this agent should not be idly used ; and not only is it actually 
dangerous to life in some few cases, but it weakens the tone of the 
stomach in many more. Still, in the majority of horses, a well-mixed 
physic-ball, carefully given, and followed by proper management, will 
fi'eshen the digestive organs rather than weaken them, and may be re- 
garded as a most valuable addition to the resources of the groom. 

FINAL PREPARATION. 

To GET A HUNTER THOROUGHLY FIT, he must not ouly have gone through 
the preparatory work Avhich I have described, but he must undergo a 
further winding up, according to the old-established rule on the subject, 
and irrespective of the vexed questions connected with the Turkish bath, 
which may be considered to be yet in abeyance. Having had a gentle 
dose of physic at the end of his first preparation, he is proceeded with as 
follows : — Every day he is walked out for three or four hours, either at 
one or two periods of the day. If he is thorough-bred, he will bear some 
brisk gallops and one or two sweats, with or Avithout clothing, every week ; 
but half-breds do not stand much fast work, and are better confined to 
walking and trotting exercise, with an occasional spirt of half a mile. 
These low-bred animals cannot bear any liberties to be taken with their 
systems ; and I am told that with them the Turkish bath is far more 
effectual than with the horse of pure Eastern blood. I can easily imagine 
this, as I know how badly the former class bear reduction, and yet how 
important it is to clear tlreir Avind. The feeding should be confined t*.. 
oats and hay, with a bran-mash on Saturday night. About five quarterns 
of oats will, on the average, suffice ; but no rule can be laid doAvn, nor 
can it be positively asserted that no beans should be given. In some 
cases the appetite is so bad, that without them enough corn will not be 
taken ; and this is especially true with reference to those old horses which 
have been accustomed to beans for many years. When the feet and legs, 
as well as the wind, are all sound, beans may be alloAved without fear; 
but Avhen there is a screw loose in any of these departments, they produce 
inflammation there, and should be carefully avoided. Ten pounds of hay 
may also be laid down as the average quantity of tliis article suited to the 
hunter; but here, also, no absolute rule can be carried out. Some horses 
would " drop in two," as the grooms say, if only allowed ten pounds of 
hay daily; v?hile others Avould look quite lusty with that quantity. A 
nandful of chaff with each feed of corn is all that should be given of this 



iZ72 THE HORSE, 

:aticle, ao more tlian this is apt to fill the horse out in the middle of the 
'day. Towards the end of this period, which may extend to five or six 
weeks, the horse gradually gets into high condition, and at any tinie, on a 
<lay's notice, he may be ready for the hunting-field. All that is required 
is to give him no hay on that morning, but to feed him twice on his usual 
■allowance of corn, with a few go-downs of water only each time. The 
hunter does not require to be " set " overnight, like the racehorse, and he 
may advantageously be given his usual weight of hay at the bedding him 
up the night before ; but if he has any tendency to eat his litter, it is 
prudent at all times, but more especially then, to put a muzzle on him 
late at night, when he has eaten his hay. 

Hacks and Harness-horses demand nearly as much time and care to 
prepare them for their work, especially in relation to the amount of corn 
which is allowed them. They seldom want so much as five quarterns daily ; 
but Avhatever quantity they may require, it should not be given them until 
they are gradually accustomed to its use. So also with regard to the 
hammering of their feet and legs on the road, it will be found that these 
•demand seasoning as much as their wind and muscles. If this is not 
attended to, the best formed legs and feet will become inflamed, and a 
valuable horse may be lamed, when, with proper care, he might be made 
to do his work with ease. Our own bodies, when untrained to bear the 
blows of the fist, show the marks of the glove clearly enough ; but in the 
course of time, when the skin has gradually become inured to the stimulus, 
even the terrible right hand of Tom Sayers would fail to leave its mark 
upon the ribs of a well-trained opponent. This difference in the result of 
the application of physical force arises partly from the tendency to inflam- 
juation being subdued by temperate living and abundant exercise, and partly 
from the nerves and vessels of the skin becoming habituated to the blows 
which they receive. So also with the hack and harness-horse ; when fii'st 
they are brought into the stable, their vessels are full of gross humoui's, 
and their feet and legs have long been accustomed only to the soft and 
-elastic turf upon which they have been reared. They are, therefore, 
prone to inflammation in every way ; and until their systems have been 
hardened by plenty of exercise, and their legs and feet have been gradually 
inured to our hard roads, they should be kept from every kind of 
last work. 

TREATMENT AFTER V/ORK 

After work the horse requires to be treated according to its nature 
■tind the extent to which it has been carried. Thus the hunter may 
demand remedies for exhaustion, blows on the legs, thorns in the legs, 
overreaches, cuts, &c. ; but the hack and carriage-horse will only need the 
ordinary grooming, which has been described at page 242 ; that is to say, 
provided the feet are not in pain from ill-fitting shoes. 

Exhaustion is sometimes so great that before any food can be taken a 
■cordial must be given, in the shape either of a warm ball, or a quart of 
warm spiced ale. Generally, however, some gruel, made according to the 
directions given at page 225, will suffice, when aided by a warm box and 
the other comforts which are afforded by the groom, including dressuig, 
<:lothing, bandagmg, &c. 

Blows on the legs are reduced by hot fomentations, continued for half an 
liour at a time, and repeated at intervals of one, two, or three hours, in propor- 
tion to the severity of the miscliief Cold applications are too apt to relieve 



TREATMENT AFTER WORK. Tt?. 

the skin and cellular membrane beneath it at the expense of the joints, 
and I have never seen them of much service. ISTothing, I believe, is so 
valuable in all blows received in the hunting field as hot fomentation, but 
it should be thoroughly carried out, and not done by halves, as it too often 
is by careless grooms. It no doubt has a tendency to increase the swelling 
for a time, but in doing this the blood is drawn to the surface, and internal 
mischief is often prevented. I have had young horses come home with 
their knees and shins terribly bruised over timber and stone walls, but 
though the fomentation with hot Avater has enlarged the knees to a frightful 
size, there has been no lameness on the next day; and the SAvelling haa 
gradually disappeared, leaving the joints as free as ever at the expiration 
of forty-eight hours. On the other hand, T have tried cold wet bandages 
for similar injuries, but I have invariably found that they gave present 
relief to a sligJit extent, but left the limbs stiff and rheumatic often for 
the next two or three weeks. The addition of a little tincture of arnica 
to the water for fomentation is a great improvement when it is at hand, 
and I shoidd always advise the hunting groom to keep a stock of it by him 
during the season. A wineglassful is enough for half a biicket of hot water. 

Thorns are most troublesome to the groom, and it is often a question of 
great doubt whether to persevere in the endeavour to remove tliem, or to 
leave them alone until they clearly manifest themselves by the inflamma- 
tion they produce. When the hunter comes home, his legs should be 
carefully examined Avhile they are wet (that is to say, if his exhausted 
condition does not forbid the loss of time) ; and if the hand clearly detects 
any projection, search should at once be made with a view to the removal 
of the foreign body. Usually, however, the thorn has buried itself, and 
it is only when it has produced some considerable degi'ee of inflammation 
that attention is drawn to the spot. When lameness is shown in any of the 
limbs on coming home from hunting, the groom always is inclined to suspect 
a thorn as the cause of mischief, and I have known the penknife used in 
half-a-dozen different places to cut down upon what was supposed to be a 
buried thorn, which was never discovered, for the plain reason that no 
such matter Avas present in the leg. 

Overreaches must be dried up as quickly as possible, and should not 
be treated like common wounds, for the reason that the horny substance of 
the foot, when it becomes softened and decomposed by the matter floAving 
from a wound near it, acts like a poison upon the ulcerated surface. It is 
better,- tlierefore, to apply a little friar's balsam, or some other astringent, 
such as sugar of lead, rather than to use Avet bandages or bran poultices, 
winch I have sometimes knoAvn to be applied. 

StJiPi.E AS WELL AS CONTUSED CUTS are far better treated in the horse 
with hot fomentations than by any attempt to heal them at once. Unless 
they are very extensive or deep, the only point in Avhich they are to b(s 
regarded is yn\A\ reference to the blemish Avhich they may leave. Some- 
times the edges gape so Avide, that a stitch or two must be inserted, but in 
such a case it is better to entrust the operation to a competent veterinary 
surgeon. 

SUMMERING. 

Until Mr. Apperley first drcAv attention to this subject, forty years 
ago, at Avhich period those horses which Avere not required to Avork through 
the summer, Avere invariably turned out to grass, hunters, as a regular 
rule, Avei'e stripped of their clothing in April, and sent to grass on or 
about the first of jMay, that is, as soon as the first youn^ blades shoAved 

T 



274 THE HORSE. 

themselves, this kind of food being supposed to be particuhirly advan- 
tageous to them, from its cooling powers. The sudden change from a warm 
stable to the cold nights often met with in May frequently produced in- 
flammation of the lungs or bowels, and this alone was sufficient to cause 
the plan to be looked on with great suspicion as soon as it was shown that 
it was by no means absolutely necessary. But not only was this danger 
incurred ; for even if the hunter remained in good health during the 
summer, yet when he came up in August he was so fat and unwieldy 
from eating the succulent grasses of tliat season, that he was quite unfit to 
be ridden, and had to go through a series of severe sweats, which he was 
ill able to bear. Considering the slow pace at which hunting was carried 
on in the eighteenth century, a horse recently up from grass, if he had 
been allowed corn wliUe out of doors, as was generally done, was able to 
go through a run, though it might he at the expense of the coat tails worn 
by his rider, which were liberally lathered with soapy sweat. But in the 
present day, Avhen the hunter requires to be as fit as a race-horse, he must 
have the same amount of preparation; and we all know what sort of 
chance a horse would have of winning a race in November if he is eating 
nothing but grass in August. Indeed a fast run in Leicestershire is even 
more trying to condition than an ordinary race, because, though the pace 
is not quite so good, it is more true, and lasts four or five times as long. 
Hence the old plan has been almost universally given up, and the hunter 
is summered in a loose box, where he is generally "soiled" on vetches, 
lucerne, and clover. IMoreover, it is found by practical experience, that 
far more good may be done in renovating the legs in-doors than out at this 
season of the year. In the winter, cold, starvation, and soft ground 
all combine to restore the legs to a cool and healthy state; and a run 
from October to May will do far more good than the same time passed in 
a loose box. But during the summer the ground is hard, the sun shines 
fully upon the legs, so as to inflame them if they have any tendency that 
way, and the grasses are so succulent that the body becomes heavy and 
the blood full of gross humours, both of which last conditions tell with 
double force upon the legs and feet. Again, the flies which are so tor- 
menting to horses in June, July and August, cause them often to gallop about 
in the most frantic manner, and thus not only is another obstacle presented 
to their improvement, but it very often causes these parts to become worse 
ihan in the season. But some will say that much of this risk may be avoided 
by turning the hunter out into the marshes, where the soil is always cool, 
soft, anil moist. This is quite true ; nevertheless, the gain to the legs is 
at the expense of the general system, which is so completely upset by 
moist grasses, that instead of eight or nme weeks it will require as many 
months to eradicate their ill effects. As far as the hunter is concerned, 
there can be no question in my mind that a loose box is the proper place 
for him daring the summer; and that he should be allowed a yard to run 
into if it can possibly be so arranged admits of little doubt, but if this is 
inconvenient, the Nimrodian plan of confining him in the ordmary loose 
box is to be accepted in its entirety. The hack or harness horse does not 
receive so much injury fi'om a summer's rim as the hunter, but if he 
requires rest for his legs, it is far better to turn him out in the winter 
season than during the opposite division of the year. Nevertheless, as 
there are still some advocates of the summer's run at grass, I shall give 
directions for it, as well as for the soiling in the stable, as advised by 
" Nimrod." 

Soiling is conducted as follows : — At the conclusion of the hunting season 



SOILING. 275 

the horse is gradually cooled down, either by rc'mo^■ing his clothing in the 
stable, and letting him first stand there naked for two or three weeks, or 
by putting him with it on into a moderately warm loose box, and after he 
has been there a day or two taking it away by degrees. At the same tijue 
he is deprived of his corn, and fed upon hay only; but this change also 
must not be too sudden, demanding a month for its complete carrying out, 
which will bring the time on to the beginning or middle of the month of 
'May. A large airy loose box should then be provided, the floor being covered 
with six inches of tan or sand, and the door being so arranged that in warm 
weather it may be left open, a chain being draAvn across from post to post. 
Here the horse is left for a few days till he is thoroughly accustomed to 
his new berth, and his coat is full of dust and scurf, when he may have a 
dose of physic, and while under its effects, his legs may be blistered, or 
dressed with iodine ointment, or some of the many applications which are 
used for the purpose of producing absorption of the morbid deposits Avhich 
have been thrown out during the winter. After the jDhysic is set, green 
food of some kind may be commenced, consisting of Italian rye grass, 
young vetches, or lucerne, or, if these cannot be obtained, of ordinary 
meadow grass. At first an equal quantity of hay must be allowed for old 
hunters, or the change from dry food to green will produce too great an 
effect on the bowels. Young and hearty horses will, however, be none the 
worse for this ; and, indeed, when they are turned out, all have to bear the 
change in its fullest extent. I am not fond of vetches for soiling horses, 
as they either purge them when they are young, or heat them too much 
when their seed-pods are fully developed. For working horses the latter 
condition is especially suited, as they j^ave the effect of beans, and when 
green food is wanted merely to renovate the stomach without depending 
on its soiling properties, I see no objection to them. But for hunters when 
soiled heating food is to be avoided, and on that account I cannot see the 
advantage of vetches to this kind of horse. As there is no galloping over 
hard ground the shoes may be removed altogether, and even tips may be 
dispensed with. The feet should be pared out nicely, the blacksmith re- 
moving all broken fragments of horn, and inspecting them afterwards at 
least once a month. ISTow is the time to attend to any early symptoms of sand 
crack, seedy toe, &c., prompt measures at this season often leading to a 
prevention of these annoying evils. If the horse is not more than ten or 
twelve years old, his corn may be stopped altogether while he is eating 
green food in June and July, but a favourite old hunter should be indulged 
with a couple of quarterns daily, or he will probably lose ftesh to a great 
extent. The young horse is always prone to inflammation, which a cooling 
treatment will remove, but the old one is more seasoned, and he will get 
more harm from being lowered in his general system than the benefit to 
his legs wiU repay. By the month of August all these plans will have co- 
operated to produce the desired effect; the legs are cool and fine, and the 
lumps aaid blimps incidental to the hunting-field have entirely disappeared. 
If they have been very extensive, two or three doses of physic should 
have been given, but in general one dose as ordered at the beginning of 
the soiling, and another at the end, when the commencement of training 
takes its turn, Avill be sufficient. I have now brought the horse to the 
middle of the month of August, at Avhich time the preparation for work, 
described at page 2G1, et sequitur, must be connnenced in earnest. 

Turning out to grass, or pasturing, demands some little attention, 
which however horses seldom receive. Ex(epting in the height of sum- 
mer it is a very dangerous practice to turn a previously Avarmly clothed 

T 2 



276 THE HORSE. 

and stabled animal into the fields witliont gradually accustoming him to 
the change of climate. The average temperature of our spring nights is 
not more than 40° of Fahrenheit, and frequently this degree of cold is- 
united with a keen wind and sharp rain. Even if a hovel is provided, 
the horse is almost sure to get wet before he betakes himself to its pro- 
tection, and its door being necessarily. open the wind can enter freely. It 
is therefore found that at all other seasons but the summer quarter two or 
three weeks at least must be devoted to the hardening of the skin to bear 
the climate out of doors. This is clone by first of all remoAdng the clothes 
by degrees, avoiding all attempts at dressing, so as to allow the scurf to 
accumulate and protect the skin, and then changing the warm stable for a 
cooler box, which may be closed at first, and day by day left more and 
more open to the weather by admitting the air through its various aper- 
tures. If the horse is of a delicate constitution, and the weather is cold 
and wet, the turning out should be delayed till there should be a change- 
for the better, or if it is decided on at all risks the precaution should be- 
taken for the first two or three nights to bring him under some dry shelter,, 
avoiding, of course, a warm stable, as doubly injurious. 

In tub choice of a run regard shoidd be paid to the object for which 
it is intended. Sometimes this is for the purpose of removing inflamma- 
tion from the legs and feet, at others it is intended to renovate the general 
health ; while, again, the most frequent reason for pasturing is to save the- 
greater expense incvirred in the stable. Ditlerent kinds of pasture and 
seasons of the year are best fitted for each of these intentions, as we shall 
presently see after examining into the nature of the former. 

Upland pasture may consist of fine dry enclosures out of floods' ways,, 
■where clover and other plants, exactly suited to the constitution of th» 
horse, grow in profusion, mixed Avith the best grasses. In the early 
summer season these are generally put up for mowing, and it is not until 
the aftermath makes its appearance that they are available for grazing. 
Cattle and sheep must be fed somewhere, and a certain portion of grass 
land is kept for them each spring ; but, as a rule, the bulk of adult horses 
are stabled ; and when they are turned out for any particular reason, such 
a time is chosen as will enable the owner to effect his object with the 
least expense. To turn a horse out between May 1st and July 1st, in a 
good upland pasture, costs, in most districts, twice as much per week as 
to do so after the latter date ; and, as a consequence, very few leave their 
stables during those two months. Until that time there is no grass for them 
after Christmas, and, if a horse is turned out, he must starve, or be fed on haj. 
It may, therefore, be said, that on iq^lands the grazing time is from the end 
of the hay harvest, which in the south is generally over in July, and even 
in the north does not extend far into Aiigust, to Christmas. In very 
dry seasons there is little growth of aftermath, and when the bite left by 
the scythe is eaten off, the ground is as hard as a turnpike road, and 
there is no " keep " on it. At such times the whole intention of pasturing 
is frustrated ; and not only is the stomach pinched, but the legs and feet 
are damaged by being battered on the dry soil. The feet of wild asses and 
even native Arab horses may be able to bear the blows and friction of the 
wastes over Avhich they travel, but those of English horses are, un- 
doubtedly, -not formed of such strong and tough materials, so that it is 
utterly unwise to leave them exposed to the risk. If circumstances 
compel the owner to leave his horse at grass in a dry season on an upland 
pasture, he should have his fore feet carefully provided with tips ; ani I 
even then he will find that if they are at all unsound, he will come home 



PASTUKIXG. 277 

stiller tlian h.e went out. lu moist autumns, on tlie contrary, tlie after- 
math soun grows to a height of several inches, and the animals grazing on 
it become as fat as prize bullocks, their increase of bulk often trying their 
legs when the joints or back sinews have previously failed. 

In the autumn, also, the flies are extremely troublesome, and the poor 
horse may be seen constantly stampiiig with his fore feet or kicking at 
his flanks with his hind, both of which actions do no good to inflamed 
joints, sinews, or feet. On the whole, therefore, it may be said, that 
those animals which are unsound, or even only weak in their understand- 
ings, should not be turned out on uplands before the end of October or 
beginning of JSTovember. This kind of grass is, however, the very best for 
renovatmg a worn-out constitution ; and almost any horse in a good 
upland pasture wdl become fat and fresh in August and September. 

Meadow land in floods' way, when the soil is of a gravelly nature, 
*or if it is well drained, will produce many excellent grasses, and contain a 
good deal of clover ; in which case it is almost as well suited to the horse 
in dry seasons as the finest upland. But too often it is either constantly 
flooded or so badly drained that it is full of water-grasses, which the 
stomach of the horse does not relish, so that in the latter case it is not at 
all adapted to pasture him. The worst of it is, that there is seldom any 
happy medium in this kind of land, being either baked hard in diy 
seasons, or flooded in wet. The same remarks as to the times at which it 
is available for grazing apply to this kind of land as to the last. 

Makshes, whether salt or fresh water, should only be selected as 
grazmg land for those horses whose legs or feet are so damaged by work 
that they either will not bear harder ground or are so bad as to require 
the restorative action of constant moisture and cold applied to them. 
There is no great difference in this power between the salt and fi-esh 
water marsh ; but the former seems to suit the constitution the better of 
the two, and on that account is to be preferred. Where a summer's run 
is desired for horses with unsound legs or feet, a salt marsh is the only 
proper situation for carrying out the intention ; for, as I before observed, 
sound upland is seldom to be obtained, and, if it is, its hardness forbids 
its use at that season for horses so circumstanced. I have often laiown a 
salt marsh agree extremely well even with a delicate animal, but I have 
also found it in other cases completely upset the health. The same may 
be said of all kinds of grass ; as it is a very common occurrence for a 
horse to go out sound, and come home with his wind broken, or " making 
a noise," owing to inflammation contracted during his run. I confess 
that I have no great partiality for marshes, and 1 should far prefer soding 
& horse indoors, if expense is not considered ; but, at the same time, I am 
bound to admit that I have known very great benefit result from their 
xidoption in some cases. 

When unsoundness of the feet or legs is the inducement to turn 
out, and the time at which it is deshable to do this is the summer season, 
as I have before remarked, the choice should fall upon a marsh. Hard 
ground will increase the mischief, and, between July and September, 
although it may be soft just at one particidar time, it cannot be expected 
to remain so long. In any case some precaution should be taken against 
the horse galloping about on his first being let loose, which, from the joy 
he experiences at getting his liberty, he almost invariably does. To 
prevent this, the legs should be blistered a few days before, so as to seize 
the opportunity when they are swollen, stiff, and sore, and when, as a 
oiatural consequence, a guUop would be so extremely painful as to be 



278 THE HORSE. 

altogether out of the question. A cradle must be kept on to prevent 
blemishes, but this is no more objectionable out of doors than in. In 
almost every case tliis application would be necessary for the diseased con- 
dition of the extremities, "whetlier the horse was turned out or not ; but 
it is better to seize the opportunity while the legs are still stiff and sore. 
Fetters or hobbles may be put on the fore-legs with the same object, if 
the feet only are the seat of mischief; but to inflamed joints or back 
sinews they are not so well suited, from the pressure they produce on the 
former, and the strains whicli they cause to the latter. After a few days' 
liberty, the tendency to gallop will be lost, and as the legs gradually 
recover their elasticity the horse is not so prone to overdo himself in his 
exercise, and will generally remain content with a moderate pace ; or, if 
the legs are very unsound, the blister may be repeated. 

The renovation of the health, when this has been broken down 
by disease or hard work, is best eifected on good sound uplands. The 
herbage on salt marshes will sometimes agree with the horse even bettei' 
than ordinary meadow grass, but this forms the exception to the rule, and 
is not to be relied on in general. In selecting a run in such a case care 
should be taken that the herbage is of the desired nature, the best proof 
of which is that it has agreed with horses in previous seasons. Ex- 
perienced judges can generally pronounce upon the probability of the 
desired result after inspectmg the situ.ation, but on the whole their 
opinion, however well founded, is not so much to be relied on as the fact 
that horses have actually become fresh while turned out there. 

When the saving of expense is the principal object, a good afte.rmath 
may generally be chosen, on which horses will be "tacked" at 4s. or 5s. 
per week from August to December. In lorge parks they are often taken 
in at even lower rates, but there are many objections to these, such as the 
increased danger of contracting infectious diseases, and the greater risk of 
accident among a large number of horses and cattle ; and to these must 
be added very often the poorness of the herbage. There is also generally 
a difficulty in superintending the feet, &c., owmg to the difficulty of 
catching the horses in a large park, so that the plan is not to be recom- 
mended whenever a run in a comparatively small enclosure can be 
obtamed. 

The fore feet should always be protected by "tips," Avhich are 
merely short shoes reacliing only two-thirds of the way to the heels, 
which are then left uncovered. The object is to avoid the risk of break- 
ing away the toes, which is incurred whenever the foot is battered on 
hard ground, as it often is when it is stamped continually, as horses are 
very apt to do, on the bare surface which is kept dry beneath a sheltering 
tree. Here the flies are very apt to collect around the horses, and to get 
rid of their annoyance the legs are constantly in motion. If the full 
shoe is left on, the hind toe is very apt to catch its heel in deep ground, 
and tear it wholly or partially off ; and, moreover, it is too often neglected, 
and either the heels press into the sole, producing corns, or they confine 
the frog, and lead to disease of that important organ. Tips may safely 
be left on without removal for two or three months, whereas shoes require 
attending to every three or four weeks. The hind shoes are always taken 
off, partly because the hind feet are not so liable to be broken at the toes, 
but chiefly because they would be dangerous to other annuals if they 
were left on from the severe damage which is done by a kick with an 
armed heel. 

IloiiSES WHOSE JUGULAR VEINS have bccome obliterated from adhesive 



A WINTER'S RUN. 279 

inflammation following bleeding, are unfit to be turned out in conse- 
quence of the difficulty which is presented to the return of the blood 
from the head hj its low position in grazing. So also those which have 
recently suifered from staggers should not be sent out to grass, for fear of 
the position causing a return of the disease. 

A WINTER'S RUN. 

There are only two causes that can ever influence an owner in 
turning his horse out to grass during the winter, one being a desire to 
restore his legs or feet to a state of health, and the other the dimmution of 
expense. The former is a perfectly valid reason, for experience teaches 
us that tire comparative starvation and cold incidental to a winter's run, 
however they may try the constitution of a horse previously accustomed 
to the stable, are highly beneficial in reducing the effects of inflammation. 
I have frequently known a horse remain all the summer out of doors 
without the slightest benefit to his legs, but after a month's cold they 
have shown a marked improvement, and by the spring they have been 
Avonderfully restored. The hardship of this treatment is very great, and 
to an old horse especially so, but where milder measures are of no avail 
there is a legitimate excuse for trying the experiment, and when the skin 
is gradually prepared for the cold of winter it is not so much felt. When 
it is necessary to turn an animal out after Christmas, there must be a very 
cautious cooling down of the system on the plan which I have described 
at page '275, but continued for a still longer time. Without this the eflfucts 
of cold and wet are so severely felt that although the legs and feet may be 
cured, it is at the expense of a complete breaking iip of the constitution. 
The saving of expense in turning a horse out in the winter is absolutely 
nothing, for as he must be kept on hay, it may just as M^ell be given under 
cover. It is quite true that there is generally some little grass to be found 
in January and February, but the exposure to the cold causes a greater 
demand for food to be made on the system, and in practice it is found 
that the same hay must be given Avhether the horse is out or in. The 
advantage of warmth in saving food is now universally admitted even in 
slieep and cattle, which bear exposure to the weather better than the 
horse, and in him it is so great that he will require one-third more food to 
keep him in good condition when turned out in the winter than he would 
do if kept up in a loose box. AVhenever, therefore, this convenience can 
possibly be obtained, it is more economical to feed the horse in it on hay, 
with a little corn if necessary, than to turn him into the fields, where he 
will require a still larger amount of the same food. 

THE STRAW YARD. 

The advantages and disadvantages of the straw yard, as a place 
for wintering the horse, will to a certain extent depend upon its manage- 
ment. Generally the proper term for it would be a manure tank, for 
though there is almost always a thin coating of straw on the surface, yet 
the horse's feet sink through this and reach the wet mass of manure 
wliich is gradually allowed to decompose beneath it. In point of economy 
there is much to lose by the straw yard, for, as in the case of the winter's 
run, more food is demanded by the system than in a loose box. The only 
excuse for it is to be found in the beneficial effects of cold and wet upon 
the legs, which are restored by the straw yard to the same extent as in 



280 THE HORSE. 

the fields ; but on tlie other hand the feet suffer terribly, the frogs 
becoiiimg thrushy almost invariably, and their horny coverings frequently 
having quite disappeared Avhen the horse is brouglit into the stable. 
AVlien the straw is liberally used, and the manure is raised into a heap in 
the middle of the yard as fast as it is made, which is the proper arrange- 
ment, the frogs may remain tolerably sound, and the objection on this 
account is to a certain extent removed. Nevertheless it is a Avretched 
jilace for a horse accustomed to the luxuries of a warm stable, and 
when barley-straw without hay is the only provender allowed, it is not to 
be wondered at if he comes out in the spring a complete skeleton. 

CAr.E OF SADDLEEY AXD HAEXESS. 

The maxagemext of saddlery must have a treble object. First, the 
groom should take care that he does nothing which shall injure the horse. 
iSecondly, he must have a due regard to his master's comfort in using it. 
And, thirdly, he must please the eye. I must therefore show how each 
of these purposes can best be effected. 

To AVOID INJURING THE HORSE the groom sliould begin when he first 
comes in from work, and before he removes the saddle or collar. It is 
ascertained by experience that if these are taken off when the skin 
beneath them is hot and sweating, inflammation will almost surely follow, 
wliile by leaving them loosely in their places for a short time no injurious 
effect is perceived. \If a groom who is master of his business is watched 
when his horses come in," he will be seen to loosen their girths and lift the 
saddles from their backs for a second, replacing them loosely, and leaving 
them there wliile he takes off the bridles and makes his arrangements for 
dressing. In harness-horses everything but the collars may be taken 
off, and after turning them to remove the harness and traces, they may be 
replaced and left as near to the shoulder as the position of the horse with 
his head in the manger will allow. This rule should be invariably fol- 
lowed whenever horses come into the stable after having done any 
amount of work. If they have merely gone out for a short airmg, and 
the skin beneath the saddle or collar is not even damp, there is no occa- 
sion for the precaution, and the saddle or collar may at once be removed 
The next thing to be done to the saddlery in reference to the horse's 
comfort is to dry the lining carefully belore it is again used. Even the 
lining of harness-pads should be attended to, and in the winter this 
cannot be done without placing each before the fire. At page 209 I have 
inserted an engraving of the best form of saddle airer, in which the 
saddle is securely fixed in such a position that the fire only reaches the 
interior of the lining. Without some such machine there are two risks 
incurred, for by placing the saddle ou the ground the edges of the leather 
<overing the tree are Avorn away, and the flaps are liable to be curled 
i awards, presenting their outer surface to the fire, which dries them till 
tliey becuiue hard, and are then liable to crack. The expense of one of 
tliese airers is soon saved in diminishing the wear and tear of saddles, 
aud no well-managed harness- rooui should be without one. After the 
i^erge lining is dry, it is an excellent plan to beat the stuffing with a 
stick, so as to remove the powdery particles left by the sweat, which 
soon dug up the interstices and form a matted cake with the woollen 
liiaterials used if they are allowed to remain. 

In attexdixg to thk comfokt of the master the groom must take 
caro to kce|) all the leather which comcb in contact with the hands or 



CAFvE OF iSADDLERY. 281 

legs perfectly supple, yet so clean that no stain is left behind, l^otliing 
is more annoying than to get .off the saddle for the purpose of papng a 
morning call, and find the insides of alight pair of trousers stained all the 
vray down. This is perfectly inexcusable, and its occurrence marks the 
ignorance and carelessness of a servant in the most unmistakeable manner. 
The same remark apjjlies to the reins, which never ouglit to soil a pair 
of "white gloves. Whenever blacking is applied to harness it is impos- 
sible altogether to jirevent the tendency to leave a stain, but if it is care- 
fully put on, and well brushed, as long as it is kept dry it may be lightly 
handled with impunit3\ If buckles are to be altered, the gloves must 
suffer, and for this reason, Avhen gentlemen drive their own horses, they 
generally prefer brown driving reins, which may be treated in the same 
way as riding reins, and kept clean accordingly. The follomng directions 
for cleaning saddles and riding bridles, and also for brown driving reins, 
or anjr other parts of the harness made of undyed leather, will serve the 
purpose extremely well. As long as the leather remains dry and clean it 
needs no attention, but when it is wetted, either by rain, or by the water 
necessary for cleaning it from road dust, it becomes hard and stiff, and 
must be softened with some kind of oily matter. Keat's-foot od is that 
usually employed, but for saddles it is ratlier of too greasy a nature, being 
apt to leave a mark on the trousers if it has been liberally applied. The 
best application is deer's suet, which should be gently warmed and rubbed 
in before the leather is cjuite dry again, after being wetted ; that is to 
any, while it remains limp, for if it is held to the fire long enough, all wet 
leather becomes hard and stiff. A very little oil or suet will suffice, if it 
is used as soon as the leather is nearly dry, after each wetting, but when 
leather has been left for days in a dry place after being thoroughly wet, 
it becomes so stiff that nothing but a good soaking with oil will restore its 
jjhability, and even with this it remains stiff to a certain extent, unless it 
is very slightly damped, in conjunction with the use of the oiL Vege- 
table oils, with the single exception of castor oil, are too much inclined to 
become hard to suit leather, and none but the latter should ever be em- 
jdoyed. Its nauseous smell is an objection to it, but otherwise it wUl 
iinswer the purpose almost as Avell as neat's-l'oot. Horse fat, if used care- 
fully, and in very small quantities, is a capital application, but one liberal 
-dressing with it spoils the look of leather, giving it a sodden appearance, 
which it never recovers. 

To MAKE SADDLERY AND HARNESS LOOK WELL to the eye. Several re- 
ceipts, and directions for using them, are necessary; including the follow- 
ing, for avoiding injury from chemical decomposition : — 

(1.) Do not allow brass or plated furniture to be within reach of the air 
of the stable; for the ammonia given olf from the urine will tarnish them. 
<ilas, also, is prejudicial; and if it is burned in the harness-room, it should 
be coiitained within a glass chamber, which has a ventilating shaft, so as 
to carry off" the jji'oducts of combustion into the external air. Gas stoves 
are particularly prejudiciid; and, indeed, so are all stoves wiiich allow the 
fumes given off by the coals to pass into the room. 

(2.) As soon as possible after the harness is taken off, if the weather is 
fine, take a leather, kept specially for the purpose, and wipe off the dust; 
sponging with a damp sponge those pai'ts wluch are soiled with sweat. If 
the traces, belly-band, &c., are splashed with mud, wash them at once ; 
on no account soaking them in water, or using more of it than is necessary. 
])ry them, as far as possible, with the leathers, and ])ut to the fii'e on the 
liorse represented at page 210. If the black dye with which the leather 



282 THE HORSE. 

is stained lias come off to any serious extent, a little of a solution of green 
copperas may be used, but this is not often necessary. Unbuckle the bits 
from the bridle, put them in clean water for a short time, then take them 
out, and remove every particle of dirt from them. Dry mth the leather, 
and rub a very little neat's-foot oil on them. Before they are used again, 
they must be polished with the dry leather, aided by a little silver sand, 
if they have become at all rusty. The curb-chain will always want rub- 
bing loosely in the hand with a little silver sand, finishing with the 
leather. 

Black harness must be kept constantly polished by hand-brushing it 
with some composition specially prepared for the purpose. This must be 
of a greasy or waxy nature, to prevent the rain from dissolving it, and 
washing it off upon the coat of the horse. Oue or other of the following 
compositions 'w'ill answer the purpose ; but neither will quite come up in 
appearance to some of those sold by Clark, of London, and other vendors 
of similar preparations : — 

RECIPES FOR HARNESS BLACKING. 

No. 1. 

Spirit of Turpentine 1 jjt. 

Beeswax 4 oz. 

Prus-sian Blue 1 oz. 

Lamp Black | oz. 

Slice the wax very tliiu, put it in a jar and pour on the turpentine. Let it stand 
twenty-fmir hours, theu griud the other ingredients together on a stone or marble 
slab, and mix caiefully up. It must be kept in a covered tin box. 

No. 2. 
Take the above compo and add the followit^g, whieh improves the polish. : — 

Spirit Varui-sh 1 pt. 

Gum Beuz(jiu 2 oz. 

Soft Soap 1 oz. 

Melt together in a water bath, and when thoroughly incorporated mix all together 
ou a stoue and cover up directly. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

RIDING AND DRIVING, 

SADDLES — BRIDLES^MOUNTING AND DISMOUNTING -THE SEAT — MANAGEMENT OF THE 
REINS — USE OF SPURS — MODES OF STARTING THE HORSE INTO HIS VARIOUS PACES — 
RIDING TO HOUNDS -OUT-DOOR VICES AND BAD HABITS — HARNESS — DRIVING A 
SINGLE HORSE — A PAIR — FOUR-IN-HAND. 

SADDLES. 

There is a fashion in saddles, as in everything else which admits of 
alteration. For the last fifty years it may be said that no real improve- 
ment has been made in our English saddles, and we have simply gone 
from plain flaps to padded ones, and back again. Up to the beginning of 
the present century the trees were made too heavy and clumsy, and a 
hunting saddle of less weight than fourteen pounds was never thought of, 
Avhile the majority would turn the scale at sixteen pounds. But when 
the pace of the hunter was increased the attention of the saddler was 



SADDLES. 283 

directed to tlie diniiimtion of the weiglit of the tree without loss of 
strength, and certainly with an excellent result, as is shoAvn in a first-class 
nine- pound saddle, roomy enough to carry a man of sixteen stone with 
moderate comfort. Whether his horse can do his work proportionately 
better for this saving of five pounds admits of some question ; but there 
can be no doubt that wherever a very light saddle is used in the hunting- 
field the greatest care is necessary that it fits to a nicety, and it can seldom 
be adapted to more than one horse in a stud without altering the stuffing 
of the pannel. The attempt should never be made to reduce the size of 
the ti'ee, for although the rider may be willing to put up with the want 
of roominess, yet the horse will suffer in his back from the weight not 
being sufficiently distributed. Forty years ago a tree was introduced 
with the pommel cut back two or three inches, so as to avoid all risk of 
pressure on the withers, and thus increase the facility of fitting it to 
almost any back ; but the extra strength and weight incurred soon cbove 
it out of use, besides which it was found that it did not fit both a narrow 
and a thick shoidder equally well. For these reasons it is noA\' admitted 
that in the tree itself there is little variety for choice, and that the 
saddles of the best London makers only differ in their peculiar cut from 
one another, while in this point alone (excluding of course workmanship 
and material) are they superior to the worst specimens made in our country 
towns. I have alluded to the change from plam flaps to padded ones, 
and it will be necessary here to discuss the merits of each. In "The 
Shires " the fashion now is to adopt the revived plain fiaj?, and the reason 
which is given is that the padding arrests the knee when the horse comes 
down after his leap, thereby throwing the strain u})on the muscles of the 
inside of the thigh instead of on the seat of honour. That such strains 
have been of late years very general is a well known fact, but their 
increase of frequency cannot be said to be coincident with the introduc- 
tion of the padded flap, which is at least fifty years old. Why therefore 
the one should be connected with the other is hard to say, and I certaiidy 
anr very incredulous on the subject. Padded flaps Avere in general use for 
forty years before this objectionable quality was discovered, and even now 
they are preferred by a large majority of hard riders in provincial countries. 
A thin man with a large knee depends for his seat chiefly on the grip 
which this gives him of the saddle, and there are many riders so made 
that they can scarcely touch the saddle with the muscles of the thigh, or 
of the calf of the leg. In them a padded surface is indis])ensable for the 
bone of the knee to act upon, as the smooth plain flap is too hard and 
slippery for it to lay hold of. Hence, although the muscular rider may 
well have his choice, and indeed will often do better with a plain flap, 
this will not suit others ditl'erently formed, and the fashion should not 
therefore be indiscriminately followed. The plain flap costs about fifteen 
shillings or a pound less than its rival ; but to hunting men this difterence 
in price is not often the reason for its selection, although the wear and 
tear of saddles is by no means an unimportant article in their expenditure. 
In choosing a saddle where the maker has not a well known reputation, 
the jjecuhar marks on the surface by which pigskin is distinguished from 
horse or cow hide should be carefully examined, as an imitation is now 
fraudulently carried out by means of copper-plates taken by the electro- 
type process from real pigskin. A horse or cow hide is stretched upon a 
slab and wetted, when the heated plate is pressed by steam power upon 
it, and every mark existing in the real skin is transferred to the imitation 
hide. The fraud may, however, be detected by the want of depth in the 



284 THE HORSE. 

boles, wliicli all show a bottom, -whereas the real skin is perforated to a 
depth beyond the reach of the eye. Consequently, instead of a cul de sac, 
there is a line valvular opening visible. 

■ The girths of ordinary saddles are still made in pairs, and buckled 
tip to two straps fixed on each side to the tree ; but for hunting a new 
plan has lately been introduced, which is perhaps an improvement ; at all 
events, it is considered so in the grass countries. This is the Fitzwilham 
girth, double the width of the ordinary one, and somewhat stouter in its 
•web. It has two buckles at each end, which are fastened to the usual 
straps ; but in addition a narrow girth is provided, lying outside in loops 
-stitched to the broad girth, and keeping it in its place if by any chance 
both the bucldes should break. The Eitzwilliam girth is alone depended 
•on for fixing the saddle, and the narrow one is merely intended to keep 
it from dangling, and the saddle from actually falling ofi' if the former 
should burst, either in its webbing or at the buckles or straps. 

The breastplate is provided for hunting saddles in order to avoid 
tight girthing, which interferes sadly with a horse's wind by confining 
the ribs, and thus preventing a full ddatation of the chest. Besides this, 
many horses have a way of blowing themselves out while the groom is 
girthing them up, and if they start with theu- saddles firmly on, they 
soon have them so loose as to be dangerous in going up hill. Very many 
AVL'U-bred horses when fit to go are so light in their Ijack ribs that their 
saddles easily slip back if not kept in their places by their breastplates, 
and hence the general adoption of the latter in the hunting-field 

EPJDLES. 

There is an almost infinite variety in the make of bits, but nearly 
all may be reduced to three leading principles — namely, the snaffle, the 
curb, and the combination of the two in one bit, as in the Pelham, Avhether 
of the ordinary or Hanoverian kinds. The double-reined bridle may 
either be fitted with a snaffle and curb, or with a Pelham. 

Among the various kinds of snaffles, with the exception of the gag, 
-which I shall presently describe, all are intended to bear chiefly on the 
jaw, slightly relieved by the angles of the mouth. "When, however, the 
jaws are so narrow that they cannot be bent on the neck, or when the 
rider's hands are carried so high that the line of the reins is across the 
angles, these latter parts take all the bearing, and the horse yaws about 
with his mouth wide open. "Without good hands the tendency of the 
snaffle is always to get the head up with tlie nose out, and with them this 
bit never offers any obstacle to the straight carriage of the neck which is 
■wanted to admit of free respiration at high speed. Hence the snaffle is 
universally employed in racing and hunting, for even when a Pelham is 
used, the one rein acts upon the bit exactly as in the common suatila 
The difference between this and the curb consists in the fact that the 
former can rarely be made to interfere with a horse's action either in the 
gallop or the leap, while the latter should never be employed at a fast 
pace except to keep the animal from over-tasking himself, since it always 
has a tendency to bend the neck too much for the development of high 
speed or jumping power. Hence the snaffle may with many sober horses 
be used alone, but as a rule the curb should never be so employed. In 
the hunting-field no one who is not possessed of great strength of arm 
-should trust any but a liorse whose sobriety of temper is well known, 
-without a double-reined bridle. It is ti'ue that there are many which will 



I 



BRIDLES. 285 

go well in a snaffle on smooth turf or light aralile land where there are no 
ridges, but when they come to deep ground or high ridges, or when it is 
necessary to jump into an orchard or plantation, a means of holding the 
horse Avell together is required in the former case, while in the latter, if 
it is not possessed, a dangerous or fetal blow may easily be received before 
the horse can be stopped after coming down from his leap. In defining 
the snaffle, it may be described as consisting of a ring on each side the 
mouth to which the rein is attached, connected together by one or two- 
moiithpieces, which may be variously jointed in the middle, or may be 
without any bili-ak, which last is not always called a snaffle, but bears tha 
name of a straight bit. Thus it is subdivided into the following : — 

1. The plain snaffle. 

2. The twisted snaffle. 

3. The snaffle with double mouthpiece. 

4. The chain snaffle. 

5. The double-jointed snaffle. 

6. The double ring snaffle. 

7. The gag snaffle. 

8. The unjointed snaffle. 

1. The plain snaffie is the most simple form of all, with the exception 
of the straight bit, consisting merely of the two rings with the mouth- 
piece of smooth steel, jointed in the middle. The rings, when the bit is 
to be used alone, are generally guarded from slipping through the mouth 
by light bars projecting up and down. This bit is made of all sizes iu 
point of substance, from the very light racing snaffle no larger than a 
goose quill to the heavy breaker's bit in which the mouthpiece is as large 
as a man's thumb. The size of this part should be proportioned to the 
delicacy of the horse's mouth, which can only be judged of by an actual 
trial ; but the proper substance of metal may generally, though not always, 
be ascertained by putting one in the mouth and pressing upon the jaw, 
when, if it produces such an effect as to cause the horse to bade readily, 
it will in most cases be sufficiently severe. There are, however, some 
tempers which do not show themselves until they are excited, and in 
those animals possessing such as These a bit which will act in a stable- 
yard is perfectly useless in company. 

2. The twisted snaffle differs only from the preceding in the mouthpiece^ 
each of the two halves being made square instead of round, and twisted 
more or less on themselves, so as to present sharp edges to the mouth, 
and thus produce more pain on pressure. This effect is not fully developed 
by a steady pull ; but when the snaffle is sawed from side to side, as it> 
sometimes necessary before a pulling horse can be stopped, the sharp 
twisted edges act severely upon the delicate membrane covering the jaw 
and lips, and as the horse gets his head into the air to take the pressure 
off the most sensitive part, he is almost compelled to pull up by being, 
thrown out of his stride. For this reason some high-couraged animals 
will go better in a smooth snaffle than in a twisted one, the latter madden- 
ing them by the pain which it occasions ; but with the ordinary run of 
horses a moderate twist properly used is not objectionable, and the smooth 
mouthpiece is scarcely sufficient. 

3. The snaffle with double mouthpiece is made with two mouthpieces- 
attached in tlie usual way, but one above the other, to the ring. The 
joints in the middle are, however, not opposite each other, and thus when 
the reins are pulled the jaw is embraced in a narrower vice than in the 
single snaffle. It is. however, very apt to cause the mouth to be opener I 



286 THE HORSE. 

widely, as thoro is a greater breadth of the Lit at the angles. Nevorthelcsa, 
I have known it very eirectual iii a puller which would not boar a curb. 

4. The chain smijfle has a mouthpiece made of a steel cbain, the Hides of 
which may bo made large or small, open or close, according to the natui-e 
of the mouth. It is a very light kind of bit, and many irritable horses 
which light at more severe kinds will go kindly iii it. Sometimes tlie 
chain is covered by leather to give the mouth still more ease. 

5. A double-Jointed mouthpiece is merely a modification of the chain, 
which it rosen)bles in its etfect. The celebrated Dick Christian's bridle 
has a snafUe of this description. 

G. The double ring snaffle is not so much used for riding, as for harness- 
work, in which it is now very generally employed for horses which are 
not likely to be too fresh, as for instance those in omnibuses and cabs. 
It is very diOicult to ascertain in what particular the merits of this bit 
consist, but that it has many advantages over the oi'dinary snaiBe I can 
speak from long experience, which is supported by its general adoption 
among practical men. That it is far more severe is manifest, and when 
suddenly pulbnl sidcAvays through the mouth in leading a horse, the pain 
occasioned is so great as often to make him run back. I believe that this 
is sometimes occasioned by the pinching of the lip between the mouth- 
piece and the rmg, but this cannot always happen, nor can it take place 
during the ordinary use of the bit in riding or driving. 

7. The gag snaffle resembles the ordinary twisted form in all but one 
respect, which consists in the different mode of attaching the ring to the 
bridle. Where it is used without a curb, it is customary to have two reins 
on each side, one of which is stitched on to the ring in the ordinaiy way, 
and when this is pulled, the clfect is similar to that of the common snaffle ; 
the other is made round for about twelve inches, and, passing through 
two pulley -like holes in the ring, is attached to the check-piece of the head 
of the bridle. When tliis is drawn upon, the power is greatly increased by 
the pulley; and as the direction is changed by the di-ag being partly from 
the check-piece, the effect is the same as if the hands were raised very 
considerably. For this reason, it is well suited to those horses who get 
their heads down, and bore upon their bits ; while, on the contrary, it is 
prejudicial to pullers who have a tendency to carry their heads in the air, 
in the attitude which is familiarly known as " star-gazing." The gag 
snaffle is particularly well adapted to the double-reined bridle intended 
for pulling horses carrying their heads too low, which the cm-b has a 
tendency rather to increase than diminish. The combined use of the two, 
however, corrects this fault, and a pleasant as well as safe carriage of the 
head may be effected. 

8. The uvjointed snaffle is merely a mouthpiece without any joint, and 
it may be either slightly curved for^vards, or straight. Sometimes, also, it 
is smooth, and at others with rings turned on it. Very light-mouthed 
horses go well in this bit on the road ; but it is not suited for hunting or 
racing. 

The curb-bit is always a lever, in which the inside of the mouth is 
the fulcrum, while the increase of power afforded by this mechanical 
arrangement is brought to bear upon the outside of the jaw through the 
medium of the curb-chain. The leverage may be long or short, but the 
principle is the same in all cases, varying in the mode of its application. 
In some curb-bits, the mouthpiece is curved in the middle, rising more 
or less into an arch, which is called " the port," and which presses upon 
the roof of the mouth when the lover is pulled. If the horse is allowed 



BRIDLES. 287 

to open his moutli wide, this pressure cannot be made, and the port is 
useless ; but the addition of a noseband of leather, buckled tightly round 
the jaw, closes the mouth, and keeps the roof in apposition mth the port. 
Thus, in estimating the power of all curb-bits, we must take into consider- 
ation — 1st, the length of the lever; 2d, the tightness of the curb-chain, 
which may be adjusted at pleasm-e ; 3d, the height of the port; and 4tli, 
whether used with a noseband or not. 

The varieties of curb-bits in common use are as follows : — 

1. The ordinary curb-bit. 

2. The Pelham. 

3. The Hanoverian Pelham. 

4. The Chifney. 

1. The Ordinary curb-bit does not differ from the general type which I 
have already described ; and I need not, therefore, allude to it further 
than to caution the inexperienced horseman against leaning heavily upon 
it. The pain occasioned in this way is at first excessive; but, in course of 
time, the parts pressed upon become callous, and the mouth is irretrievably 
spoiled. Thus, a rider with a heavy hand may begin with a mouth which 
is too light, and in a month or two he may find it so dull as to be quite 
unpleasant, in spite of a tight curb-chain and noseband, a high port, and a 
long lever. All these should be as easy as will suffice to control the horse 
for which they are adapted, and no more use should be made of them 
than is absolutely necessary. 

2. The plain Pelham combines the snaffle and curb, and requires no 
addition of the former to make it a double-reined bridle. The mouth- 
piece is jointed in the middle, just like a snaffle; and, like this, it may be 
smooth or twisted. There is a ring opposite this for the one rein, and the 
other is attached to the end of the lever, as in the ordinary curb-bit. This 
is an extremely useful bit for general purposes. 

3. The Hanoverian Pelham is similar in principle to the plain one ; but 
it has two joints in the mouthpiece, united by a high port, and the sides 
of the mouthpiece are covered with rollers, which prevent the horse from 
grasping them with his teeth, and thus interfering with the action of the 
port and curb-chain. For hard-pulling horses this bit is very useful, but 
it is a very severe one. 

4. The Chifney bit is provided with a joint at the junction of the lever 
and mouthpiece, so that the action of the former is not confined by the 
head of the bridle. But though in theory this is all very pretty, in prac- 
tice it is found to be of no service whatever. 

There are many other kinds of curb-bits, but those which I have 
described comprehend all in general use. 

The Bucephalus noseband is a great addition to the curb-bridle in- 
tended for a pulling horse. It is merely a stitched leather strap, long 
enough to encircle the jaw, and cross behind it to be attached to the hook 
of the curb-chain. I prefer it made of a chain in the part which lies 
behind the bit, so that it may be taken up shorter, or let out, just like an 
ordinary curb-chain, Avhich is not wanted to be used with it. This nose- 
band is not really more powerful than the ordinary one when tightly 
buckled, the whole of its efficiency depending upon its keeping the mouth 
closed, and thus allowing the port to have its full power on the roof of the 
mouth. The advantage is, that when the rein is not pulled, the noseband 
slackens, and the mouth may then be relieved, which it cannot be with an 
ordinary tight noseband. 



28S THE HORSE. 



MOUNXma AND DISMOUNTING. 

The celebrated Earey has recently given ns a new light upon the 
suhject, which is quite at variance with those directions wliich have 
hitherto heen considered to be the correct ones in this country. Thus, 
Captain Eichardson, in his valuable work on Horsemanship, advises as 
follows: — "Stand opposite the near fore-foot of the horse, place the left 
hand on the neck near to the withers, havmg the back of the hand to the 
horse's head, and the reins lying in front of the hand. Take up the reins 
with the right hand, put the little finger of the left hand between them, 
and draw them through until you feel the mouth of the horse ; turn the 
remainder of the reins along the inside of the left hand, let it fall over 
the fore-finger on the off-side, and place the thumb upon the reins. Twist 
a lock of the mane round the thumb or fore-finger, and close the hand 
firmly upon the reins. Take the stirrup in the right hand, and place the 
left toe in it as far as the ball ; let the knee press against the flap of the 
saddle, to prevent the point of the toe from irritating the side of the 
horse; seize the cantle of the saddle with the right hand, and springing; 
up from the right toe, tlu'ow the right leg clear over the horse, coming 
gently into the saddle by staying the weight of the body with the right 
hand resting on the right side of the pommel of the saddle ; put the right 
toe in the stirrup." Now this is in the main applicable to a man of fivo 
feet ten inches or six feet, but to a shorter individual attempting to mount 
a horse of fifteen hands three inches, it is an impossibility, simply because 
he cannot reach the cantle from the same position which enables him to 
hold the stirrup in the left hand. The Captain is also wrong, in my 
opinion, in directing that the body should be raised into the saddle directly 
from the ground, with one movement. This Avill always bring the rider 
dovm. into the saddle with a very aAvkward jerk; and the proper direction 
is to raise the body straight up till both feet are on a level with the 
stirrnp-iron, and then with the left leg held against the flap of the saddle 
by the left hand on the pommel, the right leg is easily thrown over the 
cantle, and the body may be kept in the first position until the horse is- 
quiet, if he is plunging or rearing. A short man can generally place his 
foot in the stirrup while held in his hand, but it should be known that all 
cannot do this, because I have seen young riders much vexed at finding 
that they could not possibly do what is directed. ]\Iost of our writers on 
horsemanship are of the military school, and endeavour to cut every one's 
cloth by their own coats. They are able to do certain things easily, and 
so are their men, because they are mostly of the height already specified, 
but as sportsmen and civil equestrians are of all heights, I shall endeavour 
to accommodate my remarks to all heights and classes. In all cases the 
rider should stand at the shoulder, though with a short man it is muck 
easier to mount a tall horse from the hind-quarter, but the danger of 
kicking is very great; and even in mounting with "a leg," in the jockey 
style, [ have known the thigh very nearly broken by a kick. If the hand 
can steady the stirrup it should do so, but if the person is too short, the foot 
can be placed in the stirrup without its aid ; then taking the reins between, 
the fingers, much as directed in the passage already quoted, and grasping: 
a lock of the mane with the finger and thumb, the body is raised till the 
right foot is brought to a level with the left, when the right hand seize* 
the cantle, and with the left grasping the pommel, the body is steadied for 
a short time, which, in the ordinary mount, is almost imperceptible, but in 



THE SEAT. 289 

a fidgety horse is sometimes of considerable length. The leg is now 
thrown gently over the saddle, and as it reaches the cantle the hand is 
■withdrawn, after which the bodj^ sinks into the saddle in an easy and 
graceful manner. The right foot is then placed in the stirrup, with or 
without the aid of the right hand holding it. 

Such is the English method. Mr. Earey, in opposition to this plan, 
advises that the right hand and arm shall be thrown over the saddle, the 
horseman staaiding with his back to the quarters, and thus incurring the 
chance of being severely kicked. 

* 

THE SEAT. 

The position of the rider in the saddle, called " the seat," admits of 
several vai-iations according to the purpose to which he is devoted, but it 
is mainly influenced by the length of the stirrups. In the military style 
these are so long that the weight of the body is conveyed to the saddle 
by the inside of the thighs, or "fork" alone, Mdiile in that adopted in the 
East this part scarcely touches the saddle, and the breech and feet distri- 
bute the Aveight between them. Colonel Greenwood, who is the only 
military writer on horsemanship that can be taken as a guide for the road, 
tells us — " There is one direction which I think applies to all seats. Turn 
the thigh from the hip, so as to bring the hollow to the saddle ; this 
places the foot straight to the front, with the heel out and the toe in. 
Trotting without stirrups on the thigh only, with the heel down and the 
toe up, shoulders back, a snaffle rein in each hand like a rough-rider, is 
the best possible position for sitting." Now the latter part of this is quite 
true, but the former is not quite consistent with my own experience, for 
if the short stirrups of the Eastern horseman are adopted, the hollow of the 
thigh cannot be brought to the saddle, yet this style he admits is " ad- 
Jiiirable in its way." Dismissing then the military seat for which Colonel 
Greenwood's directions may suffice, I may assert that, in the ordinary 
English style, there are four points necessary to be considered ; namely, 
(1) the position of the weight, which will be mainly influenced by (2) 
the position of the knees well forward on the flap, (3) the proper length 
of the stirrup-leathers, and (4) the carriage of the body. If the weight is 
not laid upon the middle of the saddle, which is the axis of the " see- 
saw" motion made in the gallop, it has to be raised at every stride, and 
thus additional labour is thrown on the horse. With long stirmps in the 
military style this is of necessity done ; but, with short stir■^■ups, the 
knees are often placed on the flaps behind the leathers, and then the 
breech remains close to the cantle and sometimes almost overlapping it. 
To get the length of leather adapted to most men, though there are occa- 
sionally exceptions, the rider should sit well on his fork, and then the 
stirrups should be taken up or let down till they just touch the ankle bone. 
For road riding this enables the hollow of the thigh to touch the saddle, 
because the ball of the foot being on the stirrup, the heel is down an inch 
and a half below it ; whUst, in the hunting-field, as the stirrup is worn 
" home," the knee is carried higher and more forward on the saddle, and 
the weight is distributed between it, the breech, and the foot. "With re- 
gard to the carriage of the body, all the directions in the world will not 
make it easy, and wdthout the supervision of a master, or a friend, to point 
out defects, no one can be sure that he is sitting in a good, much less an 
elegant style. It is not j^ossible even to know that the shoulders are 
square, or that the body is not carried on one side, defects which I havt 

u 



290 THE HORSE. 

•known persisted in for years withont the slightest consciousness of them 
on the jmrt of the rider, who would gladly have rectified them if he had 
known of their existence. One rule may, however, be given, namely, that 
no effort should be made to move in any direction, and that, on the con- 
tiary, every endeavour should be directed to keep the body and legs as 
still as the action of the horse will allow, bearing in mind that the 
opposite extreme of stiffness is almost equally bad. 

MANAGEMENT OF THE EEINS. 

There are three distinct modes of holding and managing the reins. 
In the first, adopted by the military school, the left hand does all, with- 
out any assistance from the right, which is occupied with the sword, 
lance, or carbine. In the second, the left hand holds the reins, aided 
occasionally by the right ; and in the third, or " two-handed method," the 
reins are permanently held one in each hand. The first of these is only 
needed in the manege, and I therefore shall not allude to it ; while the 
last requires no description, further than to mention that it is the mode 
adopted by the colt-breaker, and that it gives far more control over the 
mouth than either of the others. As single and double reins are differently 
placed in the hand, a description of each will be necessary. 

The single rein is held by placing all the fingers but the first between 
the two leathers, and then, making both turn over that one, they are firmly 
held by pressing the thumb against it. This gives a firm grasp, and at the 
same time allows of either being pulled tighter than the other by turning 
the wrist. To shorten the grasp, the right hand has only to lay hold of the 
Loose part of the rein, and then the left, sliding forwards towards the neck, 
can close wherever it may be desired. In order to be sure that the elbow 
is held against the side, the thumb should always point towards the 
horse's ears; and the nearer the little finger can be carried to the pommel 
of the saddle the better. In using the single rein, the management of the 
mouth, if a good one, is easy enough ; nevertheless, there are various 
directions for the purpose adopted in different schools, which are de- 
jendent upon altogether conflicting principles. Every tyro knows tUat 
the horse turns to the left by pulling the left rein, and to the right by 
pulling the opposite one ; and the problem to be solved is to do this by 
one hand only. Now, this with the single rein is easily effected by raising 
the thumb towards the right shoulder, when the right rein is to be pulled, 
or by drawing the little finger towards the fork for the left ; in both cases 
by a turn of the wrist, without lifting the whole hand. But over and 
above this action on the mouth, and in many cases independent of it, is a 
movement which, in trained horses, is capable of muqh greater delicacy, 
and which depends upon the sensibility of the skin of the neck for its 
due performance. It is effected by turning the whole hand to the right or 
left, without any wrist action, so as to press the right rein against the 
neck, in order to cause a turn to the left, and the left rein against the 
neck for the opposite purpose ; at the same time rather slackening the 
reins so as not to bear upon the mouth by so doing. In this way a horse 
may be turned with a much greater degree of nicety and smoothness than 
by acting on the corner of his mouth. But highly-broken horses, such as 
the military troo]j-horses, are often too much used to their bits to answer 
to this slight and delicate manipulation ; and therefore it is eschewed by 
Captain liichardson, as well as by Colonel Greenwood, but, strangely 
enough^ for opposite reasons^ and each attempting to substitute a very 



THE USE Oe SPURS. 291 

different process for it. I air well aware that some horses can never be 
taught it, but must always hav5 a bearing made on the mouth before they 
will turn ; yet, when it can be inculcated, it makes the animal so tractable 
and agreeable to ride, that it is a highly desirable accomplishment ; and I 
cannot, therefore, join in condemning its use, but should rejoice if it could 
in all cases be fully developed. 

The double rein is usually held by those who ride for pleasure in this 
country as follows : — Begin l)y taking up the snaffle-rein, and place the 
fore and middle fingers between its two portions ; then lay hold of the 
curb-rein, and either hook it loosely on to the little finger, if not imme- 
diately wanted, or draw it up to the requisite degree of tightness and turn 
it over the fore finger, when it Avill lie upon the snaffle-rein, and, together 
with it, will be gripped by the thumb. By adopting this plan, the curb- 
rein is always at the command of the right hand ; and it may be shortened 
or let out in a moment, which is of constant occurrence in every day's 
ride. The hand is held as with the single rein, with the thumb jDointing 
to the horse's ears ; in turning, however, there is much less poAver of 
bearing on either side of the bit by raising the thumb or lowering the 
little linger, because the distance between the snaffle-reins is only half 
what it was, and therefore the mode of turning by pressure upon the neck 
is doubly desirable ; and hence its general adoption in those cases where 
double-reined bridles are used, as in the field and on the road. Some- 
times, to obviate this objection, the snaffle-reins are placed as in the 
single-reined bridle, outside the little finger, and then the curb is hooked • 
over the ring-finger, between the snaffle-reins, so as to allow of the full 
manipulation of the mouth by the hand, without bearing upon the neck. 
But the obiection to this is, that the curb cannot be shortened without 
releasing the snafifle; and therefore the horse must either be naden on tne 
curb alone while this process is being elTected, or his head must be loosed 
altogether; whereas, in the other mode, his mouth is still under the 
control of the snaffle all the time that the curb is being let out or 
taken in. 

The attainment op " good hands," by which is to be understood a light 
and delicate handling of the reins, is, or ought to be, the aim of every rider. 
The most delicate mouth in the world is soon spoilt by bearing heavily on 
it, as is too often done by grooms, and, indeed, by the average run of our 
horsemen. So also in hunting, if the horse is not allowed his head in. 
making his effort, he will be almost sure to fail in exactly doing what he 
meant, and will hit timber, if he is put at that class of fence, or will drop 
his hind legs into the ditch, if there is one. Bad riders use the reins as a 
means of balancing themselves in the saddle, and this is especially done 
in the hunting-field, where they would be utterly unable to maintain 
their seats without the aid thus afforded to the proper grip and balance. 
Every one in learning to ride ought to be taught to go through all the 
paces, and to jump the bar without any reins in his hand ; and when he 
finds he is able to do without them, be will learn to use them only in the 
way for which they are intended. 

THE USE OF SPURS. 

Spurs are employed for three distinct purposes^ which are — first, to 
stimulate the energies of the flagging or vM.^®- horse ; secondly, to punish 
the vicious or refractory animal ; and thirdly, to induce him to improve 
his pace without accelerating it, — from which last office they are specially . 

u2 



292 THE HOKSE. 

termed " persuaders." Sir Francis Head lays it down as a rule, that al3 
horses in this country are so generous, as'to be excited by every carriage 
or rider that passes them ; but though this is certainly the rule, there are 
numerous exceptions to it, and to ride a " slug " without spurs on the road 
would, be a nuisance, and in the hunting-field a service of extreme danger. 
That they may be abused is true enough ; and that they often are so, is 
equally correct ; but that is no reason why they should not be worn by those 
who can be trusted with them. On the road, they are only required for 
sluggish or vicious horses; but in the hunting-field, it is never safe to be 
unprovided with them, as a prick at the right moment has saved many 
a fall. 

MODES OF STAETING THE HOESE INTO HIS VAEIOUS 

PACES. 

To MAKE A HORSE start off in a quick walk, when he is not inclined to 
do so, either from being too fresh or too raw, is by no means an easy task. 
I have often ridden one for several days in succession, before I could 
make him settle down to a fair walk, and even then the slightest excite- 
ment would upset all my apparent previous progress. This is especially 
true of those horses possessed of such elastic joints, that they could "jog" 
at a rate much slower than they could walk. Here restraint by the 
bridle is out of tlie question, and any excitement by the voice or heel 
increases the jog into a full trot, without passing through any intermediate 
stage. The difficulty consists in the fact that for a perfect walk the head 
must be at liberty, and when this is allowed to a generous horse, he is- 
inclined to go off at a rate faster than suffices for the pace in question. The 
only plan, therefore, is to ride such horses quietly, till they are leg weary, 
Avhatever the number of hours may be required, and then it is possible to 
loose their heads without their taking advantage of the liberty to go off 
*' at score." Indeed, in the walk, the head should never be much con- 
fined, and yet the rider should not entirely leave it uncontrolled ; the 
finest possible touch is enough, so that on any trip the hand is at once 
informed of it by the drop of the head, when, by a sudden jerk of the 
bridle, not too forcible, it rouses the horse, and prevents his falling. It is- 
not that he is kept up by pulling the rein, but that he is roused by it and 
made to exert himself, for many horses seem regardless of falls, and would 
be down twenty times a day if they were not stimulated by the heel 
and bit. Confinement of the head in the walk is absolutely injurious, 
and more frequently causes a fall than saves one. A good walker will go 
on nodding his head to each step, more or less as it is a long or a short 
one ; and if this nodding is prevented by the heavy hand of the rider, the 
fore-foot is not properly stretched forward, the step is crippled, and very 
often the toe strikes the ground ; when, if the head were at liberty, it 
would clear it well. In horses which are apt to stumble in the walk, 
I have generally found that a loose rein, with the curb held ready for a 
check, is the safest plan ; and then the horse soon finds that he is 
punished the moment he stumbles, and in a very short time he learns to 
recover himself almost before he is reminded. I do not like the spur or 
the whip so well, because the use of either makes tlie horse spring forward, 
and often blunder again in his hurry to avoid this kind of punishment. 
The check of the curb, on the other hand, makes him recover himself 
without extra progress, or rather by partially stopping him, and thus he is 
better able to avoid liis fall. The body is allowed to yield slightly to the 



STARTING THE TROT. 2Db 

motions of tlxe horse, but not to waddle from side to side, as is sometimes 
seen. Some horses do not stir the rider at all, "vvhile others throw him 
about and fatigue him greatly ; and this may generally be foretold when 
the tail sways much from side to side in the walk, which is caused by the 
over-long stride of the horse, a very desirable accomplishment in the race- 
horse or hunter, but not in the hack. 

The jog tkot is a pace that there is seldom any difficulty in effecting, 
and on the contrary, as I have just observed, the rider is often engaged 
for hours or days in breaking the young horse of it. 

The begular trot is generally easy to produce, but sometimes when 
the canter has been much adopted, it is not so readily elfected. The 
best plan is as follows : — Take hold of both the reins of the snaffle, and 
bear firmly, but steadily, upon the mouth, lean slightly forwards in the 
saddle, press the legs against the horse's sides, and use the peculiar click 
of the tongue, which serves as an encouragement to the horse on all occa- 
sions. If properly trained, he will now fall at once into the trot, but if 
he breaks into a canter or gallop, he must be checked, and restrained into 
a Avalk, or a " jog-trot." Where the horse has been much used to canter, 
and can go at that pace as slowly as he walks, there is often great diffi- 
culty in making him trot, for no restraint, short of a total halt, will pre- 
vent the canter. In such cases, laying hold of an ear will often succeed, 
by making the animal drop his head, which movement interferes with the 
canter, and generally leads to a trot. The rising in the stirrups is gene- 
rally practised in civil life, as being far less fatiguing to both horse and 
rider ; but in the military schools the opposite style is inculcated, because 
among a troop of horse it has a very bad efl'ect if a number of men 
are bobbing up and down, out of all time. If it were possible for all to 
rise together, perhaps the offence against military precision might be pai- 
■tloned ; but as horses will not all step together, so men cannot aU rise at 
the same moment, and the consequence is that they are doomed to bump 
■upon the sheep-skins in a very tiresome manner, fatiguing alike to man 
and horse. This rising in the saddle of itself encourages horses which 
have been accustomed to it to trot in preference to any other pace, and 
they understand the faintest indication of it as a sign that tliis particular 
pace is to be commenced, and trot accordingly. The civilian's mode of 
riding the trot is as follows : — At the precise moment when the hind and 
fore legs are making their effort to tlu-ow the horse forward in progression, 
the body of the rider is thrown forcibly into the air, in some horses to 
so great an extent as to make a young rider feel as if he never should 
come down again. After reachmg the utmost height, however, the body 
falls, and reaches the saddle just in time to catch the next effort, and so 
on as long as the trot lasts. In this way the horse absolutely carries no 
weight at all iluring half his time, and tlie action and reaction are of such 
a nature that the trot is accelerated rather than retarded by the weight. 
ITo horse can fahly trot above twelve miles or thirteen miles an hour 
without this rising, though he may run or pace in the American style, so 
that it is not only to save the rider's bones but also to ease the horse that 
this practice has been introduced, and holds its ground in spite of the want 
ofmilitary sanction. It is here aswith the seat; utilityis sacrificed to appear- 
ances; and whenever the long and weak seat of the barrack-yard is sup- 
planted by the firm seat of the civilian, I shall expect to see the rising in 
the trot abandoned, but certainly not tiU then. The military length is not 
now what it was thirty years ago ; and perhaps some time or other soldiers 
may adopt the rise, but I am afraid not until they have produced many 



294 THE HORSE. 

thousands more sore hacks than they need have done if they had never 
practised it. In the trot, the foot should bear strongly on the stirrup, 
with, the heel well down, and the ball of the foot pressing on the foot- 
piece of the stirrup, so that the elasticity of the ankle takes off the jar, 
and prevents the double rise, which in some rough horses is very apt to 
be produced. The knees should always be maintained exactly in the 
same place, Avithout that sliifting motion which is so common with bad 
riders, and the legs should be held perpendicularly from the knee down- 
Avards. The chest should be well forward, and the waist in, the rise nearly 
upright, but slightly forward, and as easily as can be effected without 
effort on the part of the rider, and rather restraining than adding to the 
throw of the hoi'se. 

Good hands and a quiet seat only, with tlie aid of a curb bit properly 
adapted to the mouth, are required to develop the canter, by restraining 
the gallop ; but to make a horse start off at once, with a lead of either leg 
as desired, is altogether another matter. To do this, the canter with 
either leg leading must first be completely taught, so that there is no diffi- 
culty in making the horse display that particular pace at any time. Then 
just at the moment before starting, pull the rein, and press the heel on 
the side opposite to the leg which it is desired the horse should lead. 
The reason of this is obvious enough ; every horse in starting to canter 
(and many even in the canter itself) turns himself slightly across his line 
of progress, in order to enable him to lead with that leg which he thereby 
advances. Thus, supposing a horse is going to lead off with the oif fore- 
leg, he turns his head to the left and his croup to the right, and then 
easily gets his off-leg before and his near-leg behind into the line 
which is being taken. Now, to compel him to repeat this action, it is 
only necessary to turn him in the same way, by ])ulling his head to the 
left, and by touching him with the left heel, after which he is made to 
canter by exciting him with the voice or whip, whilst at the same moment 
he is restrained by the curb. When once this lead is commenced, the 
hold on the curb and pressure on the legs may be quite equal ; but if, 
while the canter is maintained, it is desired to change the leading leg, the 
horse must be collected and roused by the bit and voice, and then 
revei-sing the pull of the reins and the leg-pressure from that previously 
practised, so as to turn the horse in the opposite way to that in which he 
was started, he Avill generally be comjxjlled to change his lead, which is 
called " changing his leg." The seat in this pace is a very easy one, 
the knees taking a very gentle hold of the saddle, the feet not bearing 
strongly upon the stirrups, and the body tolerably upright in the saddle. 
The hands must not be too low, but should keep a very gentle but con- 
stant pressure upon the bit, and should, if there is the slightest tendency 
to drop the canter, rouse the mouth by a very slight reminder, and also 
stimulate the spirits by the voice or Avhip. 

The gallop being generally, though not always, his fastest pace, the 
horse may be forced into it readily enough by the stimulus of the voice, 
whip, or spurs. Sometimes very fast trotters cannot gallop so fast as they 
can trot, but these are rare exceptions, and need not be considered in any 
other light. It is therefore useless to describe the mode of starting this 
pace ; but some allusion may advantageously be made to the best method 
of riding it. There are two seats adopted, the ordinary one being to sit 
down into the saddle and keep as close to it as possible, but another being 
Also practised called standing in the stirrups. The former is the usual 
seat, and it is only in racing or in the very fast gallop at other times that 



KIDING TO HOUNDS. 295 

the latter is adopted. In sitting down the feet may be either resting on 
the ball of the toe, as in the other paces, or with the stirrup "home" to 
the boot, as is common in all field-riding. The body is thrown easily and 
slightly back, the knees take firm hold, the rider being careful not to grip the 
horse so tight as to distress him, which fault I have known very muscular 
men often commit. The hands should be low, with sufficient pull at the 
mouth to restrain, but not to annoy and make him "fight;" and if he is 
inclined to get his head down too much, or the reverse, they must be 
raised or lowered accordingly. When the standing in the stirrups is to be 
practised, the weight is thrown upon them, steadying it with the knees 
and thighs, which should keep firm hold of the saddle. The seat of the 
body is carried well back, while at the same time the lour is slightly 
arched ; but by this combined action the weight is not hanging over the 
shoulder of the horse, as it would be, and often is, when the breech is 
raised from the saddle and brought almost over the pommel, with the 
eyes of the rider looking down his horse's forehead, or very nearly so. If 
a jockey of more than seven or eight stone, with a good seat, is watched, 
it -vidll be seen that his leg does not descend straight from the knee, but 
that it is slightly thrown back from that Ime, and consequently that his 
centre of gravity is behind it, so that he can, by stiffening the joint, carry 
his body as far behind it as his stirrup is, without ceasmg to stand in it. 
Very light jockeys adopt a somewhat different seat, riding with longer 
stirrups and throwing their weight greatly on the muscles of the thigh, 
while they raise the breech entii-ely from the saddle, but only for a com- 
paratively small distance. This gives them a strong hold of their horses, 
without which, being so small, they could not ride them. Standing in the 
stirrups camiot long be maintamed Avithout fatigue to the rider, and it is 
only adopted in racing or in short gallops over bad ground, as in hunting, 
when there is a deep piece of fallow, or a steep hill, or any other kind of 
ground calculated to tire the horse. 

EIDING TO HOUKDS. 

The kind of seat generally adopted in riding to hoimds has been 
already described, and I need not therefore allude to it again. I may, 
however, remind the tyro that the less he depends upon balance, and the 
stronger hold he can get of the saddle with his knees and calves, the more 
likely he will be to avoid a fall without his horse coming down also. If 
this accident happens, a loose seat sometimes befriends the rider by 
causmg him to be thrown out of the way of the horse, but in the long 
run the man who has a strong grip of his saddle will fare the best. Good 
hands and judgment are equally necessary, and the combination of tJiese 
three qualities makes wp the finished performer across country, always 
supposing the presence of nerve in addition. 

There are certain rules adopted in all hunting countries, which must 
be stringently carried out in order to ensure the safety of the hounds and 
horsemen, and avoid those disputes which would otherwise constantly 
occur between riders jealous of each other's prowess. These may be 
summed up in the following plain directions : — 

When near the hounds keep to the right or left of them, and not 
directly behind, where you are always in danger of riding over some of the 
tail hounds. So also when the pack are crossing a thick fence, when 
there is often only one gap weak enough to allow of their getting over, 
avoid its proximity, and take a place at least a dozen yards off. 



296 THE IIORFE. 

Ikdependextly of hounds, every lidcr should take a line of his own, or 
if he is unable to do this and must follow a leader, let hini keep such a 
distance behind that if a fall talics place he can avoid jumping upon him. 
In a large field of horsemen, every one cannot possibly take a different 
line, nor is it easy to keep always at a safe distance ; but at big places 
there is rrcnerally some hesitation, and a proper interval can be maintained. 
Xo one should attempt to pass his neighbour either on the right or left 
of the line he has chosen, when near a fence; but of course this is not 
to deprive him of his chance of takiDg the lead in the middle of a large 
enclosure, when a little racing can do no harm. By the adoption of this rule, 
jostling and crowding at a Avcak place are avoided, which without it would 
be sure to lead to serious accidents. 

Use your judgment in saving your horse in deep ground, making up 
for the apparent loss by putting him along whenever a sound headland or 
good turf can be obtained. It is not going straight over sound land that 
distresses a horse, but the making use of him over deep ground, and at 
the wrong time. Many men seem to know no difference between sound 
turf and rotten or wet arable, and will kick their horses along over high 
rid o-e-ancl- furrow in a wet clay district, at a pace which no horse can bear 
for more than a mile or two in such a country. A workman would look 
out for headlands or footpaths, &c. ; and would, by a slight detour, gain 
upon those who disdained to leave the line even for a few yards. Wet 
and sticky ridge-and-furrow tires a horse dreadfully, and the consequence 
is, that if he is pushed over it he speedily loses his poAvers and wind, and 
falls in a very ugly way at the first fence he comes to of a size above the 
averao-e. Hence, every man who aspires to go well to hoimds must learn 
to be " a judge of pace," and should endeavour to make out the signs of 
distress, and the best way of avoiding it. So much depends upon condition 
and breeding, that it is very difficult for a man with a strange horse to 
know what liberties he may take with him. Some well-bred ones Avill be 
blown, yet if nursed they will come again and again, while the dunghill- 
animal will give up when once he has lost his wind, and is gone for that 
day at least. In ascending steep banks, a careful and active horseman 
will dismount and lead his horse up, and by so doing often gains a mile or 
two upon his less humane and cautious antagonist. In ascending hills it 
is often expedient to make a zigzag ; but in descending you can never go 
too straight, as the opposite course often leads to a dangerous slip on the 
side, with a crushed knee or ankle as a consequence. Few horses fall 
forwards, and they always manage to save themselves by shpping down on 
their haunches. This is a point of great importance, and should always 
be strictly attended to. 

There are two general directions, which will serve for almost all 
descriptions of fence. These are, that if a height is to be overcome, tho 
horse should be taken slowly up to it, in a collected manner, with his 
haunches well imder him. On the other hand, -width rec|uires impetus, and 
the pace should be forced during the last few strides up to a very high 
rate. Under the former head may be classed timber {in all the varieties of 
gates, single posts and rails, stiles, and palings), walls, strong pleached 
fences, and banks. To the latter belong water in all shapes, double posts- 
and-rails, bullfiuches, and those fences with a ditch on both sides, as well 
as those which have a wide one on the landing side. In addition to these 
there are the actual standing leap, seldom practised in the present day, the 
creeping style, the "on and off" leap, and the " drop," which is a variety 
of the standing leap. 



RIDING TO HOUNDS. 297 

In collecting the horse, and properly putting him at liis fence, tliere 
is a great art, and nothing but practice will give it in perfection. Double- 
posts-and-rails require a great deal of collecting and rousing, and the horse 
must go pretty fast at them, as also must he at all wide jumps, including 
water in all its forms. One essential is, that the horse shall have con- 
fidence in his rider ; for if he thiidcs he may turn to the right or left ha 
•will most probably do so, unless he is very fond of jumping. ^ JS^ervous 
men communicate their feelings to their horses, and tliough it may be 
difficult to explain how it is done, there is no doubt of the fact. It is 
■ remarkable how soon horses find out what kind of man they carry, and 
how they alter under different hands. This is partly owing to a mis- 
management of the mouth, but in great measure also to the trepidation of 
the rider. Unless, therefore, he has full confidence in his own courage, he 
need never expect his horse to go steadily and straight at his fences. The 
collecting is much easier than the management of the bit at the leap itself, 
for there are two opposite things to be done, and the delicate point is to 
hit the moment of chauge from one to the other to a nicety. The first is 
to "catch hold of the horse's head," as it is called — that is, to bear more 
or less upon the mouth, pull the horse on his haunches and rouse him, 
either by voice, heel, or whip. This lasts till the moment of the effort 
made to rise over the obstacle, when the head should be released, so that 
the horse may have all his bodily powers at his command. If the head is 
confined the haunches do not act fidly, because in making the spring the 
head is protruded, and pain is given by the bit if it is still held fast ; and 
hence, to avoid the pain, the extension does not take place, the leap is not 
made with sufficient spring or power, and the horse alights too near the 
ditch, if there is one, or possibly in it. But in releasiiig the head 
judgment is required, for if the rein is too loose the horse is apt to alight 
iu such a position that he is " all abroad," and without great help he will 
often fall ; hence, most good performers, though they do not absolutely 
confine the head, yet they keep a very gentle and delicate hold of the 
mouth, and not only thus prevent the horse over-extending himself, but 
are also prepared to assist him if he is inclined to fall. This is the finished 
iityle of riding, and is only ia the power of a man with a good seat as well 
as good hands. Both are Avanted, because without the former it is 
impossible to avoid " riding the bridle " — that is, holding on by it as well 
as by the saddle ; and without good hands that delicate management of- 
the bridle which I have attempted to describe is impracticable. What is 
called "lifting" the horse is sometimes attempted with the bit, but I do 
not recognise its utility. "When a horse is likely to touch the top bar of 
a gate, or in any way to use too small an effort, a stroke of the whip down 
the shoulder is the best lift. Rousing and collecting are quite distinct 
from lifting, which I believe to be a myth altogether. In creeping, good 
hands and quietness in the saddle are the chief elements of success, and 
without them both, no one is likely to do much ia this particular style ; 
hence it is that so few men can " creep" well, even though they have 
horses accustomed to ij; under other hands. When the horse has been 
thoroughly taught to creep his head may almost be left without control, 
merely guiding him quietly to the gap, and then letting him take his own 
way ; but where the horse has to be made to creep, a rein should be taken 
in each hand, and the head guided as if with a silken thread, to the right 
or left, or wherever the animal is required to go. These remarks will per- 
haps be useful to all who have no experienced friend ready to uffuul a 
practical demonstration of the same fundamental points. Oue actual lesson 



298 THE HORSE. 

in tlie field is worth all the reading in the world ; but, in default of this, 
the preceding observations will serve to assist the young aspirant for 
honours in riding to hounds. 

OUT-DOOR VICES AND BAD HABITS. 

Out-door vices depend upon the temper of the individual, and include 
shying, rearing, kicking, lying down, plunging or bucking, shouldering, and 
running away. Bad Habits arise from a defective formation of the body, 
and are confined to stumbling and cutting. 

Shying generally arises from timidity, but sometimes it is united with 
cunning, which induces the animal to assume a fear of some object for the 
sole purpose of finding an excuse for turning round. The usual cause of 
shying is doubtless the presence of some object to which the colt has not 
been accustomed, and if he has buck eyes, which render him short-sighted, 
it will be difficult to convince liim of the innocent nature of the novel 
object. There are endless pecuharities in shying horses, some being 
dreadfully alarmed by one kind of object, which to others is not at aU 
formidable. When a horse finds that he gains his object by turning 
round, he will often repeat the turning without cause, pretending to be 
alarmed, and looking out for excuses for it. This is not at all uncommon, 
and with timid riders leads to a discontmuance of the ride, by which the 
horse gains his end for the time, and repeats the trick on the first occasion. 
In genuine shying from fear the eyes are generally more or less defective; 
but sometimes this is not the cause, which is founded upon a general irri- 
tability of the nervous system. Thus, there are many horses which never 
shy at meeting tilted waggons, or other similarly alarming objects, but which 
almost drop with fear on a small bii'd flying out of a hedge, or any other 
startling sound. These last are also worse, because they give no notice to 
the rider, whereas the ordinary shyer almost always shows by his ears that 
he is prepared to turn round. 

The best plan op treatment which can be adopted, is to take as little 
notice as possible of the shying, and to be especially careful not to show 
any fear of its recurrence when a waggon appears in the distance. When 
the horse begins to show alarm, but not tiU then, the rider shoiild speak en- 
couragingly to him, and, if necessary, with a severe tone, which may even 
be supported by the use of the whip or spurs, if his onward progress 
cannot be otherwise maintained. The principle which should be carried 
out is to adopt such measures as will get the horse to pass the object 
at which he shies somehow or other, and this should be efi'ected with as 
little violence as possible, always commending in an encouraging tone as 
soon as the purpose is gained. !N'othing has so great a tendency to keep 
up the habit as the plan so common among ignorant grooms, of chastising 
the shyer after he has passed the object of his alarm. If he can be per- 
suaded to go quietly up to it and examine it with his muzzle as well as 
with his eyes, great good will be effected ; but this can seldom be done 
with moving waggons, and heaps or stones are generally only alarming 
from defect of vision, so that each time they assume a new phase to the 
active imagination of the timid animal. 

Bearing is seldom met with excepting among raw colts, or if it is con- 
tinued to a later period it is generally incurable. When existing in an 
as,4ravated form it is a most dangerous vice, as a fall backwards over the 
ri 1 er has often led to fatal consequences. 

The usual remedy for it in the colt is the ordinary running martingale, 



OUT'DOOR VICES. 299 

Avliich will keep dovv^n tlie rearer who is merely indulgiug in his playful 
fancies. When, however, the vice has become confirmed, nothing short 
of severe punishment will be of any service, and the horsebreaker generally 
resorts to the plan of knocking the horse down as he rises by a blow be- 
tween the ears witu a loaded crop. This stims the horse for a time, and 
alarms him so much that he is often cured by one act of the kind ; but it 
is attended with some danger of injuring the horse, and the rider does not 
always escape. Another plan adopted by active breakers is to wait till 
the horse is just on the balance, and then slipping oif to the left, it is easy 
to pull him over backwards ; but this also is often followed by severe 
injury to the horse when the ground is hard. I have almost invariably 
found that bad rearers have very supple necks, which increases the diffi- 
culty of keeping them down by any kind of martingale, and probably this 
will account for the habit having become inveterate. A stilF-necked horse 
can scarcely rise high if his head is confined even by the lunning martin- 
gale ; but when the side-straps are tightly buckled to the bit, he is 
effectually restrained, whereas with a loose neck the head can be so bent 
in to the brisket that no obstacle is offered. In such cases T have known 
a cavesson with the noseband lined with sharp prickers, and the martin- 
gale buckled to it ; a most efl'ectual prevention, as the slightest pidl opens 
it, presses the prickers into the nose and gives acute paiii. Whenever the 
rider finds a horse inclined to rise, he should at once lean forward, and 
alter inefiectually trying the martingale to keep the horse down, he must 
loose his head, or he will be almost sure to bring him backwards and cause 
a severe falL 

For kickers, except when the habit is merely a mode of letting off 
superiiuous s])irits, severity is the only remedy, and a strong ap])lication 
of the whip down the shoulder the best means of using it. At tlie same 
time the snafiHe-reins ought to be firmly held, and by their means the head 
kept up, for there is always a tendency to lower this part in the act of 
kicking ; the gag snaffle is very effectual for this purpose. 

Lying down is rare in the present day, being chiefly confined to under- 
bred horses and Welsh ponies, which are gradually going out of use. 
The spur is the oidy means likely to keep a stubborn brute up ; but in 
some cases its application is followed by the animal throwing himself 
down suddenly instead of gradually. 

Plunging may be described as a series of bounds into the air, which 
when they are made up and down in the same j)lace, or nearly so, are 
called " bucking," from their resemblance to the playful antics of the deer. 
A bucking horse is very difficult to sit, but by sawing the mouth with a 
twisted snaffle it may generally be stopped at once. 

Br SHOULDERING is Understood the attempt to crush the leg of the rider 
against a wall, which some ill-tempered horses are fond of doing. It is 
easily avoided by pulling the horse's head round to the wall instead of 
from it. 

Running away is too Avell known to need description. In some horses 
it is a species of temporary madness, and scarcely any bit, however severe, 
will stop them. When there is room and scop)e enough, the remsdy is 
simple, but, unfortunately, runaway horses generally choose a crowded 
thoroughfare to indulge their fancies in. A gallop to a stand- still, with 
the free use of the spur or whip at the latter part of it, will sometimes 
prevent a recurrence of this vicious act ; but Avhere the tendency is very 
strong it will have little effect. Punishing bits only make some high- 
couraged horses worse, but the majority of runaways would be dangerous 



300 THE HORSE. 

M'itli a plain snaffle only, and yet there are some wliicli Avill go quietly 
enough in it, while the adoption of a curb will rouse their tempers at 
once. Of course they can only be ridden with great care and judgment, 
and must never be roused unnecessarily. Fortunately the mouths of horses 
are now made so much more carefully than in former times, and their 
management is so much better understood, that we seldom hear of or see 
an accident from this cause, either in the saddle or in harness. The most 
essential part of the treatment of a runaway is the proper selection of a 
bit, which should be sufficient to control him without exciting opposition 
from the pain it gives. For the majority of such horses I know nothing 
better than the Bucephalus noseband, wliich I have already described at 
page 287. 

Stumbling arises from a variety of causes, and the nature of any 
particular case should be thorouglily investigated before any remedy for it 
is attempted. Sometimes it is merely dependent upon low or "daisy 
cutting" action, and then it is possible that it may not be attended with 
danger. I have known many horses which would stumble at least every half- 
mile, but yet they woidd travel for years with sound knees, the other leg 
being always ready to catch the weight. In other cases a stumble would 
only occur at rare intervals, but if the trip was made it was rarely 
recovered, and a fall was almost siu'e to foUow. Again, it happens with 
some horses that when they are fresh out of the stable, their action is 
high and safe, but after a few miles the extensors of the leg tire and they 
are constantly making a mistake. Inexperienced judges are very apt to 
examine the action of the fore legs alone, while that of the hind quarter 
is of quite as much importance to safety, and is more so as regards the 
-ease of the lider. Lameness is a frequent source of a fall, from the ten- 
dency to put the foot too soon to the ground in order to take the -weight 
■off the other. And lastly, upright pasterns will produce stumbling, when 
the shoulders are so formed that the foot is put down too near the centre 
of gravity. 

The best plans foe remedying these several conditions are as follows. 
[f the cause is Aveakness of the extensors no care can be of much service, 
all that can be done being to be on the look out for a trip and then to 
take the weight off the fore quarter as much as possible by sitting well 
back, at the same time using such an amount of sudden pressure on the 
bit as to cause the horse to exert himself, Avithout any attempt to keep up 
the head by mechanical force, which is an impossibility. "When laziness 
is the cause, the stimulus of the spur or whip will suffice, and it often 
happens that a horse is safe enough at his top pace while a slower one is 
full of danger. In lameness of course the remedy is to wait till the foot 
or feet are sound again. 

Cutting depends either upon the legs being set on too near together, 
■or on their joints not acting in a proper hinge-like manner. Many horses 
cut when in low condition, but are quite free from the defect when in 
flesh, and in such cases it is only necessary to let them wear a boot until 
they have had time enough to become fresh. Wherever horses " go close " 
care should be taken that the shoes do not project beyond the hoof, and 
■the clenches of the nails should be carefully watched, the groom seeing 
that they are filed down by the smith if they stand up at all above the 
level of the horn. Cutting may take place either on the prominent part 
of the fetlock-joint, or midway between it and the knee, or just below the 
latter, which is called "speedy cutting," and is very apt to cause a fall. 
A boot should be fitted to the leg in either case, and worn till the part is 



HARNESS. 



301 



tlioronglily healed and all swelling has disappeared, when if any likely 
method of treatment has been adopted the horse may be tried without it, 
but no journey should be undertaken without one in the pocket in case it 
may be needed. A peculiar method of shoeing, called a feather-edged 
shoe, will often prevent this bad habit as long as it is adopted. 

HARN"ESS. 

Harness should always be chosen of the best leather which can be 
procured, and double stitched throughout. Inferior materials and work- 
manship are dear at any price. There is no improvement in principle 
upon the old-fashioned collar, and the buckle which has been in use ever 
since carriages came into fashion is still the best. 

DRIVIN'G A SINGLE HOESE. 

The harness used in driving a single horse for general purposes is 
shown in the annexed engraving, and this form will serve either for two 
or four wheels. A complete set consists of three parts — 1st, the drawing 
part ; 2nd, that for holding up the shafts and backing the carriage ; and 
3rd, that for guiding the horse. 




DETAILS OF SINGLE HARNESS. 

The drawing part consists of the collar (a), which is an oval ring, 
padded so as to fit the horse's shoulders, to Avhich two iron bars, called 
hames (c), are buckled on each side of it by a strap at top and bottom, 
called the hame-straps {d d). These pass through a flat eye at each end 
of the hames, and draw the two tightly together. Towards the top of each 
hame is a ring called the hame-terret (e), intended to confine the rein in 
its place as it passes to the head ; while a little below the middle is a 



302 THE HORSE. 

metal arm, with an eye (/) in it, to which is attached the tug of the trace, 
a clip of iron stitched into a double piece of leather, Avhich is fixed to tiie 
buckle for the trace (g). This last is simply a long double-leather strap, 
attached at one end to the above buckle, and at the other by an eye to the 
drawing-bar of the gig or carriage ; or sometimes the buckle is at the other 
end, and then the tug is stitched at once into the trace. 

The supporting and backing part consists of the pad or saddle (h), 
somewhat similar in principle to the riding saddle, but much narrower and 
lighter. This has tAvo rings for the reins, called the terrets (?'), and a 
hook \ i) for the bearing rein, all at the top. It is fastened to the horse 
by a belly-band (k), and at the back of it there is an eye for the crupper 
which is a leather strap from it to the tail, roui:d the root of which i 
passes, and thus holds the pad from pressing forwards. Through the 
middle of the pad passes a strong leather strap, called the back-band (l), 
which is attached to a buckle and strong loop on each side, called the 
shaft tug (m), by which the shaft is supported, and also kept back from 
pressing upon the horse's quarters, in which latter office it is sometimes 
assisted by a leather strap passing round these parts, and buckled on each 
side, either to tlie shaft or to its tug, and called the breeehen (n). 

The part for guiding the horse consists of the bridle and the reins, 
the former being made up of two cheek-pieces and winkers (p and q), a 
throat-lash (r), a noseband (s), a face-strap {t), a front-piece (u), and a 
head-piece (v). The cheek-pieces are buckled to the bit which is gene- 
rally a strong curb, but sometimes only a double-ringed ssnaffle, now very 
commonly used in driving. The reins (7v) are merely long and narrow 
strips of leather passing from the bit through the hame and pad-terrets to 
the driver's hand. Bearing-reins are additional reins attached to bridoon 
bits, and passing through ear-rings on or near the throat-lash to the hook 
on the pad. They are, however, now seldom used in single harness ; but 
are shown in the plan at page 301. Where the bearing-rein is not used, a 
long ear-ring is now sometimes suspended from the head of the bridle, 
through which the driving-rein passes, and by which the horse is pre- 
vented from getting the rein under the point of the shaft, an accident 
which is ver.y annoying to those who leave their horses standing about 
with their servants, as, unless the rein is at once slackened, the horse is 
made to back and upset the carriage. 



BREECHEN AND KICKING-STRAP UNrTED. 



The chief variations in the details of single harness are in the 
drawing part and in the breeehen, independently of the bearing-rein to 
which I have already alluded. 



A PAIR. 303 

The breechen is sometimes made of the form slaoAvn in the last page, 
combining it with the kicking strap, which is intended to keep down 
the croup, when the horse attempts to indulge in that dangerous vice. 
The kicking-strap is made to pass over the hips, and buckles to a loop or 
tug which encircles each shaft. To this is suspended by another buckle 
at (o), which can be taken up or let down at wdl, a breechen on the ordi- 
nary plan, but it must be made of stout leather, or it will not be stift 
enough to suj^port itself. 




BREAST STRAP. 

In the drawing part a breast strap is sometimes substituted for the 
collar, its shape being shown in the above engraving at (5). It is 
merely a broad padded strap to which the traces are buckled, and it is 
supported by a withers strap, which is likewise buckled to it. It has the 
advantage of being lighter than the coUar, but with heavy weights to 
draw it confines the shoulders, and it is now very little used excepting 
for " black work" and match-trotting. 

A PAIE. 

Pair horse harness only differs in detail from that already described, 
both being made on the same principle. Double harness consists, like single 
harness, of three essential parts ; but as there is no shaft to be supported, 
the pad is much lighter and more simple. The drawing part is similar to 
that already described, except that the lower eyes of the hames are per- 
manently connected by an oval piece of metal, upon the lower part of 
which a ring freely travels, to which the pole-piece of the carriage is 
buckled, and by which it is backed. The trace-buckles, also, are oppo- 
site the pad, and supported from it by a light strap, called the trace- 
bearer. The traces themselves either end with an eye, or, with a full 
fold upon themselves, with an iron eye, called a roUer, and intended to be 
used upon the roller-bolt of the splinter-bar. The pad is very light, and 
has no back-band ; sometimes a long breechen runs to the trace-buckle ; 
but for light harness a mere supporting strap for the traces, caUed a hip- 
strap, is all that is used. The bridle is nearly the same as for single har- 
ness, except that there are no ornaments on that side which is towards 
the pole. The reins have, in addition to the single rein which is attached 
to the outside of each horse's bit, another called a coupling-rein, which has 
a buckle towards the driver running upon the driving-rein, so that it may 
be taken up or let out at pleasure, according to the mouth of the horse 



304 



THE HORSE. 



and his tendency to do more or less work than his share. These several 
points of difference are shown in the annexed engraving, in which a set of 




DOUBLE HARNESS. 



double harness, suited to a light phaeton or brougham, is shown. The 
traces are made to slip on roller-bolts, instead of havmg eyes as for single 
harness. 

rOUE-m-HAND. 

The harness for four-in-hand wheelers resembles that shown above, 
exce^iting that it is more massive, and the terrets are double for the 
passage of the leaders' reins. A ring is also fixed to the top of the head- 
piece of the bridle so as to carry the reins forward to the leaders well 
above their croup. The leaders' traces have eyes which slip on to the 
bars attached to the pole. 



THE 

ANATOMY OF THE HOESE. 



CHAPTER XVII. 



CLASSIFICATION OF THE VARIOUS ORGAXS, AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THB 

SKELETON. 

CLASSIFICATION OF TUE VARIOUS ORGANS— STRUCTURE OF BONE OF THE SKELETON 

IN GENERAL — THE ARTIFICIAL SKELETON — NUMBER OF BONES COMPOSING THE 
SKELETON — GENERAL ANATOMY OF THE SPINAL COLUMN — OF THE HEAD AND FACE 
— OF THE IIYOID ARCH— OF THE THORACIC ARCH AND ANTERIOR EXTREMITIES — 
OF THE PELVIC ARCH AND HIND EXTREMITIES — OF THE TAIL — OF THE FORE AND 
HIND EXTREMITIES CONSIDERED AS ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION. 

CLASSIFICATION^ OF THE VARIOUS ORGAKS. 

The body oV the Horse, like all the vertebrate animals, may be con- 
sidered as made up of several distinct apparatuses or systems. Of tbese, 
the first is a machine composed of the l^ony skeleton, or framework, the 
various parts of which are united by joints and moved by muscles. 
Secondly, there are contained within the thorax the organs which supply 
the whole body with the means of nutrition in the form of blood, and 
purify this fluid. Thirdly, in the abdomen are presented to view the 
important organs wliich assimilate the food to the condition of the blood ; 
while in the adjoining cavity, the pelvis, are the urinary and generative 
apparatuses. Fourthly, the nervous system may be considered, as com- 
prising the grand centre of the mental faculties, and, also, as i^residiug 
over and controlling the whole of the functions performed by the several 
organs ; &i\(\. fifthly, certain special organs, as, for example, those of sense, 
and, likewise, the foot will complete the whole circle of systems to be 
reviewed. Each of these groups will, therefore, be described in a separate 
chapter. 

OF THE STRUCTURE OF BONE. 

The bones are composed of a tissue peculiar to them, enveloped by a 
membrane, the periosteum. They contain a semi-fluid of a fatty nature, 
the marroiv, and are pierced in various directions by blood-vessels and 
9ie)'ves. 

The proper tissue of the bones is made up of two distinct substances, 
either of which may be removed by artificial means, leaving the other 
entire. If, lor instance, a bone is submitted to the heat of a furnace, it 

X 



S06 THE HOUSE. 

retaius its shape and rigidity, but becomes mucli whiter in colour, and 
is rendered extremely brittle. In fact, the mineral salts entering into its 
composition are left, but the animal matter binding them together is com- 
pletely decomposed and carried off in a gaseous form. On the other hand, 
by immersing a bone for two or three weeks in diluted hydrochloric acid, 
the earthy salts are dissolved, while the animal matter is imtouched. 
Here the bone retains its original shape, but it is soft and flexible ; and 
instead of presenting its usual ojaaque yellowish-white colour, it is semi- 
transparent, and resembles the ordinary gelatine of the shops. According 
to Berzilius, bone is chemically composed of the following constituents — 
namely, cartilage, reducible to gelatine by boiling ; blood-vessels ; phos- 
phate of lime ; carbonate of lime ; fluate of lime ; phosphate of magnesia; 
soda and chloride of sodium. 

Considered mechanically, the bones form the framework of the animal 
machine. In the limbs they are hoUow cylinders, admirably fitted by 
their shape and texture to resist violence and support weight. In the 
trunk and head they are flattened and arched, to pi'otect the contents of 
the cavities they form, and to provide an extensive surface for the attach- 
ment of muscles. In certain situations their exterior is raised into pro- 
jections called processes, which serve as levers for the muscles to act upon ; 
in others they are grooved into smooth surfaces for the easy gliding of 
tendons, when these are stretched between the fleshy part of a muscle and 
one of its attachments. Lastly, they sometimes present a large hollow for 
the lodgment of the belly of a muscle, as in the case of the scapula. These 
differently shaped bones may, therefore, be classed under the following 
three heads : — 

1st. The long hones consist of the humerus, radius, ulna, femur, 
tibia, and fibula ; the metacarpal and metatarsal bones (called, in 
horsemen's language, the cannon bones), the phalanges (pastern bones), 
and the ribs. These bones are all divisible into a central cylindrical 
shaft, and two heads or extremities. The shaft is usually of a prismoid 
form, dense in texture, and presenting a longitudinal tube in the interior, 
called the medullary canal, which contains marrow. The heads are broad, 
to articulate with the next adjoining bones, and are covered with a thin 
layer of cartilage, which wUl be described in the chapter treating of the 
joints. Their outer surface is a hard osseous layer, within which is a 
mass of cells containing red medullary matter, to be presently described. 

2d. Tlie flat hones are composed of two layers of dense tissue, one on 
each surface, having between them another of a cellular nature, called 
the diploe. As a matter of course, from their shape, they have surfaces, 
borders, and angles ; in addition to which they have projections, called 
processes, of various shapes. They consist of the chief bones of the head, 
the scapula, and pelvis. 

3d. The irregular hones comprise the lesser bones of the head and face, 
the vertebrae, sacrum, sternum, carpal and tarsal bones, the sesamoid 
bones, the bones of the foot, and the patelhe. They resemble the flat 
bones in their structure. 

When microscopically examined, bone is seen to be made up of a dense 
and homogeneous substance (basis substance), in which are numberless 
minute cells (corpuscles of Purkinje). The basis substance is partially 
fibrous and slightly lamellated, the layers being concentric in long bones 
and parallel in fiat ; it is traversed in all directions (more especially in 
the long axis, where there is one) by canals (Haversian canals), which 
iretjuently branch and inosculate, giving passage to vessels and nerves. 



THE SKELETON IN GENERAL. 307 

In certain situations the lamellae separate, and leave between them spaces 
of various sizes, called cancelli. Besides entering into the composition of 
the basis substance, the lamellse are collected concentrically round the 
Haversian canals, the boundaries of which they form, generally to the 
extent of ten to fifteen layers. Both the compact and spongy tissues are, 
therefore, composed of the same elementary structure, the former being 
especially intended to afford resistance to violence with as little weight as 
is consistent with its office, for which reason it is hollowed into a tube ; 
while the latter is enlarged as much as possible without unnecessarily 
adding to its weight, the problem being solved by its development in a 
cellular form. 

The Periosteum is a dense fibrous membrane which covers every part of 
the surface of the bones, excepting their extremities when they enter 
into the composition of a joint, its place being then occupied by cartilage. 
(See Joints.) When this membrane covers the bones of the skull it is 
called pericranium, and when it invests the cartilages of the ribs it 
receives the name perichondrium. It is full of blood-vessels, especially in 
the young, and they freely communicate with those of the surrounding 
soft parts. Hence it is extremely liable to inflammation, either caused 
by injury to itself or to the parts which cover it. 

The marroio, or medullary substance, is contained in the cavities formed 
within the bones, being of a yellow colour and oily nature in the shafts 
of the long bones ; and more or less red, from the admixture with blood, 
in the flat and irregular bones, and in the heads of the long bones. It is 
contained within the areolar meshes of a membrane, which lines these 
cavities, answering to the periosteum, which has been already described. 
This medullary membrane is of excessive tenuity, and is composed of blood- 
vessels ramifying in fine cellular tissues. The use of marrow in the animal 
economy is not very clearly demonstrated. 

In the embryo, all the bones originally exist in the state of cartilage, 
being soft and flexible. By degrees vascular canals are developed within 
its substance, by the union of its cells in rows. These concentrate 
towards some one or more points, which in a long bone are one in the 
centre of the shaft and one at each extremity. Starting from this point 
{punctum ossijicationis), fibres run out, embracing clusters of cells, and 
sending branches between the individuals composing each group. In 
this manner the network, characteristic of bone, is formed, the cells 
uniting to form the permanent areolae and Haversian canals. At first the 
contents of the cells are transparent, then granular, and finally opaque, 
from the pressure of amorphous mineral matter. The several ossified 
portions are quite distinct for a long time in the young animal, and may 
readily be separated by boiling or maceration. 

OF THE SKELETON IN" GENEEAL, 

The name skeleton has been given from the Greek word o-KeXAo) {to 
dry), it being the only part of the budy which will bear dessication without 
change of form. In the vertebrata it is an internal bony framework, but 
in the Crustacea it invests the soft parts, and forms an insensible covering 
to them, while at the same time it serves the purpose of locomotion. In 
both these divisions of the animal kingdom the skeleton forms a series of 
arches or rings, capable of moving on each other, but so fixmly attached 
as to secure protection to the important organs contained within them. 
In the horse, as in aU the higher mammalia, these rings or arches are 

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THE ARTIFICIAL SKELETON. . 309 

double— one set, the superior, being continuous throughout the whole 
length of the animal from the head to the root of the tail, and containing 
the nervous system ; while the other lying below, but closely connected 
to them, is interrupted in certain localities, being found to exist chiefly in 
three regions : — 1st, where it forms the jaws and bone of the tongue ; 
2d, where, by means of the ribs and sternum, it constitutes the thorax and 
its appendages, the anterior extremities ; and, 3dly, where, in the shape of the 
pelvic arch, it protects the organs of generation, and, through tlie posterior 
extremities prolonged from it, assists in locomotion. The superior of 
these arches, from containing the brain, and its prolongation, the spinal 
cord, is called the neural arch. The inferior is termed the haemal arch 
(ai/xa, blood), because it protects the heart and its large blood-vessels as 
the latter pass from the thorax towards the head and posterior extremities. 
In all the vertehrata the neural arch consists of one continuous cavity, 
defended from end to end by bony plates, strongly joined together; and 
in some of the lower forms (lizards) the ha3mal arch is nearly as complete, 
these animals having cervical ribs ; while the dugong and some others are 
furnished •u'ith ribs in their tails. Consequently, it is fair to consider the 
whole skeleton in the superior forms of the animal kingdom as composed 
of two series of arched plates, firmly united together, but still allowing 
more or less motion, and serving to protect the centres of the nervous and 
sanguineous systems, from which they have received their names. 

THE AETIFICIAL SKELETOK 

The bones of the Horse, as of the other mammalia, may be preserved 
with their natural ligamentous attachments connecting t^ em in a dry 
state, in which condition the skeleton is called a natin'al one. It is 
usual, however, to macerate them so long that all the soft parts readily 
separate, leaving the bones without any of the ligaments or cartilages 
which are firmly fixed to them during life. Thoy are then put together 
hy wires, &c., the cartilages being represented by leather and cork. In 
this way it often happens that the proportions are not exactly preserved, 
and, on reference to an articulated skeleton in any museum, the inex- 
perienced eye may be greatly misled. Thus it is very common to repre- 
sent the thorax in the artificial skeleton as much shalloAver than it is in 
nature, where its lower margin is on the average about midway betvi^een 
the top of the withers and the ground. Again, in the fresh state, the 
intervertebral fibro- cartilage is in some parts of the spine of considerable 
thickness ; and if the proper substance is not artificially supplied, the 
skeleton will be too short, or if too thick a material is added it will be 
too long. In the engraving of the skeleton occupying the opposite page, 
which is drawn from the skeleton in the Museum of the Veterinary 
College of London, the spine is correctly represented, but the thorax is 
too shallow, and the scapula, together with the whole fore extremity, is 
placed too far forward. 

NUMBER OE BONES COMPOSING THE SKELETON. 

The skeleton is composed of two hundred and forty-seven separate 
bones, which are united by joints to form the spine, thorax, pelvis, tail, 
and fore and hind extremities. The spine is finished anteriorly by the 
head, which is divided into the cranium and face, and contains the teeth. 



310 THE HORSE. 

Suspended from the head is the os hyoides, which completes the number 

of bones. Thus : — 

The spine consists of 7 cervical, 18 dorsal, and 6 lumbar vertebrae — 

Total 31 

The thorax is made up of the dorsal vertebra?, with 18 ribs on each 

side, and the sternum in the middle — Total 37 

The pelvis comprises 2 ossa innominata (or ilium, ischium, and 

pubes), and 1 sacrum — ^Total 3 

The tail contains on the average 17 bones 17 

The fore extremity is made up on each side of the scapula, 
humerus, os brachii, and 8 carpal bones, 3 metacarpal, os suffra- 
ginis, OS coronae, os pedis, os naviculare, 2 ossa sesamoidea — Total 

on both sides 40 

The hind extremity has the femur, patella, tibia, fibula, 6 tarsal 
bones, 3 metatarsals, os sufiraginis, os coronse, os pedis, os naviculare, 

2 ossa sesamoidea — Total 38 

Bones op the cranium 10 

Bones op the pace and lower jaw 18 

Teeth 40 

Bones op the internal bar, 4 in each organ 8 

Os hyoides, or bone op the tongue, made up of five sections . . 5 



Grand total 247 



GENERAL AN"ATOMY OF THE SPINAL COLUMN, 

The vertebral or spinal column is the first rudiment of internal 
skeleton seen in the lower vertebrate animals, and this constitutes the type 
of that great division of the animal kingdom. In the horse, also, it is the 
portion of the skeleton first developed in the embryo, and forms the centre 
around which all the other parts are framed. At its first appearance it is 
a cartilaginous cylinder, surrounding and protecting the primitive trace of 
the nervous system ; but as the embryo increases in growth, points of 
ossification are developed corresponding to each vertebra, the whole tube 
being finally divided into distinct pieces called vertehrce, to which the 
bones of the head are a prolongation, corresponding in their nature, 
though differing outwardly in form. 

The vertebrce are divisible into true and false, the former reaching from 
the head to the pelvis, and the latter extending thence backward, being 
respectively called the sacrum and coccyx. 

The true vertehrce comprise the 7 cervical, 18 dorsal, and 6 lumbar 
vertebrae. Each consists of a body, from which two laminae or plates 
project upwards, terminating in a spinous process. In addition to these 
are two lateral projections (transverse processes), which serve the purpose 
of firmly connecting the vertebrae together by means of the muscles 
attached to them, and also to the ribs and extremities below. Lastly, 
each vertebra has two small surfaces before and the same number behind 
(articular surfaces), which form distinct joints between them. The details 
of these parts, and the peculiarities met with in each set, will be described 
in the next chapter. 

Between the body, the laminae, and the spinous process, is an opening, 
more or less triangular in shape, in which lie the spinal cord and its 
investments. The edges of this opening are attached to those before and 



THE HEAD. 311 

tehind. Ly ligamentous tissues [ligamenta suhflara), which, opposite each 
intervertebral sjjace, are pierced by openings on each side to give exit 
to the vertebral nerves passing out to the exterior of the body and to the 
extremities. Opposite to these openings the bone is notched above and 
below, and these intervertebral notches complete the parts common to the 
whole series. Thus the vertebral or spinal column serves as a firmly 
secured but flexible tube for the lodgment of the spinal cord, while at the 
same time it gives passage to its nerves. By this formation it is far less 
liable to injury, and also more useful as an aid to locomotion, than if it 
were made of one solid piece of bone, which, from its length, Avould be 
readily broken. 

OF THE HEAD XKD FACE, AI^D OF THE HYOID AECH. 

Modern anatomists, following out the idea first suggested by Maclise 
and Owen, consider the head as made up of six vertebrae ; the posterior 
one, or that nearest to the neck, being the occipital bone, the next two 
being made up of the temporal bone, and the iiltimate vertebrje consisting 
of the sphenoid and jethmoid bones. This is a somewhat fanciful hypo- 
thesis, when worked out in detail ; but it is obvious that the several 
bones of the skull subserve the same purposes as the vertebrae, and 
resemble those parts of the skeleton in forming a series of irregular 
arches to protect the brain, the division into separate pieces being far 
more secure than if the whole were in one. 

The bones of the pace, including the lower jaw and os hyoides, 
depend from the neural arch or brain-case much in the same way as the 
ribs and pelvic bones posterior to them are attached to the vertebrte, and 
though they inclose organs of less vital importance, yet they are perfectly 
analogous to these parts in their types and in the offices which they 
perform. 

OF THE THOPtACIC AECH AND A^tTERIOE EXTEEMITIES. 

Lying in the horse at some distance posteriorly to the three first 
segments of the hsemal arch (the bones of the face, lower jaw, and os 
hyoides), and separated from them by the neck, where there is a hiatus, 
the thoracic arch and anterior extremities depend from the vertebrae corre- 
sponding to them. In many of the higher vertebrates the fore extremity 
is firmly united by a joint to the thorax, and may be considered with it ; 
but in the horse it is only attached by muscles, the thorax being slung 
between the upper edges of the blade-bones by means of two broad sheets 
of muscular fibres. Hence the collar-bone is entirely absent in this 
animal ; and thus, while he is free from dislocations and fractures of that 
bone, to which he would he constantly subject if it were present, he is 
rendered more liable to strains and rheumatic inflanmiations of the mus- 
cular sling, by which freedom of action is impaired. 

In the articulated skeleton it is usual to consider the thorax as 
made up by the eighteen dorsal vertebrae superiorly, the eighteen ribs 
and their cartilages on each side, and the sternum with its cartilages 
below. But the cavity of the thorax, as bounded by the diaphragm 
posteriorly, is not nearly so large as would be supposed from a considera- 
tion of the dry skeleton, for though the diaj^hragm is attached to the 
twelve posterior ribs near their cartilages, yet its surface is so convex 
towards the thoracic cavity, that a very large space within the bony 



312 THE HORSE. 

thorax is really occupied by the abdominal organs. This will be hereaftei 
more fully explained in examining these parts at page 407, et seq. 

THE PELVIC AECII AE"D HIKD EXTEEMITIES. 

Behind the thorax occurs a second interval corresponding to the 
loins, where the hsemal arch is deficient ; but at the pelvis the circle is 
completed by the bones of the ischium, ilium, and pubes, united to the 
sacrum above, and having the hind extremities firmly articulated to them 
at the hip joints. The pelvis constitutes not only a firm and solid case for 
the protection of the large blood-vessels, and of the urinary and genital 
organs, but it is also intimately connected with locomotion, to which the 
posterior extremities largely contribute. 

THE TAIL. 

This organ appears to be intended chiefly to protect the body from 
insects ; but it also serves to some extent as an aid in balancing the body 
when rapidly moving in any new direction. It is made up of from fifteen 
to eighteen bones, which will be described in the next chapter. 

THE FORE AND HIND EXTREMITIES CONSIDERED AS 
ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION. 

The several bones which are connected together to form the ex- 
tremities must be regarded, first, as organs of support, and, secondly, as 
the primary means of locomotion. Each extremity consists of correspond- 
ing divisions, the ilium being the analogue of the scapula ; the femur of 
the humerus ; the tibia and fibula of the ulna and radius ; the tarsus of 
the carpus; and, lower down, the bones of the fore and hind extremity 
being precisely similar in their forms. There is, however, a want of 
exact correspondence in the form and direction of the joints, which has 
been much insisted on by homologists, and which Mr. JNIaclise has 
attempted to explain in his very interesting article on " The Skeleton," 
contained in the "Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology" edited by 
Dr. Todd. It appears to me that this does not make matters more- 
simple, but the reverse, and that the proper point of view is to regard the 
humerus and femur as homologous, and the tibia, with the patflla, as ana- 
logous to the iilna and its olecranon process. The intervention of the 
ligament between the patella and tibia does not affect the use of the 
former as a lever; and both joints being perfectly hinge-like in their 
actions, there is no other important difference. Descending to the next 
joint, the os calcis stands out as an important lever, and is represented in 
the carpus by the os pisiforme (called by Percivall os trapezium), each 
having important muscles inserted in their upper edges. It is true that 
the one is an agent in what is called extension, while the other is engaged 
in flexing the limb ; but this is only dependent upon the limit to motion 
in either direction. Below the carpus and tarsus there is no necessity for 
continuing the comparison. 

Regarding the limbs as means op support, it must be remembered 
that the fore limbs are nearer the centre of gravity, and, therefore, sustain 
more weight than the hind. The fore quarter is suspended between the 
bases of the two shoulder-blades, chiefly by the serrati magni, and in such 
a way as to require no special muscular contraction. The four parts of 



THE EXTREMITIES. " 313 

wliich the limb itself is composed being bent at various angles, are pre- 
vented from giving way by the muscular actions of the extensors of the- 
humerus and ulna, the carpus (or knee) having little tendency to yield, 
and the pastern being supported by the flexor muscles and suspensory 
ligament. The hinder limbs, though sustaining less weight, are not sa 
favourably circumstanced for this purpose, the angles between their 
several parts being generally more acute. But if these are attentively 
regarded, there is not so much difference as is generally supposed. Thus, 
the first joint, the ilio-femoral, forms a less acute angle than its analogue,, 
the shoulder joint (see fig. 1, r. m.). Again, though the stifle joint is con- 
siderably bent, it is not more so than the elbow joint, which will be clear 
on comparing the two in tlie skeleton given at page 308. The chief dis- 
advantage sustained by the hind limbs as means of support will be found 
in the hock, as compared with the knee, the latter being nearly straight,, 
while the former is much bent ; but as it has a long lever to assist it (the 
OS calcis), and as this is kept in position by the powerful hamstring 
muscles, each of which serves its purpose far more completely than the 
flexor of the carpus inserted in the os pisiforme, it may readily be under- 
stood that the hind limb is not greatly at a disadvantage in supporting 
the weight of the body. 

As AGENTS OF LOCOMOTION, the offices of the fore and hind limbs ar& 
widely different. Each has been already described as consisting of four 
sections, bent at angles on each other. In the fore limb these angles are 
framed to serve as sjDrings, so that when the feet touch the ground, they 
are enabled to adapt themselves so as to avoid altering the line of progres- 
sion oT the body. In those animals which have small and short fore legs, 
as the kangaroo and hare, the most rapid locomotion ever consists in a 
series of curves ; whereas, in the horse at full speed, the body progresses 
in one straight line, owing to tliis elastic structure of the anterior limbs. 
So, also, in descending from an extraordinary leap, the springy action of 
the fore limbs of the horse is so powerful that he can get off again without 
dwelling, whereas the kangaroo and hare must depend almost entirely 
upon their hind legs, and consequently stop for a second after their descent. 
On the other hand, the angular formation of the hind limbs is intended 
to enable the animal to drive its whole body forward, by first flexing all 
the joints, and thus drawing the feet under the belly; and then suddenlj'" 
extending them with the feet fixed in the ground, the Aveight is neces- 
sarily propelled. Or if the feet are not fixed they are lashed out back- 
wards, developing the action so well known as " kicking." The difference 
between the powers displayed by the tAvo limbs, in straightening their 
component parts, is well displayed in comparing kicking with the striking 
oat of the fore foot, wliich is common enough among vicious horses. It is 
true that the latter will sometimes cause a severe blow; but it could very 
rarely break a limb, which is the least amount of mischief to be appro- 
bended from the full force of a lash out with the hinder limb. 



314 



THE HORSE. 



CHAPTER XYIIT. 

DESCKIPTIVB ANATOMY OF THE SEVERAL BONES. 

THE HEAD BONES OF THE CRANIUM OF THE FACE — THE LOWER JAW — THE TEETH — 

OS HYOIDES — CHARACTER OP VERTEBR/E IN GENERAL GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE 

CERVICAL VERTEBRA PECULIARITIES OP CERTAIN CERVICAL VERTEBRA — GENERAI 

CHARACTER OP THE DORSAL VERTEBRA — PECULIARITIES OP CERTAIN DORSAL VElt- 
TEBR^ GENERAL CHARACTER OP THE LUMBAR VERTEBRA — PECULIARITIES OF CER- 
TAIN LUMBAR VERTEBR.5] — OS SACRUM THE COCCYGEAL VERTEBRA — THE RIBS ANlJ 

THEIR CARTILAGES THE STERNUM — THE SCAPULA — HUMERUS — FORE-ARM— CAR PCr, 

AND METACARPUS THE PHALANGEAL BONES THE PELVIS FEMUR AND PATELLA — 

BONES OP THE LEG METATARSAL /l.ND POSTERIOR PHALANGEAL BONES. 



THE HEAD 

Is COMPOSED of the bones of the cranium, face and jaw. 
/ 2 




1. Occiput. 

2. Parietal bone. 

3. Frontal bone. 

4. Petrous portion of temporal bone. 

5. Zygomatic arch. 

6. Lachrymal bone. 



Fio. 1. — Profile View of the Head and Pace. 

7. Malar bone. 

8. Posterior maxillary bone 
9 — 11. Nasal bone. 

10. Anterior maxiH.nry bone. 

11. Temporal fossa. 

12. 13. Lower jaw. 



BONES OF THE CEANIUM. 

The cranium, or brain case, is small as compared with that of man, and 
occupies less than one-fourth of the whole head. It is made up of nine 
bones, thi-ee of which are pairs and three single ones. These bones 
are in most parts made up of two tables, with a cellular structure inter- 
posed, called the diploe, which is in certain situations expanded into large 
cells, as in the frontal sinuses. They are connected together by serrated 
sutures, except where the temporal bone overlaps the parietal, and in that 
situation, on each side the skull, one thin scale (squama) overlaps the other. 
The two frontal bones unite to form the anterior part of the cranial cavity 
and the upper walls of the orbits, leaving a space between them for the 
reception of the fethmoid bone. The two parietals are situated at the 
upper and lateral parts of the brain case, and are of an irregidarly quadri- 
lateral figure — each meeting its fellow in the median line on the top of 
the head. The temporal bone overlaps the parietal on each side, with its 



BONES OF THE FACE. 315 

squamous portion, while the petrous part runs in towards its fellow on the 
opposite side, constituting a part of the floor of the hrain case, and sepa- 
rating that cavity into two. It contains within its bony structure the true 
organ of hearing. The occipital hone occupies the back part of the cranium, 
and makes up the base. It has a large opening (the foramen magnum), for 
the passage of the medulla oblongata, and vertebral arteries ; and on each 
side of this are large smooth articulating surfaces, for the attachment of 
the atlas vertebra. Tlie sphenoid hone is of a most remarkable shape, re- 
sembling slightly a bat, with its wings partially expanded. The body and 
wings complete the middle of the base of the skull, and the legs go to form 
part of the walls of the nasal cavity and mouth. Lastly, the (ethmoid hone 
is made up of a cribriform plate supporting the anterior lobes of the brain, 
and giving passage to the olfactory nerves, which spread over the cellular 
structure, that constitutes the whole substance of this bone. Another 
thin plate contributes to form the inner and posterior wall of the orbits. 

BOKES OF THE FACE. 

The FACE is made up of the nasal, posterior, and anterior niaxUlary, 
molar, lachrymal, and palate bones, the four turbinated bones, vomer, 
and lower jaw. 




Fig. 3. — Longitcdinal Section of Head. 

1, 2, 3. The upper walls of the cranium. 10. Petrous portion of temporal bone. 

4. Frontal sinus. 11. Vomer. 

6. Nasal bones. 12. Inferior turbinated bone. 

6. Superior turbinated bone. 13. Palatine plate of posterior maxillary. 

7. JSthmoidal cells. 14. Posterior maxillary bone, outer wall 

5. Sphenoid bone, uniting with 15. Anterior maxilUiry bone. 
9. Occipital bone. 

The nasal hones are long and thin, forming the roof of the nostrils. 
Posteriorly they are broad, and taper gradually forwards to a sharp point. 
The p>osterior maxillary hones are triangular in shape, thick behind, and 
presenting thin edges in front. The anterior maxillary hones are of an 
irregular shape, being connected with the corresponding edges of the 
posterior maxillary and nasal bones, and completing with the former the 
roof of the mouth. The malar hone has an irregularly triangular shape, 
presenting its broad base forwards, and is connected with the temporal, 
posterior maxUlary, and lachrymal bones. The lachrymal hones form the 
internal corners of the orbits, where they are very tliin, and are hollowed 
out to receive the lachrymal sac, and give passage to its duct. The palate 
hones are of a very irregular shape, and are connected with the frortal, 
sethmoid, sphenoid, posterior maxillary, inferior turbinated bones, and 
vomer. The turhinated hones, two in each nasal cavity, are attached to 
its outer walls one above the other, and appear to be intended merely for 
the purpose of extending the surface for the expansion of the olfactory 
nerve. The vomer resembles in shape the share of the plough, after 
which it is named, and rises up in the middle line of the back of the 
diWsion between the nostrils. 



316 THE HORSE. 



THE LOWER JAW. 

The lower jaw resembles in general shape the letter Y, the point 
being rounded off forwards and receiving the incisor teeth, while the 
two branches are broad, thin, and slightly curved, being surmounted by 
the condyles for articulation Avith the glenoid cavity of the temporal bone, 
and giving- lodgment to the tushes and grinders. The two lines of 
alveolar cavities are not so wide as those of the upper jaw, and conse- 
quently the two sets of teeth do not exactly correspond. 

THE TEETH. 

The teeth are developed within their appropriate cavities or sockets, 
■which are found exactly corresponding with their number in the upper 
and lower jaws, being narroAver in the lower than in the upper. Before 
birth they are nearly all in a state of incomplete growth, covered and con- 
cealed by the gums, but soon afterwards they rise through it in pairs, the 
first set, or milk teeth, being in course of time superseded by the perma- 
nent teeth as in all the mammalia. The following is the formula of the 
complete dentition of the horse : — 

Incisors ^, canine f, molars if. 

Eacf tooth is developed within its corresponding cavity in the jaw, 
and is made up of three distinct substances — cement, enamel, and dentine. 
The cement of the horse's tooth (sometimes called crusta petrosa) closely 
corresponds in texture with his bone, and, like it, is traversed by vascular 
canals. The enam-el is the hardest constituent of the tooth, and consists 
of earthy matter arranged in the animal matrix, but contained in canals, 
80 as to give the striated appearance Avhich it presents on splitting it 
open. Dentine has an organized animal basis, presenting extremely 
minute tubes and cells, and containing earthy particles, which are partly 
blended with the animal matter in its interspaces, and partly contained 
in a granular state wdthin its cells. These three substances are shown in 
the annexed sections of an incisor tooth, one of which, Fig. 4, is of the 
natural size, while the other. Fig. 5, is shown under the microscope — 

In the molar teeth the arrangement of these three substances is the 
same, except that the cement and enamel dip down into two or more 
cavities instead of one, and are also reflected in a sinuous manner upon 
the sides. This inequality in the hardness of the component parts of 
these teeth causes them to wear aAvay with different degrees of rapidity, 
and thus leaves a rough surface, which materially aids in grinding down 
the hard grain which forms a large portion of the animal's food. In the 
tipper jaAV, the table presented by each molar tooth is much larger than 
those of the corresponding lower teeth, and therefore it is easy to dis- 
tinguish the one from the other. 

The temporary or milk incisors differ in shape a good deal from 
the permanent set. The milk teeth are altogether much smaller, but 
especially in the neck, which is constricted in them, whilst in the perma- 
nent set, which go on grooving as they Avear out, the diameter is nearly the 
same throughout. The former are also whiter in colour, and have grooves 
or indentations on their outer surfaces, running towards the gum. Lastly, 
the mark on the table is much slighter than in the permanent teeth. The 
temporary molars are not distinguishable from the permanent teeth of 
that class. 



THE TEETH. 



317 



As A CONSEQUENCE OP THIS ARRANGEMENT OF PARTS, the teeth, as they 

wear do^vn, present a different appearance according to the extent to 
which their attrition has reached. On this fact is founded a means of 





Fig. 4. — Section of Incisor. 

e. Cement on external surface. 

c. Cement reflected within the cavity, 
e. Enamel also reflected. „ „ ; 

d. Dentine. Section of a Portion of Incisor (magnified^ 
s. Tartar, coloured black by decomposition of c. Cement. d. Dentine. 

food, contained within the cavity. e. Enameh 

arriving at a knowledge of the age of the horse after he has shed his 
milk teeth, which as a rule he does in pairs at certain fixed periods. In 
order, therefore, to be able to estimate the age of the horse from Ms 
teeth^ it is necessary to ascertain, as nearly as may be, the exact time at 
which he puts up each pair of his milk or sucking teeth, and afterwards 
the periods at which they are replaced by the permanent teeth. Finally, 
it becomes the province of the veterinarian to lay down rules for ascer- 
taining the age from the degree of attrition which the permanent teeth 
have undergone. For these several purposes, the horse's mouth must be 
studied from the earKest period of his life up to old age. 

In horseman's language the incisors are called ni2)pers, the canine 
teeth tushes, and the molars grinders. 

Br THE END OF THE FIRST YEAR the colt lias cut his twelve nippers 
and sixteen grinders, which usually pierce the gums at the following 
months. Before birth, the eight anterior grinders have generally shown 
themselves, followed about a week after foaling by the two central nippers. 
At the end of the first month another grinder makes its appearance all 
round, and in the middle of the second the next nipper shows itself. By 
the end of the second month the central nipjjers have attained their full 
size, and the second are about half-grown, requiring another month to 



318 



THE HORSE. 



overtake their fellows. Between the sixth and ninth months the corner 
nippers are cut, and towards the end of the first year reach their full size. 
This first set of nippers consists of teeth considerably smaller in size than 
the permanent teetb and somewhat different in shape. They are more 
rounded in front, and hollow towards the mouth, the outer edge being at 
first much higher than the inner. As they wear down, these two edges 
soon become level, but the corner nippers maintain this appearance for 
a long time. At six months the central nippers are almost level, with 
the black " mark " in their middle wide and faint ; and about the ninth 
month the next cipper on each side above and below is also worn dowTi 
nhnost to a level surface. 

During the second tear the following changes take place : — In the 
first month, and sometimes towards the end of the first year, a fourth 
grinder is cut all round, which commences the set of permanent teeth, 
the three first molars only being shed. At a year and a half, the mark 
in the central nippers is much Avorn out, and has become very faint ; the 
second is also worn flat, but is not so faint ; and the corner nippers are 




B. Anterior maxillary bone. 

1. 1. Central permanent nippers, nearly full 

grown. 

2. 2, Milk teeth worn down. 



Fig. 6.— Thbee-Teab-Old Mouth. 

3. 3. Comer milk teeth, still showing central 
mark. 

4. 4. Tushes concealed within the jaw. 



flat, but present the mark clearly enough. In colts which have been 
reared on corn and much hay, the wearing down proceeds more rapidly 
than in those fed upon grass alone. 

The third year is occupied by the commencement of the second 
dentition, which is effected in the same order in which the milk teeth 



THE TEETH. 



319 



made their appearance. Both sets are contained within the jaw at birth, 
the permanent teeth heing small and only partially developed, and lying 
deeper than the milk teeth. As the mouth grows, it becomes too large 
for its first set of teeth ; and the roots of these being pressed upon by the 
growth of the permanent set, their fangs are absorbed, and allow the new 
teeth to show themselves, either in the places of the former, or by their 
sides, ia which case they are known by the name of wolfs teeth. This 
change proceeds Lq the same order as the cutting of the milk teeth, com- 
mencing with the fii-st grinder, which is shed and replaced by a per- 
manent tooth early in the third year, a fifth grinder (permanent) making 
its appearance about the same time. Towards the end of this year the 
sixth grinder shows itself, but grows very slowly, and the central nippers 
above and below fall out, and are replaced by permanent ones, which, 
as before remarked, are considerably larger in si^e and somewhat different 
in form. 




Fig. 7. — Mouth of the Colt at Folk and a Half Years. 



A. Anterior maxiUarj' bone. 

1. 1. Central nippers, considerably woni cIo\vn. 

2. 2. The next pair, fully developed, witli their 

edges slightly worn. 

3. 3. Comer permanent nippers, in a state of 



growth, with the edges of the cavity 
sliai-p, and the mark very plain. 
The tushes sljowing themselves through 
the gum, but not full-grown. 



At three teaks the mouth presents the appearance shown on the 
opposite page, the development of the permanent teeth varjong a good deal 
in different individuals. At three years and four or six months, the next 
nipper all round falls out, and is replaced by the permanent tooth. The 
corner nippers are much worn, and the mark in them is nearly obhterated. 
About this time also the second gi-inder is shed. 

At four tears of age, the mouth should differ fi-om that represented 



320 



THE HORSE. 



in fig. 6 in the following particulars : — The central nippers hegin to lose 
their sharp edges, and have grown considerably in substance. The next 
nipper all round has grown nearly to its full size, but not quite, and its 
edges are still sharp, with the mark deep and very plain. The corner 
milk nippers still remain, unless they have been knocked out for purposes 
of fraud, which is sometimes done to hasten the growth of the permanent 
teeth, and give the horse the appearance of being four or five months older 
than he is. 

Between four and a half and five tears, the corner nippers are 
shed, and the tush protrudes through the gum. These changes are shown 
at fig. 7. 

At five tears, the mouth is complete in the number of its teeth ; and 
S-om this date it becomes necessary to study their aspect in both jaws. 
Fig. 8 shows the upper teeth at this age, by comparing which with tig. 7 




Fig. S. — Upper Nippers and Tushes at Five Tears Old. 



1. 1. Central nippers, with the mark stUl un- 

obliterated. 

2. 2. Next nippers, with the mark still 

plainer. 



3. 3. Corner nippers, with the edges very 

slightly worn. 

4. 4. Tushes, well developed, and still showing 

the groove on the outside plainly. 



the slight growth in the half-year may be traced. In the lower teeth of 
the same mouth, the edges of the central cavities are much more worn 
away, the central nipper having only a small black speck in the middle of 
a smooth surface, while the next is much worn, and the corner teeth, 



THE TEETH. 



321 



though, showing the mark very plainly, bear evidence of having heeu used. 
The tush is much grown, with its outer surface regularly convex, and its 
inner concave, the edges being sharp and well defined. The sixth molar 
is at its fuR growth, and the third is shed to make room for the permanent 
tooth in its place. These two last-named teeth should always be examined 
in cases where there is any doubt about the age. After five years, no fui-ther 
shedding occurs in any of the teeth. 




FlO. 9. — LOWEK NiPPEKS AND TUSHES AT FiVE YEABS OLD. 



1. 1. Central nippers, with their marks almost 

entirely worn out. 

2. 2. Next nippers, showing marks partially 

worn. 



3. 3. Comer nippers, with the mark plainly 

seen, but the edges partially worn. 

4. 4. Tushes, with the groves inside almost 

obliterated. 



The six-tear-old mouth is the last upon which any great reliance can be 
placed, if it is desired to ascertaia the age of the horse to a nicetyj but by 
attentively studying both jaws, a near approximation to the truth may be 
arrived at. It is ascertained that the nippers of the upper jaw take about 
two years longer to wear out than those of the lower ; so that until the 
horse is eight years old, his age may be ascertained by referring to them, 
nearly as well as by the lower nippers at six. But as different horses 
wear out their teeth with varying rapidity, it is found that this test cannot 
be implicitly relied on ; and in crib-biters or wind-suckers the upper teeth 
wear out wonderfully soon. Fig. 10 is taken from the lower jaw of a six- 
year-old horse, showing the marks of the central nippers almost obliterated, 
but still presenting concentric circles, of discoloured brown tartar in the 
middle ; next to which is the cement, then the enamel, and the dentine, 
with a thin layer of enamel outside. Up to this age, the nippers stand 
nearly perpendicular to each other, the two sets presenting a slight con- 
vexity when viewed together, as seen in fig. 2, page 372. Afterwards 



322 



THE HORSE. 



the nippers gradually extend themselves in a straight line fi-oni each jaw, 
and, in the very old horse, form an acute angle between them. 

At about the eighth year, the upper nippers present the same 
appearance as already described in the lower nippers at six years old. 
Both tushes are considerably worn away at their points, and the upper 
ones more so than the lower. 

At nine years of age the upper middle nippers are worn down com- 
pletely. The next pair have a slight mark left, but their surfaces are 
quite level, and the corner nippers have only a black stain, without any 
central depression. 




Pio. 10. — The Lower Nippeks and Tushes of a Six- Year-Old Horse. 



B. The lower jaw. 

1. 1. The central nippers, with, the marks 

worn out. 

2. 2. The next nippers, with the marks dis- 

appearing. 

3. 3. The corner nippers, showing the mark 



plainly enough, but with the edges of 
the cavity considerably worn. 
The tushes, standing up three-quarters of 
an inch, with their points only slightly 
bluutedl 



After nine years the age of the horse can only be guessed at from his 
teeth, which gradually grow in length, and are more in a line with the 
jaw. The section of each nipper presented to the eye becomes more and 
more triangular instead of being oval, as seen in figs. 10 and 11 ; but after 
about the tweKth year the triangular section disappears, and the tooth 
becomes nearly round. In accordance with the increase of length is the 
colour of the tooth altered, being of a dirty yellow in very old horses, with 
occasional streaks of brown and black. The tushes wear down to a very 
small size, and very often one or both drop out. 

Allusion has already been made to the practice of removing the 
milk nippers for the purpose of inducing a more rapid growth of the next 
set, which, however, is not materially affected by the operation ; but dis- 



THE TEETH. 



323 



honest dealers have recourse to another deception, called hishoping, by 
which an aged horse may he passed off upon an inexperienced person for 
a six-year-old. The plan adopted is to cut off all the nippers mth a saw 
to the proper length, and then with a cutting instrument the operator 
scoops out an oval cavity in the corner nippers, which is afterwards burnt 
with a hot iron until it is quite black. It is extremely easy to detect the 
imposition by carefully comparing the corner nippers with the next, when 
it will be seen that there is no gradation from the centre to the corner 
nippers, but that the four middle ones are exactly alike, while the corners 
present a large black cavity, without a distinct ivhite edge to it, the dentine 
being generally encroached upon withovit any regularity in the concentric 




Fig. 11.— Upper Nippers in the Eight- Year-Old Hobbe. 



A. Anterior maxillary bone. 

1. 1. Central nippers, worn to a plane sur- 

face. 

2. 2. Next pair, still showing a slight remnant 

of the cavity. 



3. 3. Comer nippers, showing the mark plainly 

eoough. 

4. 4. Tushes, more worn down than in the 

lower jaw of the six-year-old mouth. 



ruigs. Moreover, on comparing the lower with the upper nippers, unless 
the operator has performed on the latter also, they will be found to be 
considerably more worn than the lower, the reverse of which ought 
naturally to be the case. Occasionally a clever operator will burn all the 
teeth to a properly regulated depth, and then a practised eye alone mil 
detect the imposition. In the present day there is not so great a demand 
for six-year-old horses as was formerly the case, and purchasers are con- 
tented with a nine or ten-year-old mouth if the legs and constitution are 
fresh. Hence hishoping is seldom attempted excepting with horses 
beyond the age of eleven or twelve ; and the mere use of the burning-iron 

T 2 



324 



THE HORSE. 



■without cutting off tlie teeth wUl seldom answer the purposes of the 
" coper." Formerly it was very common to see mouths with the corner 
nippers burnt to show a "good mark," and nothing else done to 
them ; but, for the reasons given above, the plan is now almost entirely 
abandoned. 

Irregularities in the growth of teeth are by no means uncommon in 
the horse, often caused by the practice of punching out the milk teeth to 
hasten the growth of the permanent set. Instead of having this effect, 




Fjg. 12. — LowGB Nippers akd Left Tosh of a veby Old Horse, the Rioht ha vino fallen out. 

however, the teeth are induced to take a wrong direction, and not meeting 
their fellows they do not wear down as they naturally should. In 
punching out the corner nipper it is very often broken off, and the fang is 
allowed to remaiu in the socket. The consequence is that the picking up 
of the food does not hasten the removal of the fang of the milk tooth, and 
instead of acceleratiag the growth of the permanent tooth in the natural 
position, it retards it and sometimes drives it to seek a passage through 
the gums behind its proper socket. Here, not meeting the corresponding 
nipper of the upper jaw, it grows like a tush, and has sometimes been 
mistaken for a second tooth of that kind. Some horses are naturally 
formed with " pig jaws " — that is to say, with the upper longer than the 
lower — and ia these cases the whole set of teeth grow to a great length, 
and interfere with the prehension of the food. 

OS HYOEDES. 

The OS hygides in the horse consists of five distinct pieces, contributing 
to the support of the tongue and larynx. One of these (the body) is 



THE VERTEBRA IN GENERAL. 325 

central, the other fonr are in pairs called the greater and lesser horns. 
They are connected by ligaments. 

The body resembles a two-pronged fork in form, having a central 
portion flat, an a2'>pendix, or spur, which lies in the centre of the muscles 
of the tongue, and two branches. At the sides of the central portion are 
two little knobs for the articulation of the lesser cornua. 

The horns are four in number, two short and two long ; the former 
ascend obliquely from the sides of the bodies, and end in oblong flattened 
smooth surfaces for the attachment of the long horns. These are much 
larger than the short horns, constituting two long, flat, thin bones, which 
give attachment to the stylo-hyoideus and hyoideus magnus muscles, and 
also to the constrictors of the pharynx. The bones composing the os 
hyoides are deHneated in connexion with the larynx in the twenty-first 
chapter. 

CHAEACTEES OF VEETEBE^ IN" GENEEAL. 

Evert vertebra from the head to the sacrum is made up of certaiii 
parts, to the uses of which in the animal economy attention has been 
already drawn at page 310. These are — 1st, a body, which may at once 
be recognised as the central and most substantial part ; 2dly, projecting 
upwards from its upper edges are the two lamince, or sides of the ring, in 
which Hes the spinal cord ; 3dly, at the upper part of the ring is a pro- 
jection, more or less marked, called the spinous process ; 4th, projecting 
outwards from each side of the body is the lateral process, intended to 
give insertion to muscles, and in the region of the back afi'ording a firm 
attachment to the ribs. In addition to the connexion between the bodies 
of the contiguous vertebrae by means of a thick fibro-cartilage, there is 
also a distinct articular surface on each side of the anterior and posterior 
faces of the body, which is placed upon a projection called the articidar 
or oblique process. Thus, each vertebra has four oblique processes, two 
transverse processes, a spinous process, and two laminas or sides to its 
large foramen, in addition to its body. This last part presents-an anterior 
and a posterior surface, more or less oval, by which it is united to the 
next adjacent vertebrae ; a superior face, which forms the floor of the 
spinal canal, and an inferior face, which is clothed with muscle on each 
side of a projecting rough line, called, wherever it is marked, the inferior 
spine. 

Throughout the spine no two vertebrae axe exactly alike, even the sixth 
and seventh dorsal showing a slight change of form in the inclination of 
their spinous processes. But between the first and second cervical and 
the last lumbar the difference is so marked, that they are not at once 
perceived by the casual observer to belong to the same class of bones. 
In this change the transition is gradual, the sixth and seventh cervical 
resembling the first and second dorsal, and so on in succession from before 
backwards. 

GEKEEAL CHAEACTEES OF THE CEEVICAL VEETEBE^. 

In the horse the cervical vertebra are each very long as compared 
•with those of most of the mammalia, being, however, exceeded in this re- 
spect by the camelopard. They present an irregularly cuboidal shape, and 
may be distinguished from those of the back and loins by the following 
characters : — 1st. The inferior spine of the body is strongly marked, and 
terminates posteriorly in a tubercle (Fig. 12, 17). 2d. The head of the 



326 



THE HORSE. 



body which looks forAvard is very globular, and the corresponding cavity 
in the posterior surface is of a cup-like shape (Fig. 12, le), but larger 
than the head, in order that it may receive the inter-articular cartilage 
■winch intervenes. 3d. The spinous processes (Fig. 12, 3, 4, 5, o) are very 




I 



slightly marked. 4th. The transverse processes (Fig. 12, h, h, h) are un- 
usually lengthened from before backwards and downwards, and are each 
pierced with a hole for the passage of the vertebral artery. 5th. The four 
articular or oblique processes (Fig. 12, is, is, is) project greatly, and have 
an inclination from above downwards, backwards and inwards. Each 
fossa for this purpose is large and deep. 

PECULIAEITIES OF CERTAIN" CERYICAL VERTEBRA 
The first cervical vertebra (counting from the head) has received 
the name of atlas in human anatomy, from its surmounting all the others ; 
and though in quadrupeds there is no longer the same reason for tho 



THE CERVICAL VERTEBRJ5. 



327 



appellation, it has teen extended to them. It deviates more completely 
than any of the others from the type of all, the most remarkable differ- 
ences consisting in the almost total absence of body, and in the division 
of the large foramen into tTvo portions by a projecting ridge on the inner 
side of each lamina. This ridge is not well shown in the fore view of 
this bone (Fig. 13), where it is concealed by the articular surfaces, but 
it is easily seen in Fig. 14. Below it the foramen is occupied by the 
tooth-like (odontoid) process of the second cervical vertebra, which is 
confinprl in its place by a ligament stretched across from one ridge to the 
other. Upon this, as on a pivot, the atlas turns, carrying with it the 
head, and allowing of those lateral movements which could not otherwise 
be accomplished. On each side of the spinal foramen are the articular 
surfaces (Fig. 13, 5), which are covered with cartilage, and form a firm 
hinge-hke joint between the atlas and the occiput. Still more externally 
are the wings or extended lateral processes (Fig. 13, 2), having a hollow 




Fig. 13.— Fore View op the Atlas. 

1. Upper spine. 5. 5. Surfaces for articulation with the condyles 

2. 2. Wings or alse. of the occiput. 

3. Hole for the passage of the spinal cord. 6. 6. Holes for the passage of the vertebral 

4. Lower spine. arteries. 

deeply cut in them, and ending in a small hole tlirough wliich the ver- 
tebral artery passes on each side to enter the cranium, making a sharp 
convolution in the cavity thus formed for it. The posterior surface shows 
the corresponding margin of the spinal foramen (Fig. 14), of which the 
one part (6) is occupied by the odontoid process, and the other (3) by the 
Bpinal cord. On each side of this are the articular surfaces, by which it 




1. Upper spine. 

2. 2. Wings. 

3. Spinal foramen. 
4 Lower spine. 



Fio. 14. — Back View of the Atlas. 

5. 5. Surfaces articulating with dentata. 

6. Surface articulating with the odontoid proccsB 

of +^e dentata. 



328 



THE HORSE. 



is attached to the corresponding surfaces of the second vertebra, and still 
more externally are the alee or wings. The superior and inferior spinous 
processes are shown at 1 and 4 in each engraving. 

The second cervical vertebra, called axis from its being the centre 
on which the atlas turns, and dentata, from its presenting a tooth-liko 
process for this purpose, approximates somewhat more nearly to the usual 
type, but is remarkable for the pirocess already alluded to, which is shown 
at (4, Fig. 15). Inferiorly this part is smoothly rounded, to enable it to 
play against the first vertebra, while superiorly it is flatter, and is in 
apposition with the transverse ligament. The four articular processes aro 




Fio. 15. — Anterior View of the Second Vebtebra, called Dentata or Axis. 



1. Superior spine. 

2. 2. Transverse processes. 

3. 3. Surfaces articulating with corresponding 

ones on the posterior part of the atlas. 
♦. Odontoid process. 



5. Inferior spine. 

6. Spinal foramen. 

7. 7. Foramina for the passage of the vertebial 

arteries. 



shown at (3, 3, Fig. 15) and (5, 5, Fig. 16). The lateral processes are well 
shown at (2, 2) in both engravings, and the posterior oblique processes at 
(5,5, Fig. 16). In this latter engraving at (4), the large hollow cavitj 
(glenoid) is shown, by which the body of this vertebra unites with the 
head of the third. 




Fio. 16. — Postehior View of Second Cervical Vertebra. 



1. Spinal foramen. 

2. 2. Transverse processes. 

3. 3. Posterior view of the anterior articular 

snrftices. 



4. Glenoid cavity articulating with the head of 

third cervical vertebra. 
6. 5. Posterior oblique processes. 
6 Inferior spine. 



DORSAL VERTEBRiE. 



!-29 



The third, fourth, and fifth cervical vertebra closely resemble 
the type of all ; but the third has commonly a more elevated spine, and 
is thinner across the upper part of the body. 

The sixth has no inferior spine ; its transverse processes are trifid. 

The seventh vertebra is the shortest, and approaches in its charac- 
ters to those of the dorsal region. Its body posteriorly presents two 
semilunar hollows for the articidation of the head of the first rib on 
each side. The superior spine is elevated and sharp, and the transverse 
process is short and obtuse, being sometimes without the foramen for the 
vertebral artery. 

GENEEAL CHARACTERS OE THE DORSAL VERTEBRA. 

The eighteen dorsal VERTEBRiE differ greatly in general appearance 
from the cervical, though they still resemble the type of all. Thus, instead 
of being cuboidal in shape, and without prominent processes, they have 
each a long spinous process projecting upwards about two or three times 




Fio. 17.— Dorsal Vektebr^. 



A. Profile view of a dorsal vertebra seen from 

the left. 
1. Spinous process. 
2 Body. 

3. Convexity on body. 

4. 4. Surfaces for the articulation of tlie 

rib tubercle. 
6. Posterior oblique process. 

6. SurCice for articulation of the head of 

the rib. 

7. Concavity on body. 

B. Fore view of a dorsal vertebra. 

1. Spinous process. 



2. Convexity on body. 

3. 3. Transverse processes. 

4. 4. Anterior oblique procnsses. 

5. 5. Surfaces for the articulation of the 

head of the rib. 

6. Spinal hole. 

Back view of a dorsal vertebra. 

1. Spinous process. 

2. Concavity on body. 

3. 3. Transverse processes. 

5. 5. Back oblique processes. 

6. 6. Surfaces for the articulation of the 

head of the rib. 



the depth of the body, as shown at (1. 1. 1). The spinal hole is com- 
paratively small, and the transverse processes short. On each side of the 
upper and lower margin of the body is a smooth hollow, which, together 
with its corresponding surface in the vertebra, above (or below, as the case 
may be), lodges the head of a rib. There is also a second articulating sur- 
face on the transverse process, by which the tubercle of the rib is con- 
nected with the vertebrse. 



330 



THE HORSE. 



PECULIAEITIES OF THE DOESAL VERTEBE^. 

The first dorsal vertebra differs from the others in approaching to 
the form of the cervical, as manifested in the shortness of the spinous pro- 
cess, which terminates in a point, and by the large size of its obliq^ue 
processes. The second and third gradually assume the dorsal type. 

The seventeenth and eighteenth vertebrae are devoid of the articulatory sur- 
faces on their transverse processes ; the eighteenth also is without the 
articular surfaces on the posterior and external faces of its body, there 
being no ribs here to articulate with it. 

The spinous processes, as far back as the twelfth, take a direction upwards 
and backwards ; the thirteenth takes a direction upwards, and those poste- 
rior to it take a direction upwards and forwards. The third, fourth, and 
fifth spinous processes are the longest, and afterwards they gradually 
diminish in length. 

GENEEAL CHAEACTEES OF THE LUJMBAE YEETEBE^. 

These are five, and sometimes six, in number ; the body is short and 
thick ; broader from side to side than from before backwards ; flattened 
superiorly, convex inferiorly, but not presenting so prominent a spinous 
ridge as the dorsal. Its articular convexity before and concavity behind 
assume rather an oval shape. The superior spinous process is shorter 
than the average of the dorsal vertebras ; it has broad, flat sides, and protu- 
berates at the front of the summit, having a slight inclination forwards ; the 
transverse processes, large and flattened above and below, stand out hori- 
zontally at right angles to the body for a considerable distance, contrasting 
strongly with the corresponding parts of the dorsal and cervical regions. 




Fio. IS.— Profile View of the Lumbar Vertebra, seen from the Left. 



A. Profile view of lumbar vertebrse. 

1. 1. 1. &c. Spinous processes. 

2. 2. 2. &c. Transverse processes; the ana- 

logues of the ribs. 

3. 3. 3. &c. Oblique processes. 
a. a. a. &c. Bodies. 

6. 6. Articulating surfaces on transverse pro- 



cesses, by means of which tlie fifth arti- 
culates with a similar surface on tlie 
sixth, and the sixth with a correspond- 
ing surface on the sacrum. 

c. Surfaces articulating with corresponding ones 

on the last dorsal vertebra. 

d. Surfaces articulating with the sacrum. 



The oblique processes are larger than in the dorsal region ; they project 
from the roof of the arch in an horizontal direction (.3, 3, 3, Fig. 18); 
the anterior surfaces in each of these joints are concave, widely separated, 



LUMBAR VERTEBRA. 



331 



and look inwards j tlie posterior are convex, nearer together, and look 
ciitwards. 

PECULIAEITIES OF THE LUMBAR YERTEBE^ 

The fourth lumbar vertebra possesses two surfaces of articulation 
on the posterior border of its transverse process. 

The fifth (or the sixth, if there is one) assumes somewhat the charac- 
ters of the first sacral bone. The transverse processes, which are longest in 
the middle of this region, gradually shorten towards the sacrum. On the 
fifth there is posteriorly an articular surface of an oval form, and on the 
sixth there is a similar one on each surface, the posterior being slightly 
concave, and fitting to a corresponding facette on the sacrum. 

THE SACRUM. 

This bone, in form irregularly prismatic, is made up from the conjunc- 
tion by ossification of five vertebree, in which latter condition it is found 
in the embryo. It is united in front with the last lumbar vertebra by 
thi-ee articulatory surfaces (4, 6, 6, Eig. 19) posteriorly with the first bone 




Fio. 19.— The Sacrum. 



G. 6. Surfaces articulating with transverse pro- 
cesses of last lumbar vertebrse. 

7. 7. 7. &c. Foramina for the passage of the 

inferior sacral nerves. 

8. S. Surfaces articulating with the ilium. 



1. Fore view of the sacrum. 

2. 2. 2. &c. Spinous processes. 

3. Lateral free surface. 

4. Head articulating with the concavity on the 

head of the last lumbar vertebra. 

5. 5. Oblique processes. 

of the coccyx, and on each side with the ilium or hip bone, by a large 
rougli surface (s, s, Eig. 19). The whole bone is slightly curved, with its 
concavity downwards. This inferior surface is broad and smooth, forming 
the superior boundary of the pelvic basin. On it are plainly traced four 
transverse lines, marking the situation of the original divisions into separate 
bones. Here are also four large holes on each side for the passage of the 
inferior sacral nerves. The superior surface is furnished with five spines 
(2,2,2,2, Fig. 19), corresponding to the spinous processes of the hunbar 
vertebrae. They unite at their bases, but are distinct above, terminating 



332 



THE HORSE. 



in a protuberance whicli is sometimes bifid. Tlie two sides are tliick and 
concave in the middle, and terminate . posteriorly in a rough lip. Ante- 
riorly they form an irregular surface, having an inclination from above 
downwards, backwards and inwards. The inferior portion of this face is 
liued with cartilage, which is attached both to it and to the ilium, while 
the superior has a set of strong Hgamentous fibres similarly attached. 
The base looking forwards has been already described as consisting of 
three articular surfaces, above which is the spinal foramen. The apex is 
only marked by the surface of articulation with the first bone of the 
coccyx, above which is the spiual foramen, here obliquely cut and small, 
and presenting also the rudiments of oblicLue and transverse processes. 

■ THE COCCYGEAL VERTEBEiE. 

These bokes form the skeleton or bony basis of the tail, receiving their 
name from kokkvI, a cuckoo, whose bill was supposed to resemble this part 
in the human body. They vary in number from sixteen to eighteen. In 
the first four or five all the characters of a vertebra are present, as shown 
below at A B ; but these are gradually lost, and the bones at last assume 
the form of simple spines, D e p, the intermediate grade being seen at c. 
Here there are two little processes (2), evidently abortive neural arches or 
lateral laminae, but not meeting together to form the spine. This whole 
set of bones is simply intended as a strong and flexible whip, to be moved 
by the four sets of muscles lying along, and attached to the sides of each. 



c=^ 




B. D. C. B. 

Fia. 20. — Profile View of Coccygeal Vertebrae. 



1. 1. 1. &c. Bodies. 

2. 2. 2. Spines ; the lips forming the first are 

joined, forming the neural arch, the 
second partially so, and the third are 
open. 
A, first ; B, third ; C, eighth ; D, sixteenth ; B, seventeenth ; F, eighteenth, or last coccygeal 
vertel)ra. 



3. 3. 3. Transverse processes. 

4. 4. 4. &c. Fore surfaces by means of whi'-h 

the bodies articulate. 

5. 5. 5. Back surfaces of articulation. 



THE EIBS AND THEIR CARTILAGES. 

The ribs (Costce) have been described at page 311 as forming the lateral 
boundaries of the thorax. They are eighteen in number, of which the 
nine anterior (true or sternal) extend by means of their cartilages to the 
sternum, while the cartilages of the remainder do not extend so far, and 
they are therefore styled false or asternal. See Skeleton at page 308. 

The ribs are aU long flattened bones, irregularly twisted on themselves, 
and so arranged that, when forming the walls of the thorax, they readily 
increase the volume of its contents by being drawn nearer together and 
towards the apex. In doing this they revolve upon their extremities as 
upon two centres, the superior admitting of motion from their formation 
as joints, and the inferior from their elastic cartilaginous structure. 



THE RIBS. 



333 



Eacli rib is divisible into a body and two extremities. The body has 
two flat surfaces and two borders ; the latter of which are concave and 
thin, anteriorly convex, and rounded posteriorly. The head or superior 
extremity varies in the true and false ribs, as wdll be better seen by 
reference to the engraving (Fig. 21), where one of each kiad is deUneated, 
The cartilages are all attached to the ribs by firm union of their fibres to 




Fio. 21.— A True and Fai^e Rib. 



A. Pionie View of a left tiue or sternal rib. 

2. Tubercle for attachment to transverse 

process of vertebra. 

3. Head, true. 

4. Body. 

5. Junction of rib and its corresponding 

sternal cartilage. 

6. Sternal cartilage. 

B. Profile view of left false or asternal rib (eigh- 

teenth). 

2. Tubercle fused in one with the head. 

3. Head. 

4. Body. 

5. Junction of false rib and asternal carti- 

lage. 



6. Asternal cartilage. 

C. View of the upper extremity of sternal rib 

inverted to show the mode by which 
the articulating surfaces on the upper 
part of the rib correspond to the nine 
anterior dorsal vertebrae. 

1. Body. 

2. Tubercle, separate. 

3. 4. Head (true), showing the two surfaces 

of articulation, and the notch in which 
the round ligament is attached. 

D. View of the last asternal rib, also inverted to 

show the fusion of tubercle and head 
together. 
2. 3. Tubercle fused with head. 



a deep pit in the extremity of each rib. They serve the double purpose 
of giviug elasticity to the thorax in the act of respiration and of enabling 
it to bear severe shocks without fracture. 

Among the several ribs, the first is the thickest and shortest, and is 
irregularly arched ; the second is very slightly curved : from this point 
they increase ia length and breadth to the ninth ; from the niath to the 



334 



THE HORSE. 



last they become more curved and short. In the seventeenth and eighteenth 
the articulatory surface of the tubercle becomes confouuded with that of 
the head, and the neck is wanting. (See 2, 3, B. Fig. 21.) 

THE STEEI^UM, OR BEEAST-BOKE. 

The sternum, which forms the inferior boundary of the thorax (see 
page 308), forms in the adult one long keel-hke bone, of a spongy or 
cellular nature, more or less divided by cartilage ; but in the embryo it. 




Fio. 22.— Profile View of Sternum (Breast-bone). 

1. 1. T. &c. Pits forattachment of costal cartilages. 3. 3. Posterior extremity with its ensiioriu car- 
2. 2. Anterior extremity eading in cariniform tilage. 

cartilage. 

like the sacrum, is made up of distinct pieces, six or seven in number. 
Anteriorly the breast-bone is prolonged in a manner resembling the keel 
and figurehead of a ship, being clothed with cartilage, which is hence 
called cariniform (carina, a heel) (2, 2, Eig. 22). Posteriorly it terminates 
also in a cartilage of a thinner and more flexible form, and called, from its 
resemblance to a sword, easiform (ensis, Lat. sword) or xiphoid (^t'l/zoc, 
Gk. sword). 

The sides are occupied above by the cavities for the insertion of the 
costal cartilages, and below by a rough surface, to which the fibres of the 
pectoral muscles are attached. The superior face forms a very lengthened 
isosceles triangle, having its apex forward. It is slightly hollowed from 
before backwards. 

The thkeb anteeiok divisions of the sternum present broad lateral 
surfaces ; the three posterior have projecting sides inclining downwards, 
and forming the boundaries between the inferior surface and the sides. 
The ribs are received into cavities in the cartilage existing between the 
separate bones, the last posteriorly having, however, an additional pit in 
its middle for the cartilage of the eighth rib. 



SCAPULA. BLADE-BONE, OR SHOULDER-BLADE. 

Intervening between the thorax and the fore extremity, and present- 
ing large surfaces for the attachment of muscles to connect these two 
parts of the skeleton, is the scapula or shoulder-blade. It is a triangular 
flat bone, and lies obliquely on each side of the anterior part of the 
thorax, with its apex looking downwards and forwards, and its base 
upwards and backwards (see page 308). 

It presents three fossai, three borders, and tliree angles ; in addition 
to which there are the spine, the coracoid process, and the glenoid cavity. 



THE SCAPULA. 



335 



The FOSSiE are two externally, (a) the anterior, and (h) the posterior 
fossa, divided by the spine (1). These lodge and give attachment to the 
fibres of the supra and infra-spinatus muscles, while the internal fossa, 
sometimes called the venter scapulae (belly of the scapula), in the same 
way subserves the use of the subscapularis. 

The superior border k rough for the attachment of the broad strip of 
cartilage, which increases the length of the blade. The anterior border 
is thin, while the posterior is comparatively thick. 

The two superior angles present nothing very remarkable, but tU(; 
inferior is occupied by the coracoid process anteriorly, and by the glenoid 
cavity posteriorly — which latter is a smooth oval cavity, lined wdth 
cartilage. Tt receives the head of the humerus. 




Fia, 23. — Outer Sueface of Left Scapula. 

1. Spine. h. Posterior fossa. 

2. Coracoid process. c Superior costa, to which the cartilage is 

3. Glenoid cavity, attached, 
a. Anterior fossa. 

On account of the important offices belonging to the muscles which 
occupy the fossae on this bone, and since it is found that in proportion to 
the extent of the latter wiU be the muscular power, horsemen examine 
with great care the due development of the scapula. Unless it is long 
and broad it may always be predicted that the hunter will be powerless 
in using his forelegs " in dirt," or in getting out of other difficulties ; and 
though some hacks with short shoulders may go well enough, yet, in the 
majority, such will not be the case. Heavy draught-horses, in which a 
great thickness of muscle is heaped upon the blade, are not so dependent 
upon its length and breadth, as has been already shown in treating of the 
external form of the horse at page 92. 

HUMEEUS, THE UPPEE AEM-BONE, 

Lies between the scapula and elbow, in an oblique direction from the 
point of the shoulder dowuAvards and backwards. 

Like all^hb long bones, the humerus may be described as consisting 
of a body or shaft and two extremities. 

The body, which has a prismatic section, looks as if it had been twisted 



336 THE HORSE. 

on itself. In the upper part it is expanded laterally to form, the externat 
tuberosity (5, Fig. 24) on the outside and the scabrous tubercle (4, Fig. 25) 
internally, both beiug for the attachment of muscles. Towards the lower 
extremity it becomes rounded, and then suddenly spreads out to present 
the wide surface which ends in the condyles on each side with the iater- 
vening articular surfaces. 

The supekior exteemity, larger than the inferior, presents for con- 
sideration a head and four tubercles. The head is the hemispherical 
smooth part, projecting posteriorly. It articulates with the glenoid 
cavity of the scapula, which it much exceeds in extent of superficies. 
Anteriorly, the head is surmounted by four tubercles, three, directly 
in front, are between two smooth grooves, which are covered with 
cartilage. The outer, or fourth tubercle, is joined with the tuberosities 
by a protuberant ridge, the external edge of which serves to guard 
against dislocation. 

The inferior extremity is made up of two condyles, or knuckle-like 
projections (s, 9, Fig. 24), having between them the smooth articular sur- 
face for the elbow joiut. This surface is broad, and assumes a segmental 
form, being divided into three portions by projecting liaes, — 1st, a middle 




Fia. 24. — ExTEKNAii View of Left HunExius 

L Body of humerus with musculo-spiral groove. 6. Sigmoid fossa. 

2 Head, '''• Olecranon fossa. 

3". External tubercle. 8- External condyle. 

4. Tubercles in front of head. 9. Internal condyle. 

5. External tuberosity. 

groove, which terminates in front in the coronoid fossa and behind in the 
olecranon fossa, each being for the reception of the corresponding pro- 
cesses of the ulna and radius, thereby checking the motion of the joint ; 
2d, the external groove, which is comparatively slightly marked ; and 3d, 
the smooth surface lining the internal condyle. All of these fit accu- 
rately into the articular surface of the ulna and radius, to be presently 
<iescribed, allowing of nothing but a hinge-like motion. Of the condyles, 
the inner is larger and more projecting than the outer. 



THE FORE-ARM. 337 

In the tounq foal, the two extremities are distiuct epiphyses, united 
to the shaft by cartilage only. 

1 




7 

Fia. 25. — Internal View or Left Humerus. 

A. Body or shaft. 5. Internal depression to which the internal 

1. The head- lateral ligament is attached, 

2. Tubercles on the head. 6. Back part of inner condyle. 

3. Internal tubercle. 7. Internal condyle. 

4. Scabrous tubercle. 

THE BOJSfES OF THE EOEE-AEM (OS BEACHII). 

In the human subject, and in the dog and cat among our domestic 
animals, the hones of the fore-arm are distinct, and may readHy be sepa- 
rated from each other as the ulna and radius. In the early periods also 
of the life of the horse the same condition obtains, but when he is ma- 
tured, these bones are indissolubly united by ossification. The line of 
junction can always be traced, and there is an opening left which is called 
the radio-cubital arcade, and gives passage to an artery and veia. It will 
be therefore understood that the term os brachii means the bone composed 
of the united ulna and radius, and that in alludiag to each of these 
divisions we only speak of them, in analogy with human anatomy, as 
separate bones. By drawing a line from the back of the condyle of the 
humerus till it cuts the posterior edge of the shaft of the os brachii about 
its middle, the line of demarcation may easily be arrived at. 

The Eadius forms the bulk of the os brachii, supporting the weight of 
the body upon its head, and conveying it to the carjpus through its lower 
extremity. Its shaji is long, smooth, and convex anteriorly ; rough for 
the attachment of muscles, and concave posteriorly. The superior ex- 
tremity is expanded, and presents an articular surface divided into two 
fossae by a slight ridge, the inner of the two being broader and more 
circular. On each side of these pits is a slight projection, called the 
lateral process, to which the corresponding ligaments are attached. The 
inferior extremity, which is also expanded, is remarkable for the variously 
shaped pits sUghtly marked on its articular surface, each being intended 
to fit one of the carpal bones of which the knee is made up. There is a 

z 



338 



THE HORSE. 



prominent internal lateral process, and one less distinct on the outsido 
marked ■with a groove. 

The ulna (or ulnar division of the 
OS brachii) is much shorter than the 
radius, and can scarcely be considered 
as having two extremities, its lower end 
being cut off in an oblique direction and 
terminating in a sharp point, so as to look 
like a splicing of the one bone to the other. 
It may be considered as consisting of a short 
body (2, Fig. 26), surmounting which is the 
olecranon process (3) behind, and the arti- 
cular surface (4) in front. Descending from 
the body is the thin wedge of bone which 
is united indissolubly with the shaft of the 
'■adius at the point marked (5), and may be 
traced down to the carpal joint. 

The articular surface comprises part of 
the elbow joint, and has below it some 
roughened inequalities for the attachment 
of ligaments. 

The olecranon process, or elbow, is of 
considerable size and strength, formiftg a 
strong lever for the action of the triceps 
muscle, Avhich is inserted in its point. Its 
yi anterior edge has a sharp point, which 

\ \ deepens the articular cavity, and checks the 

motion of the joint from being carried too 
far. 



FiQ. 26. — Bones of the Foke-Arm, Knee, Cannon, 
Pasterns, and Foot. 



1. Semicircular fossa formed by the radius and ulna for 

the elbow joint. 

2. Body of the ulna. 

3. Olecranon pi'ocess. 

4. Articulating surface. 
6. Body of the radius. 

6. Surface aiticulating with the condyle of the humerus. 

7. Tubercle to which the coraco - radialis muscle is 

attached. 

8. Articulatory surfaces corresponding to the upper row 

of knee-boues. 

9. Os pisiforme. ^ 

10. — cuneiforme. 1 

11. — lunare. VBones of the knee. 
H. — unciforme. I 

13. — magnum. J 

14. Metacarpus or cannon-bone. 

15. External small metacarpal bone. 

16. Tubercle to which the tendon of the muscle (extensor 

metacarpi magnus) is attached. 

17. Joint uniting with the os suffraginis. 

18. Os suffraginis. 

19. External sesamoid bone. 
80. Os coronse. 

21. Os pedis. 

22. 22. Wings of pedal bone. 
^ Os naviculare. 



THE CARPUS AND METACARPUa 



33d 




THE CAEPUS (KNEE) AND METACARPUS (CANNON). 

The knee of the horse corresponds with the wrist of man, and though 
the name so well known to horsemen will probably always be maintained, 
yet scientifically each of the bones receives the cor- 
responding names, and the whole group is called the 
carpus. 

The anterior surface of the carpus is convex ; 
the posterior, concave and irregular, and marked by 
bony prominences. 

It consists of eight bones, disposed in two rows, 
one above the other, as follows : — 

The first, or top row, beginning to enumerate 
from within outwards, consists of the scajihoid, 
lunar, cuneiform, and pisiform bones. 

The second, or lower row, consists of the ossa 
trapezoid, magnum, and unciforme, and sometimes 
of a small floating bone situated behind the trapezoid. 

The superior row may be described as follows ; — 

Os ScAPHOiDES {<TKdcf>r], a cradle), the largest of 
this row, articulates superiorly with the inferior 
and inner extremity of the radius, internally by 
means of two distinct facettes with tlie os lunare, 
and inferiorly with the os trapezoides and os 
magnum. 

Os Lunare (luna, the moon) articulates superiorly 
with the radius, internally as before mentioned with 
the OS scaphoides, and externally through the me- 
dium of two facettes with the os cuneiforme. 

Os Cuneiforme (cuneus, a wedge) articulates su- 
periorly with the inferior and outer extremity of 
the radius, inferiorly with the os unciforme, and 
posteriorly with the os pisiforme. 

Os Pisiforme (pisum, a pea) is situated at the 
postero-external side of the top row, and presents for 

description two surfaces and four borders. The ex- 

ternal surface is unevenly convex, and elevated for ^o. Large metacarpal bone, 
ligamentous attachment. The internal surface jg ^i- SmaU metacarpal bone, 
concave and porous, and also roughened for liga- 
mentous attachment. The anterior border presents 
two smooth ovoid surfaces : the superior one arti- 
culates with the radius ; the inferior with a corre- 
sponding surface, mentioned as occurring on the pos- 
terior surface of the os cuneiforme. The three other 
borders, namely, the superior, posterior, and inferior, 
are unevenly convex, and roughened for the attach- 
ment of hgaments. 

The bones of the inferior row, viz. the Os Trape- 
zoides (rpcxTre^a, a table), Os Magnum (the large bone), 
and Os Unciforme (uncus, a hook), articulate laterally 
one with the other, superiorly with the top row of 
bones, and inferiorly with the three metacarpal bones. 

The Metacarpal Bones, answering to the bones in the palm of the 
hand of man, are three. One (metacarpus magnus) is much larger than 

z2 



of 



Fig. 27.— Fobe View of 
THE Carpal Bones, com- 

MONLV CALLED THE K.NEE. 

2. Lower extremity 

radius. 

3. Ulna, lower extremity 

of. 

4. Os pisiforme. 

5. — cuneiforme. 

6. — lunare. 

7. — scaphoides. 

8. — unciforme. 

9. — magnum. 




Fig. 28.— Os Pisiforme. 

1. Body of OS pisiforme. 

2. Surface articulating 

with inferior ex- 
tremity of the ra- 
dius. 

3. Surface articulating 

with the cuneiform 
bone. 



340 



THE HORSE. 



the other two, which, from thus supporting, are sometimes called splint 
bones. 

The Metacarpus Magnus, or cannon-bone, has a body and two extremi- 
ties, the superior of which articulates with the carpus while the inferioi 
rests upon the next phalanx, or great posterior bone. (See Fig. 26.) 

The body is convex and smooth, anteriorly and late- 
rally ; thus forming two-thirds of a cylinder. Poste- 
riorly it is flattened ; its sides, extending from above, 
downwards, to about three inches above its inferior 
extremity, present two triangular scabrous surfaces j on 
the upper parts of which two smooth articulatory spots 
occur, to which the small metacarpal bones are attached. 
The superior extremity presents a smooth articu- 
latory surface which is, for the most part, flat ; it slopes 
ofi", however, on its outer side for articulation with the 
OS unciforme. There is also another small spot which 
slightly declines, situated at the outer side of the head of 
the inner small met-acarpal bone. This spot articulates 
with the postero-inferior surface of the os trapezoides. 
The flat surface articulates with the os magnum, to whicli 
it corresponds in figure. Its anterior and lateral edges 
are somewhat roughened. 

The inferior extremity presents two smooth condy- 
loid surfaces, separated by a smooth semicircular emi- 
nence, which articulate with a corresponding formation 
on the superior extremity of the os suffraginis. On the 
sides of each of the condyles a depression occurs. 

OssA Metacarpi Parva are in number, two ; ex- 
ternal and internal. In form they are pyramidal, pre- 
Fio. 29.— Back View senting bases turned upwards, apices downwards, and 
sLZ'-MfxIc"^- bodies or middles. 
PAL BONES. The base is surmounted by a smooth articulatory 

2. Metacarpus mag- Surface, surrounded inferiorly by roughened tuberosities, 

3. The^uifaces above except anteriorly, where two smooth articular surfaces 

articulate with occur, 'frhich articulate with corresponding surfaces men- 

the lower carpal . • ■, • ,• ,^ , 

bones. tioned as existmg on the metacarpus magnus. 

4. 4. External and in- The BODY is trifacial. The anterior surface is rough, 
and articulates with the metacarpus magnus. The inner 
surface is excavated. The outer surface is convex and 
smooth. The apex terminates in a bulbous extremity, 
which looks posteriorly, and does not articulate with 

tremity of the ^\^q nietacarpus magnus. 

OS sufifragims. a o 

Eminence articu- 



% 



temal small me- 
tacarpal bones. 
Condyloid sur- 
faces articulat- 
ing with corre- 
sponding ones 
pn the upper ex- 



lating with a 
corresponding 
depression on 
the upper ex- 
tremity of the 
OS sufEraginis. 



THE PHALAi^GEAL BONES (PASTERNS 
AND FOOT). 

Beyond the metacarpus in the horse, there is only 
a single bone in each joint, the five fingers being 
merged in one. The same number of phalanges, however, is maintained, 
counting from the metacarpus to the distal phalanx, which is the pedal 
bone. The whole may, therefore, be considered as analogous to one 
human finger, with the addition of the two sesamoid bones, and the 
navicular bone, all three of which are intended to assist in giving leverage 
to the tendons moving these parts. The highest of these is the os suffra- 



THE PHALANGEAL BONES 



341 




ginis or larger pastern, the next the os corona or lesser pastern, and tlie 
lowest the os pedis or coffin-bone. 

The Os Suffraginis and its Ossa Sesamoidea 
may be taken together, the latter lying on each side 
of the back of its superior extremity, but playing 
only on the large metacarpal They are separately 
shown at Fig. 30. The os suffraginis has a body 
and two extremities. 

The body shows an anterior surface, which is fiq. 3o._ossa Sesamoidea. 
convex and smooth ; and a posterior which is rough 

and flattened, and presents superiorly a triangular space, bounded laterally 
by two roughened ridges, which meet at a point inferiorly. 

The superior extremity presents two shallow concavities, which are 
separated one from the other by a deep transverse canal. Behind these 
concavities, two tuberosities exist for the attacliment of the crucial 
ligaments. 

The inferior extremity has two semi-cylindroid convexities, di"\aded 
transversely by a shallow depression, which is widened posteriorly. 

Os Corona (corona, a coronet) is in form a parallelogram with four 
surfaces. 

The anterior surface is convex and roughened, presenting two 
tuberosities below. 

The posterior surface is smooth, and has superiorly a semilunnr 
smooth surface. 

The superior surface presents two ovoid concavities, divided by an 
eminence running from behind forwards, and bounded, anteriorly and 



Fig. 31. — Posterior View or Pha- 
langes. 

A. Os suffraginis. 

1. 1. Surfaces articulating with the 

lower extremity of the large 
metacarpal bone. 

2. Groove. 

3. Rough surface for the implanta- 

tion of ligaments. 

4. 4. Inferior extremity articulat- 

ing with 

B. Os coronse. 

5. 5. Superior articulatory surfaces. 

6. 6. Inferior articulatory surfaces. 

C. Os pedis. 

7. 7. Articulatory surfaces. 

8. 8. Coronal process. 

9. 9. Scutiform processes. 

10. 10. Retrossal processes. 

11. Surface articulating with a cor- 

responding one on the navi- 
cular bone. (12.) 

D. Os naviculare. 

1 2. Surface articulating with the os 

corona. 

13. Surface over which the flexor 

pedis perforans tendon 
glides. 

14. 14. Points attached to the pedal 

bone by ligaments. 




342 THE HORSE. 

posteriorly, by two roughened projections. These form the lesser fetlock 
joint with the bone above. 

The inferior surface resembles the corresponding part of the os 
suflraginis. 

Os Pedis (the hone of the foot, formerly called the cof33ji-bone). In 
form it is semilunar, divided into wall, sole, articulatory surface, and 
retrossal processes, commonly called wings (see Fig. 31). 

The wall, the semicircular prominent part, possesses some degree of 
declivity, increasing in circumference from above, dowmvards. It is full 
of foramina, and rough. Superiorly, the bone bulges out, forming the 
coronal process (8, 8). The middle part of it terminates in a peak, which 
looks slightly backwards — the cacumen coronse {the peak of the coronet). 

The wall terminates posteriorly in wings ; the retrossal processes 
(10, 10) ; each wing is divided into two parts by a groove, which runs 
through it from before, backwards. 

The inferior surface or sole is divided into an anterior semilunar 
plantar surface, and into a posterior sharp scmichcular edge which divides 
it from the tendinous portion. The former is slightly concave, porous, 
and bounded by the inferior circumferent edge of the wall. 

The superior articulatory surface, semdunar in form, presents two 
lateral concavities, separated by an eminence. The eminence is bounded 
anteriorly by the cacumen coronse, which standa before it, the point 
looking backwards. Posteriorly, it is bevelled off for articulation with 
the OS naviculare. 

Os IJ^AVICULARE (navis, a shi})), sometimes called the shuttle-bone, in 
form is semilunar and elongated. It is divided into four surfaces and two 
extremities. 

The SUPERIOR surface presents, in its centre, an eminence, which 
declines laterally, leaving two slight concavities. 

The inferior surface presents two slightly convex divisions, with a 
prominent smooth ridge dividing them, running from behind forwards. 

The anterior surface presents superiorly a smooth triangular articu- 
latory surface, and inferiorly a porous, roughened face. 

The posterior surface is triangular, roughened, and porous. The 
extremities, the iaternal and external, turned upwards, terminate obtusely. 



THE PELVIS. 

The general features belonging to the pelvis have been alluded to 
in the last chapter, and the sacrum which forms its upper wall has been 
described in this. It remains now to ascertain the shape and anatomical 
bearings of the bones which complete the arch. These in the embryo are 
three on each side, uniting below in the median line by symphysis, and 
above to the rough surface on the side of the sacrum. These three are 
1st, Os ischi; 2d, Os ilii, and 3d, Os pubis. The whole bone, which is 
■firmly united in the adult, receives the somewhat Irish denomination of 
Os innominatum, or the unnamed bone. 

On referring to the skeleton at page 308 it will be apparent that 
the attachment of this bone to the sacrum is so arranged that it shall act 
as a spring in breaking the jars received by the hind extremity from the 
ground. Its oblique direction, its comparatively short surface of attach- 
ment to the sacrum, and its own great length show this most plaixdy, 
especially when compared with the human pelvis, in which a very different 



THE PELVIS. 



343 



formation prevails. In the hoxse it forms, with the sacrum, the first of a 
series of angles, the second heiag between it and the femur, the third at 
the stifle joint, and the fourth at the hock. 

In the embbyo the three bones are quite distinct, the cartilaginous lines 
of separation being visible for some time after birth, running through the 
cup-Kke cavity which forms the socket of the hip joint. Tlie portion 




Fia. 32.— PRoriLE View of the two Ossa Innominata. 



1. 1. Wings of the iliac bones. 

2. 8. Pubic bone. 

3. Ischiac bone. 

4. 4. Supero-posterior spinous process of the 

two ossa ilii. 



5. Antero-inferior spinous process of the left 

ilium. 

6. The narrow part or neck of the ilium. 

7. 7. Obturator holes (foramina). 
9. 9. Tuberosity of each ischium. 

10. Acetabulum. 



lying above and in front of this cavity, and taking in also two-thirds o f 
its own cup, is the os ilii. Posteriorly to the cavity, the bone is divided 
into two strong branches by a large opening, the obturator foramen, and 
that portion which lies above it is the os ischii, while the lower division 
is the OS pubis. It is needless to describe these bones separately. 

The bone as a whole may be considered as divided into two parts by 
the contracted neck which forms its middle. The anterior of them is 
hollowed out externally for the reception and attachment of the glutei 
muscles. Internally it is rough, and gives attachment to the strong car- 
tilage and ligaments which bind it to the sacrum. The processes extend- 
ing forwards are called the spinous processes of the ilium (see Kg. 99). 
Behind the neck the bone swells out slightly for the development of the 
cotyloid {KOTvXr], a cup) cavity, or acetabulum. This is nearly three inches 
in diameter, and is surrounded on all sides but that looking towards the 
obturator foramen by a prominent lip. The interval is called the notch, 
and corresponding with it is a rough depression in the cotyloid cavity, 
where the cartilage is absent, and to which the round ligament of the 
hip is attached. Behind the cotyloid cavity is the obturator hole, appa- 



344 THE HORSE. 

rently intended to lighten the bone, being filled up by a stroDg mem- 
brane, the obturator ligament. Above this opening is the ramus of the 
ischium, which bone also enters into the composition of the hip joint 
as already described. Posteriorly the ischium terminates in a rough 
protuberance, the tuberosity (9-9, Fig. 32), which is the rounded pro- 
jection felt and seen on each side the root of the tail in the liviug horse. 
Below the foramen is the os pubis, the anterior part of which is tha 
ramus, and the small section of the cotyloid cavity which it forms, while 
posteriorly the body unites with the os ischii, to form, with the corre- 
sponding bones of the opposite' side, the symphysis, or connecting joint 
between them. 

By the conjunctign of the two ossa innominata an oval ring is nearly 
completed, the deficiency being supplied by the sacrum above. The 
anterior margin of this ring is the brim of the pelvis, and it is upon the 
size of this as compared'with the foal that parturition is in general ren- 
dered easy or difficult. 

THE FEMUE (EOUKD-BONE) AND PATELLA 

The Os Femoris, the strongest and heaviest bone in the body, is 
situated between the os innominatum and the tibia. It takes an oblique 
direction from above downwards and forwards, and presents a central 
part or body, and two extremities. It was formerly called the round-bone, 
from being in the centre of the part called by butchers " the round." 

The body, although compressed, is nearly cylindrical towards its 
centre ; anteriorly, the bone is convex and smooth ; posteriorly, flattened 
and rough ; superiorly and inferiorly, it is expanded to meet the enlarged 
extremities. 

The superior extremity is prolonged into a thick, flattened neck, 
directed upwards and inwards, so as to form an obtuse angle with the 
shaft. At the point of union are two eminences (trochanters, rpoxo^v, to 
run or roll) ; one on the outer, and the other on the inner side ; and it is 
from between these that the neck arises. 

The trochanter major is prolonged from the postero-external margin of 
the body, and nearly in a line with its axis : it is a large irregular pro- 
jection, rising into a pyramidal eminence. Posteriorly, at its base, it 
presents an oval cavity, the digital fossa, for the attachment of several 
small muscles. Inwardly it presents a concavo-convex smooth surface ; 
outwardly, a convex and rough one. From the back of the great tro- 
chanter a prominent line runs vertically down, terminating in the tro- 
chanter minor externus (7, Fig. 33) ; and from this again a roughened 
ridge descends, taking a course downwards and shghtly forwards to the 
oval fossa situated above the external condyle (8). 

The neck is surmounted by a hemispherical smooth head, coated with 
cartilage, and lodged in the acetabulum ; on it is a deep ovoid fossa, 
which gives attachment to the ligamentum teres. 

The trochanter minor internus, a conical rounded eminence, arises from 
the posterior and internal side of the bone. It is placed above the tro- 
chanter minor externus, which is on the opposite side. 

The inferior extremity has on each side an eminence (the external 
and internal condyles), separated by a deej? fossa. Between these ante- 
riorly two articular surfaces occur (external and internal), separated by a 
semicircular groove, in which the patella plays. 

The external condyle is larger and projects more forwards than tho 



THE FEMUR. 



345 



internal; its articular surface is also broader: the internal presents a 
tuberosity on its inner surface. 




Pio. 33. — The Femur partially detached trom the Cotyloid Cavity. 



A. External view of posterior half of the os in- 

nomlnatum. 
a. Rough surface for the attachment of 

muscles. 
h. Cotyloid rim. 
c. Tuberosity of the ischium. 

1. Cotyloid cavity. 

2. Depression in which the round ligament 

(ligamentum teres) is fixed. 

3. Obturator hole. 



B. External view of the right femur. 

4. Head of the femur (round-bone). 

5. Trochanter major externu.s, 

6. Tubercle on the head of the femur. 

7. Trochanter minor extemus. 

8. Fossa for muscular insertion. 

9. 9. Trochlear surfaces for articulation wilh 
the patella (knee-cap). 

10. External condyle. 

11. Surfaces articulating with upper extremity 
of the tibia, or leg-bone. 

The articular surfaces of both condyles are covered with cartilage, and 
united anteriorly to the prominences before mentioned, where they form 
a pulley-like surface, concave from side to side, over 
which the patella glides. Inferiorly, from before 
backwards, these prominences converge together, and 
terminate abruptly on the postero-interior surface of 
the bone ; thus leaving a space between them and 
this interval, wliich has been denominated the inter- 
condyloid fossa. 

The patella, stiflb-bone, or knee-cap, lies on the 
lower extremity of the femur, at the anterior part of 
the stifle-jomt. It is quadrangular in form ; its anterior 
surface is convex and rough ; its posterior being 
covered with cartilage is smooth, and is divided by an eminence running 




Fio. 34. — Posterior 
View of the Patella. 

1. Superior angle. 

2. 3. Surfaces gliding on 

the trochleoe o( 
the femur. 



346 



THE HORSE. 



over it into two shallow cavities (the superficies of the internal being 
the larger), which correspond with the trochlear prominences, situated 
anteriorly to the condyles of the femur. Superiorly it presents a trian- 
gular roughened space, bounded by its two lateral angles, wliich gives 
attachment to muscles, and inferiorly we notice a fourth angle. These 
angles are all blunt and slightly rounded off. 



BONES OF THE LEG. 

The tibia (so called because the ancient shepherds used this bone 
as a flute) lies between the femur and tarsus (hock), forming an angle 
with each. It is broad, and of a spongy texture above ; contracted 
and dense below, where it is felt immediately beneath the skiu and 
tendons. 




Fio. 35.— Tibia, Fibula, and Tarsus. 



A. Tibia. 

1. 2. Artieiilatory surfaces. 

3. Tuberosity. 

4. Spine. 

5. External malleolus. 

6. Surfaces articulating with astragalus. 

B. Fibula. 

C. Os calcis. 

7. Point of hock. 



D. Astragalus. 

E. Os scaphoides. 

F. Os cuneiforme magnum. 

G. Os cuboides. 

H. Os cuneiforme parvum. 
I. Upper part of large metatarsal bone. 
K. Upper portion of the external small meta- 
tarsal bone. 



The body is of a triangular or prismatic shape above, its angles gra- 
dually rounding off below, and then expanding laterally to meet the 



THE nOCK. 



34< 



condyles of the lower extremity. The anterior angle is the shin, and at 
the upper part of this is a strong tubercle (3, Fig. 30). 

The supehiob extremity has two irregularly oval and slightly hol- 
lowed articulatory surfaces, which revolve upon the condyles of the lemur, 
the cavity being deepened in each by the intervention of the semilunar 
cartilage. Between them are to be seen a sharp elevation and two pits, 
to which the crucial ligaments are attached. In front is the tuberosity 
to which the ligament of the patella is fixed. On the sides of the head 
are the condyles, rough for the attachment of the corresponding liga- 
ments, and the external having an oval articular fossa for the head of 
the fibula. 

The inferior or tarsal extremity is much smaller than the superior, 
but wider than the body, and nearly quadrilateral ; its anterior border is 
flat and rough ; its jDosterior border is also ^at, and presents numerous 
foramina. The external border is prominent and rough, and has a groove 
in its centre. Depending from each 
side is a process (the internal and 
external malleolus of human ana- 
tomy), serving to strengthen the arti- 
culation with the astragalus, and the 
internal being considerably the longer. 
Between these are two deep grooves, 
smoothly covered with cartilage, and 
having a projection in the middle 
similarly clothed. The direction of 
these grooves is obliquely forwards 
and outwards. Both the malleoli 
are lined with cartilage, which enters 
into the joint. 

The Fibula is a slender bone, 
having a slight enlargement at its 
superior extremity to form the head. 
On its inner surface there is a layer 
of articular cartilage to form the joint 
with the tibia. Below it has a bulb- 
ous end, which is free, and affords 
attachment to the ligamentous fibres 
which connect it with the tibia. Be- 
tween the two bones there is a con- 
siderable sj)ace, occupied by a thin 
membrane. 

The Tarsus, or hock, is made up 




of several bones coimecting the tibia ^- External maUeoius. 

3 Os calcis 

above with the metatarsus below. It 



Fio. 36. — Internal View of Tarsal Bones. 

2. Inferior extremity of the tibia. 
Internal malleolus. 



corresponds vnth the ankle of man ; 
and if the term wrist were to be ap- 
plied to the knee of the horse, as sug- 
gested by certain writers, in order to 
be consistent the hock must be called 
the ankle, which would lead to end- 
less confusion. The better plan is to 
retain the names by which these parts are known in our ordinary language 
and to adopt the nomenclature of the anatomical school for any scientific 
description. Thus the carpus and tarsus of the anatomist are rendered 



and 5. Surfaces of articulation on the astra- 
galus, which, together with correspond- 
ing ones on the tibia, form the great 
hinge-joint of the skeleton. 
c. Tubercle on the astragalus for the attach- 
ment of ligaments. 

6. Os scaphoides. 

7. — cuneiforme magnum. 

8. — cuneiforme parvuni. 

9. Large metatarsal bone. 
10. Internal small metatarsal bone. 



348 THE HORSE. 

into the knee and hock of the horseman without impropriety, and at the 
same time without any chance of a misunderstanding. 

The tarsus consists of six bones, disposed in two rows, the astragalus 
and OS calcis forming the upper one, but the former bone alone entering 
into the tibio-tarsal, or hock joint, with the tibia. 

The Astragalus (aa-TpdyaXos, a die) is an irregular bone, situated in 
front of the os calcis, between the tibia and the os scaphoides : it is 
divided into five surfaces : first, the supero-anterior surface, pulley-like 
and articulatory, corresponds with the inferior extremity of the tibia, and 
consists of two semicircular prominences, separated by a deep groove, 
taking a course obliquely outwards and forwards ; secondly, the inferior 
presents a smooth convex surface with a roughened depression posteriorly, 
for ligamentous attachment, and articulates with the superior face of the 
os scaphoides ; thirdly, the posterior is irregular, and presents on its 
surface four smooth faces for articulation with the os calcis, which are 
separated by roughened excavations. The external side is marked by 
ligamentous impressions ; the internal, smoother than the external, 
presents behind and below a little tubercle, which gives attachment to 
ligaments. 

The Os Calcis (the keel-hone). — This bone, forming the point of the 
hock, presents two surfaces, two borders, and two extremities ; the ex- 
ternal surface is almost plain ; the internal is excavated as a groove ; the 
anterior is slightly concave ; the posterior is straight and roughened ; on 
the superior extremity is a thick tuberous termination, to which the ham- 
strings are attached; its inferior extremity is large and concave, and 
presents four surfaces for articulation with the astragalus, os cuboides, 
and OS scaphoides, and a median rough interspace to which ligaments 
are attached. 

The Os Cuboides (kv^os, a cube) is situated on the postero-external 
sides of OS cuneiforme magnum and os scaphoides, between the inferior 
extremity of the os calcis and the head of the external small metatarsal 
bone and also a portion of the superior extremity of the large metatarsal 
bone. It presents six surfaces : a superior, which articulates with the os 
calcis : an inferior by two facettes corresponds to similar ones situated on 
the large and external small metatarsal bones just mentioned ; internally 
two arthrodial surfaces occur, which face with similar surfaces on the os 
cuneiforme magnum and os scaphoides. The external, anterior, and 
posterior surfaces are roughened for ligamentous attachment. 

The Os Scaphoides is in figure triangular ; the superior surface smooth 
and slightly concave, is entirely articulatory, with the exception of a Httle 
groove, running to its middle from the outer side ; this surface cor- 
responds with the under surface of the astragalus. The inferior surface 
is simUar to the superior, except that it is slightly convex, and articulates 
with the superior surface of the os cuneiforme magnum, and also on its 
internal angle with the os cuneiforme parvum ; it offers also, on its 
postero-external face, two small diarthrodial surfaces for articulation with 
the OS cuboides ; in the rest of its extent, it is roughened for ligamentous 
attachment. 

The Os Cuneiforms Magnum. — This bone, although smaller than the 
scaphoid, at the same time greatly resembles it ; its superior surface 
articulates with the inferior surface of that bone ; the inferior surface 
articulates with the large metatarsal bone ; its external border is provided 
with two artlirodial spots for articulation with corresponding ones on 
the OS cuboides. The internal border also offers a spot which articulates 



THE JOINTS. 3W 

with a similar one on the os ctineiforme par-vum ; its anterior border is 
roughened throughout. 

The Os Cuneiforme Parvum is situated on the internal side of the 
tarsus. This bone, smaller than all, is prolonged from before backwards, 
flattened from one side to the other, and articulates with the os cunei- 
forme magnum, and with the large and internal small metatarsal bones, to 
which it corresponds by four surfaces covered with cartilage. 

METATAESAL AOTD PHALANGEAL BOKES. 

The Metatarsal and Phalangeal bones, known to the horseman as the 
cannon-bones, the pasterns, and the hind feet, resemble so closely those 
of the fore extremity, that it is unnecessary to repeat the description of 
them here. 



CHAPTER XTX 

OP THE JOINTS, AND THE TISSUES ENTERING INTO THEIR COMPOSITION. 

GENERAL REMARKS — CARTILAGE — FIBROUS TISSUE — FIBRO-CARTILAGE — SYNOVIAL 

MEMBRANES — CLASSIFICATION OF THE JOINTS — THEIR MOVEMENTS ARTICULATIONS 

OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN —LIGAMENTUM COLLI, OR GREAT CERVICAL LIGAMENT. 
AND OTHER PECULIARITIES OF THE VERTEBRA OP THE NECK — MOVEMENTS OF THE 

VERTEBRiE IN GENERAL, AND OF CERTAIN OF THEIR JOINTS IN PARTICULAR THORACIC 

ARTICULATION — TEMPORO-MAXILLART ARTICULATION PECULIARITIES IN THE ARTICU- 

IiATIONS OF THE LUMBAR VERTEBRA — LUMBO-SACRAL ARTICULATION COCCYGEAL 

JOINTS — SACRO-ILIAC ARTICULATIONS — ISCHIO-PITBIC SYMPHYSIS — THE SHOULDER JOINT 
— ELBOW JOINT — KNEE JOINT — INTER-METACARPAL ARTICULATION — FETLOCK JOINT — 
PASTERN JOINT COFFIN JOINT — HIP JOINT STIFLE JOINT TIBIO-FIBULAR ARTICU- 
LATION HOCK JOINT AND ARTICULATION BETWEEN THE BONES OF THE TARSUS 

TARSO-METATARSAL ARTICULATION — TERMINAL ARTICULATION OF THE POSTERIOR 
LIMBS. 

GENERAL REMARKS. 

The joints are all formed between two or more separate bones, having 
a soft and elastic substance interposed, whose structure varies with the 
amount of motion. Where this is extensive, as in the joints of the limbs, 
the adjacent surfaces are covered with a peculiar kind of cartilage arranged 
in a thin and very smooth layer upon them. Jn addition to this protec- 
tion against friction and vibration, the bones are firmly bound together by 
strong bands of white fibrous inelastic tissue under the general name of 
ligaments, each bundle receiving a distinct appellation. In those situa- 
tions where the motion is limited, a mixture of cartilage and fibrous tissue 
is inserted between the ends of the bones and attached to both, as in the 
vertebrse, ischio-pubic symphysis, &c. ; while in order to reduce the vibra- 
tion and friction in certain important joints fibro-cartilages are introduced, 
with both surfaces free, and in contact only with the usual layer of car- 
tilage, as in the stifle and jaw. A lubricating fluid (called synovia) is 
required to reduce the amount of friction ; and to produce it, as well as to 
keep it within proper limits, a membrane (synovial) is developed- This is 
attached to each bone in a peculiar manner, to be presently described. 
Lastly, an elastic fibrous tissue (yellow) is met with in certain situations, 
the most remarkable being the great ligament of the neck. Each of these 



350 THE HORSE. 

different structures will require a separate description ; for as the diseases 
cf the joints are of great importance, a knowledge of the structure of their 
component parts must he carefully ohtained before entering upon the 
treatment vrith any hope of success. 

CAETILAGE. 

True cartilage (which is familiarly known to all when it shows the 
lar^e white masses in a breast of veal, as dressed for the table) is a homo- 
geneous, white, semi-transparent substance, possessing a certain amount of 
elasticity, and easily cut with a knife. In the early embryo it exists as 
the sole foundation of the skeleton, bone being afterwards deposited in its 
meshes and finally substituted for it. This is called temporary cartUage. 
In after life it invests those parts of the bones which enter into the 
composition of the joints (articular cartilage, which is what we are con- 
sidering just now), and also forms the costal cartilages, the ensiform and 
cariniform cartilages, and those of the larynx, trachea, and nose. Reticular 
or membra niform cartUage, differing slightly from true cartUage, is met 
with in the Eustachean tube, the external ear, and the epiglottis. 

Structure. — On putting a slice of true cartilage under the microscope, 
it is seen to consist of a number of minute cells disseminated through a 
\'itreous substance. The cells are oval, oblong, or polyhedral in shape, 
and more or less flattened by packing. The membrane forming the cell- 
wall is usually blended with the matrix, but sometimes consists of con- 
centric layers. White fibres usually inclose the mass of cells, and even 
dip sometimes into those cells more superficially placed. The cells or 
corpuscles are contained in hollow cavities, called lacunae. Sometimes 
they do not entirely fill up the lacunje, so that a vacant space is left 
The corpuscles are usually dispersed in groups, varjang in size and form, 
through the matrix ; the groups towards the surface of the cartilage are 
gpnerally flattened conformably with the surface. In articular cartilage, 
the matrix in a thin section appears dim and presents a granular aspect, 
the cells and nuclei of which are small. The parent-cells inclose two or 
three younger cells. The groups they form are flattened neaT the surface 
and lie parallel with it. In the internal part of this cartilage the cells 
assume a linear direction, and point towards the surface. Near its 
attached surface cartilage blends with the bone, the cells and nuclei of 
which become surrounded by little granular bodies, which seem to be the 
rudimentary deposit of bone. In costal cartilage the cells are very large ; 
they contain two or more nuclei, which are clear and transparent, and 
some contain a few oil globules. The cells, internally situated, form 
oblong groups, disposed in lines radiating to the circumference. We 
observe a great quantity of intercellular tissue, in the form of white 
fibrous structure, the fibres of which are parallel and straight. ^ 

PERiCHONDRroM (TTcpl, around, and x^'^Spo^, cartilage), is a white 
fibrous substance, which covers the external surface of all cartilages, 
except those of the joints. In this membrane the blood-vessels which 
supply the cartilage with blood, ramify. It is analogous to the periosteum 
which covers the external surface of bones. 

Nerves. — No nerves have been traced into any of the cartilages j they 
are destitute of sensation while free from inflammation. 

Blood-vessels. — Cartilage is non-vascular ; it receives its nourishment 
from the bone and perichondrium by imbibition. The law of endosmose 
coming into operation when the tissue is thick, as in the costal cartilage^ 



FIBROUS TISSUE. 351 

r',anals are formed through which the vessels pass to supply the parts 
u'hich are too far removed from the perichondrium. In articular carti 
lages no -vessels enter. "WTien cartilage -is removed by mechanical means, 
or by absorption, it is not regenerated, and when fractured, as in the ribs, 
there is no reunion by cartilage, but by fibrous, or most frequently by 
osseous deposition. 

Chemical Composition. — True cartilage contains three-fifths of its 
weight of water. It is ascertained that the cells and the intermediate 
substance are composed of different materials. The membranes of the 
cartUage cells are not resolved by boiling, and offer a lengthened resistance 
to alkalies and acids. The contents of the cells coagulate in water and 
dilute acids, and are dissolved by alkalies. The intermediate substance 
consists of chondrin, which differs from gelatine in not being precipitated 
by the mineral acids. 

FIBROUS TISSUE. 

Fibrous tissue exists very generally througliout the body, being com- 
posed of fibres of extreme minuteness. It is found under three forms, as 
wJute fibrous tissue, yellow fibrous tissue, and red fibrous tissue. 

"\Yhite fibrous tissue is composed of cylindrical fibres of exceeding 
minuteness, transparent, and undulating. They are collected first into 
small fasciculi and then into larger bundles, which, according to their 
arrangement, compose thin layers or membranes, ligamentous bands or 
tendons. The membraneous form is seen in the periosteum and peri- 
chondrium, the fasciae covering various organs, the membrane of the 
brain, &c. — Ligaments are glistening and inelastic bands, composed of 
fascicuH of fibrous tissue generally ranged side by side, sometimes inter- 
woven with each other. These fasciculi are held together by separate 
fibres, or by areolar tissue. They are of all forms, from the round band to 
the expanded membrane known as a capsiilar ligament. — Tendons are 
constructed like ligaments, but usually in larger and more rounded 
bundles. Sometimes they are spread out in the form of aponeuroses. 

Yellow fibrous tissue is also known as elastic tissue, from its most 
prominent physical characteristic, in which it differs from white fibrous 
tissue. It is so elastic that it may be drawn out to double its natural 
length, without losing its power of retarning to its original dimensions. 
Its fibres are transparent, brittle, flat or polyhedral in shape, colourless 
when single, but yellowish when aggregated in masses. "V\Tien this tissue 
is cut or torn, the fibres become curved at their extremities in a peculiar 
manner. It is met with in the ligamenta subflava of the vertebrae, the 
ligamentum colH, the chordae vocales, and membranes of the larynx and 
trachea, and the middle coat of the arteries. 

Eed fibrous tissue, also called contractile tissue from its possessing 
the power of contracting under certain stimulants, is intermediate between 
yellow fibrous tissue and muscular fibre. Its fibres are cylindrical, trans- 
parent, of a reddish colour, and collected in bundles. It has no connexion 
mth the joints, but is met with in the iris, around certain excretory ducts, 
and in the coats of the veins. 

Chemical Composition. — The flexibihty of fibrous tissue is owing to 
the presence of water in it, of which it contains about two-thirds of its 
weight. A tendon or ligament will readily dry and become brittle. 
Acetic acid causes it to swell up, and here the acid discloses the existence 
of nuclei and elastic fibres. It is chiefly composed of gelatine, wb ich ia 
extracted by boiling. 



352 THE HORSE. 

Blood-vessels. — White fibrous tissue contains few blood-vessels. Tbey 
usually follow the course of the fasciculi ; in ligaments they run in a 
longitudinal direction, sending off communicating branches across the 
fasciculi, and eventually forming an open network. The periosteum is 
much more vascular, but the vessels do not strictly belong to the mem- 
brane, as the ramifications found in it are chiefly intended for supplying 
blood to the bone which it covers. 

Nerves. — Small tendons contain no nerves, and large ones only small 
filaments. In the periosteum, nerves are abundant; they exist there 
chiefly for supplying the bones with sensibility. The pain caused in rheu- 
matism, which is an intensely painful disease, is a proof of the sensibility 
of white fibrous tissue. 

riBRO-CAETILAGE. 

This substance, intermediate in structure and uses between cartilage 
and fibrous tissue, is composed of a network of white glistening fibres col- 
lected into fasciculi of various sizes, and containing within its meshes cells 
and a sub-fibrous tissue resembling that of true cartilage. Fibro-cartilage 
admits of arrangement in four groups : — 

1. Interarticular fibro-cartijlage is placed between the moving 
surfaces of bones. It serves to connect them together, to facilitate their 
gliding motion, and to act as a cushion, thus preserving the articular sur- 
faces from attrition, and the bones from the effects of sudden concussion. 
It is usually placed where much motion is enjoyed, as in the lower jaw 
and knee, in the form of round oval plates growing thinner in the centre. 
Marginal cartilages such as that around the cotyloid cavity are of the 
same kind. 

2. Stratiform fibro-cartilages form a thin coating to the bony grooves 
over which tendons play. 

3. Interosseous fibro-cartilage occurs between the vertebrae, at the 
ischio-pubic symphysis, &c. 

4. Free fibro-cartilages are met with in the tarsal cartilages of the 
' eyelids, &c. 

SYNOVIAL MEMBEAKES. 
The synovial membrane is a thin layer, which invests the articular 
cartilages of opposite bones, and is continued from one to the other by 
being reflected beneath the ligaments which connect them. It resembles 
the serous membrane in being a shut sac or bladder, and a synovial cap- 
sule may be compared to a small bladder, containing only as much fluid 
as win adhere to its interior, placed between the opposite ends of two 
bones forming a joint. The secretion formed by it, synovia (cn)v, together, 
(aov, an egg), is alkaline, and contains albumen, which is coagulable by 
boiling. Heale ^ has ascertained, by the aid of the microscope, that this 
membrane is actually reflected over the articular cartilage, a point which 
has been long disputed. Besides the joints, the synovial membranes also 
form smaller sacs which lubricate the tendons as they pass over the ends 
of the bones, and which are called bursce mucosce. The epithelium lining 
these membranes is of the kind called tesselated ; it is developed in the 
same maimer with that of other free surfaces, being continually repro- 
duced as it is worn away. Synovial membranes, in many situations, are 
closely and completely invested externally by fibrous layers — the fibrous 
capsules, as they are termed. These fibrous coats are met with especially 
in situations where the articulation is either wholly ujaprotected, or 



SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES. 353 

but thinly covered by soft parts ; or where a very firm connexion is 
required, as in the hip joint. They are absent where muscles or liga- 
ments rest upon the articulation; or where, for special purposes, the 
synovial membrane is exposed to more considerable movements, as in 
the knee. 

The synovial capsule is attached, either simply to the cartilaginous 
surface, extending thence directly to the other bone, or it may, in the first 
place, besides the cartilage, also invest a larger or smaller extent of the 
surface of the bone itself, and then pass to the second bone, with which it 
is connected in the one way or the other. 

Synovia is a viscid transparent fluid, of a pale straw colour, slightly 
alkaline. In chemical and general characters, it is like the serum of the 
blood. A drop of synovia is found to contain — fat molecules, epithelial 
cells, and small granular corpuscles, bearing a close resemblance to the 
white corpuscles of the blood. This fluid, on account of the presence of 
albumen, is coagulable by heat. 

CLASSIFICATrO]^" 0¥ THE JOINTS. 

The skeleton has already been described as composed of difi'erenfc pieces 
of bone, united to each other in various manners : from this union result 
the articulations, which are sometimes very movable ; sometimes joined 
to each other through the medium of long digitations or teeth, which 
fix them, if not to immobility, at least to a very constraiued movement ; 
and, lastly, united together through the medium of cartilage, the elasticity 
of which permits latitude of movement. In the first case, the articulations 
take the name of diarthi'osis or movable articulations (8ta, through, and 
apOpov, a limb) ; in the second, synarthrosis {(tvv, together, and apdpov, a 
limb); and thirdly, amphiarthrosis (ajxcjii, about, and i'tp$pov), partaking, 
at the same time, of the two classes of articulation above mentioned — 
namely, synarthrosis, in the continuity established by the articular sur- 
faces ; and diarthrosis, in the limited extent of movement it permits. 

The guide to the classification of joints is the configuration of then- 
articular surfaces, and the movements they allow. 

DiARTHRODiAL JOINTS are arranged under three distinct classes : — 

1. Enarthrosis. This kind of joint is characterized by the reception of 
an articular head into a cavity of appropriate form. It is the seat of most 
extensive movements ; namely, flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, 
circuniduction, and rotation. Example : Acetabulum -with femur. 

2. Ginglymus. A perfect hinge-joint, the articular surfaces of which 
are configured in a trochlear arrangement, in such a manner that two or 
more promiuences may fit into two or more excavations of appropriate 
form for their reception. Their only movements are flexion and ex- 
tension. Example : Tibia with the astragalus. 

3. Arthrodia (a kind of shallow articulation), consisting almost of plain 
surfaces. GHding is the only possible movement. Example : the Carpo- 
metacarpal articulation. 

Synarthrodia^ joints are included under four heads, all of which 
should be examined as parts of the bony skeleton : — • 

1. Harmonia, in which the bones are joined by apposition, as in the 
nasal bones. 

2. Schindylesis, in which a ridge or keel projects into a cleft. Example : 
Vomer with sphenoid. 

3. Gomphosis. Like a nail in its socket, as the teeth in the alveoli. 

4. Sutura, Indented, and subdivided into sutura serrata, as in the 



354 THE HORSE. 

frontal tones, and sutura squamosa, as in the nnion of the parietal and 
temporal bones. 

The amphiarthrodial joints are often smooth, and formed after the 
manner of diarthrodial surfaces. At other times they are more or less 
rough. These joints are united together for the most part hy fibro- 
cartilage. Their extent of movement depends on the thickness and 
elasticity of the interarticular fibro-cartilage. They do not glide, there- 
fore, one over the other. Only one species of amphiarthrosis exists, of 
which the articulations of the vertebrae, the ischio-pubic symphysis, and 
the intermetacarpal joints are examples, 

MOVEMENTS OF THE JOINTS. 

The motions permitted in the joints are four — namely, ghding, angular 
motion, circumduction, and rotation. 

1. Gliding is the simple motion of one bone upon the other, without 
materially altering their relations. 

2. Angular motion may be either limited to one plane, as in the trace- 
hinge, or it may be extended to more, when the motion becomes nearly 
allied to circumduction. The elbow and hock are examples of the former, 
as, iudeed, are most of the horse's joints. 

3. Circumduction is a motion very little seen in the large joints of 
this animal, and is confined to the hip and shoulder joints, in which it is 
far more limited than in the corresponding joints of the human frame. It 
is displayed when a limb is made to describe a segment of a large circle 
around the joint which connects it to the body. 

4. EoTATioN is the movement of a bone on its own axis, and is only 
seen in the horse in the joint between the two first vertebrae of the neck. 

ARTICULATIONS OE THE VERTEBEAL COLUMN. 

The vertebra are connected together by ligaments, fibro-cartilage, and 
synovial membranes ; the first two serving to retain them in position ; 
the last to facilitate motion. They correspond, firstly, by their bodies ; 
secondly, by their spines ; and, thirdly, by their oblique and transverse 
processes. It is necessary to state, that the general details into which 
this study leads us mil apply only to the articulations which unite the 
six lower cervical vertebrae, the dorsal and lumbar vertebrae, and the 
sacrum. 

The bodies connect themselves by their surfaces, which in the cervical 
region represent, 1st, the anterior, or true head ; 2d, the posterior, or 
glenoid cavity, which receives the head of the vertebra immediately 
behind it. In passing from the first dorsal to the sacrum, these tend to 
efiace themselves, and become plainer; nevertheless, they preserve 
throughout the one its convexity, and the other its concavity. Their 
means of union are — (1) fibro-cartilages, interposed between the articular 
surfaces ; (2) a common superior vertebral ligament ; (3) a common in- 
ferior vertebral ligament. 

Tlie intervertebral fibro-cartilages are circular or elliptical discs, convex 
before, concave behind ; firmly fixed to the surfaces of the bones which 
they separate. The fibro-cartilaginous substance which forms them is 
composed of an external laminar part, constituting the circumference of 
an internal soft or pulpy part, which occupies the centre. The laminar 
part forms more than half the whole mass, and consists of laminae, or 



AllTICULATIONS OF THE VERTEBRA. 35c 

plates of fibro-cartilage, and fibrous tissue, alternating one with tlie other. 
The central part is a pulpy, elastic material, which is of a yellowish 
colour, and destitute of the concentric arrangement seen externally. The 
fibro-cartilages join at their circumference the two common vertebral 
ligaments, and in the vertebrae of the back help to form the intervertebral 
cavities destined for the reception of the heads of the ribs. 

The superior vertebral ligament within the spinal canal, and attached to 
the posterior surface of the bodies of the vertebrae, extends from the 
dentata to the sacrum. In the neck, it spreads across the bodies ; but in 
the back and loins it is broader opposite the intervertebral cartilage than 
opposite the bodies of the bones. It adheres firmly to the fibro-cartilages 
and to the contiguous margins of the bodies of the vertebr£B ; but it is 
separated from their middles by a transverse venous plexus. 

The inferior vertebral ligament reaches from the fifth dorsal vertebra to 
the first bone of the sacrum ; becoming broader and broader as it ap- 
proaches the sacrum, along its course it connects itself to the inferior spines 
of the bodies of the vertebrae and to the intervertebral discs. 

The union op the vertebrj<; through their spinal part is effected 
by a superior spinal ligament and an interspinal ligament. 

The supra-sinnous ligament consists of small compressed bundles of 
longitudinal fibres, extending from the last cervical spine to the spine of 
the anterior coccygeal bone, and thus forms a continuous chain. 



Fio. 1. — Profile View of the Liga- 
ments COMMON TO THE VEETEBR^. 

2. 2. Bodies of vertebrae. 

3. 3. Spines. 

4. 4. Transverse processes. 

5. Head of the body. 

6. Oblique process. 

7. Hole of conjugation. 

8. Glenoid cavity. 

9. Supra-spinous ligament. 

10. Intra-spinous ligament. 

11. Intervertebral flbro-cartilage. 

12. Inferior common vertebral ligament. 



The inters2nnal ligaments consist of fibrous plates, filling up the spaces 
between the spines, and attached before and behind to their opposite 
borders. One set of these fibres pass from the anterior border of one 
spine to the posterior border of the one before it, taking a direction from 
beloAV, forwards and upwards ; another set run from the posterior border 
of the spine to the anterior border of that situated behind it, taking a 
direction from below, upwards and backwards. 

The arches or plates are connected together by the ligamenta verte- 
brarum subflava. These ligaments consist of yellow and white fibrous 
tissue. Their attachment extends from the roots of the oblique processes 
to the origin of the spinous processes. Their anterior edges are attached 
to the posterior edges of the vertebral plates which are in front. Their 
posterior edges are attached to the anterior edges and inferior faces of the 
plates which are behind. The ligamenta subflava do not exist between 
the occiput and atlas, or between the atlas and dentata. 

Inter-transverse ligaments are situated between the transverse pro- 
cesses, running from the transverse process of one vertebra to the same 
process of the one next to it. 

A A 2 




356 THE HOKSE. 

The oblique processes are united by synovial capsules one to the 
other. These capsules, throughout the vertebraj of the back, are pro- 
tected by white fibrous tissue, but in the cervical region the fibres 
covering the capsules are yellow and elastic, and on this account, and 
owing to the size c£ their arthrodial surfaces, latitude of movement is 
permitted to a greater extent than is noticed in. any other vertebral 
region. 

THE LIGAMENTUM COLLI, OE GEEAT CEEVICAL LIGA- 
MENT, AlW OTHEE PECULIAEITIES IN THE LIGAIklENTS 
OE THE NECK. 

In the neck a much greater latitude of motion is reqiiired, to admit of 
the lowering of the head in grazing, and of raising it for various purposes, 
as well as balancing its great weight at all times. Lateral flexion and 
rotation on its own axis are also necessitated for the purpose of directing 
the muzzle right and left of the straight line, and for these several 
motions the following deviations from the ordinary vertebral joiiits are 
developed. 

The Ligamentum Colli, or great cervical ligament, is intended to 
relieve the muscles of the neck in supporting the head by its natural or 
inherent elasticity. It is entirely formed of yellow elastic tissue, and 
occupies the angle formed posteriorly by the anterior dorsal spiaes, and 
inferiorly by the cervical spinous processes, thus separating the cervical 
muscles of the right side from those of the left. 

It is divided for description into two parts — a funicular and lameUary 
portion. The first, designated under the name of the cord of the cervical 
ligament, is represented by a large band, which extends immediately from 




f iG. 2.— Ppofile View Oi-- the Great LiOAMEJir of the Neck, 

1. Crest of the occiput. 6. Cordifomi portion of the ligamentum colli, 

2. 2. Cervical vertebrae. mixing with the supra-spinous ligament. 

3. 3. Dorsal vertebras. 7. LameUary portion of the ligamentum colli. 

4. 4. 4. Dorsal spines. .8. Interspinous ligaments. 

5. 5. 5. Cordiform or funicular portion of the 

ligamentum colli. 

the dorsal spinous processes to the top of the head, divided into two 
lateral hps by a mesian line. The cord is connected posteriorly with the 
supra-spiaous ligament, and is inserted anteriorly iato the scabrous pit, 



LIGAMENTS OF THE NECK. 3J7 

situated just below the crest of the occiput. It is covered superiorly by 
a mass of thick adipo-fibrous tissue, much developed in low-bred animals. 
Inferiorly it gives off the lamellary portion, which is composed of two 
plates united by cellular membrane. These lie between the two sets of 
muscles, and give off six tongues or slips, which unite with the spines of 
the six posterior cervical vertebrae, mixing with the fibres of the inter- 
spinous ligaments. 

The Atlas is united to the occiput by lateral ligaments, which bind 
its articular surfaces to the condyles of the bone — also by two inferior 
ligaments and synovial capsules. 

The tivo lateral ligaments, broad and membranous, arise from the supero- 
lateral border of the arch of the atlas, and are attached to the sides of 
the condyles of the occiput, or rather between the condyles and the 
styloid processes. 

The long iyiferior ligament arises from the tubercle on the inferior sur- 
foce of the atlas, and is attached to the basilar process of the occiput. 

The short inferior ligament arises from the tubercle on the inferior sur- 
face of the atlas, is attached to the foramen 
magnum of the occiput, and is connected with 
the theca vertebralis. 

A thin fibrous ligament {The occipito-atloid) 
surrounds the entire articulation ; it is attached 
anteriorly to the condyles of the occiput, and 
posteriorly to the articulatory surface of the 
atlas. This membrane is thin and elastic in- 
feriorly ; superiorly it is formed of two bundles 
of fibres, which cross one another like the 
letter X. Internally it is lined by synovial 
membrane. 

The axis, oh vertebra dentata, is united to 
the atlas, and partially also to the occiput, as 
follows : — 

1. Articular surfaces are formed on the odon- 
toid process of the axis, and also on the sides of 
its body close to the root of that part. These 
correspond with similar faces on the inside of 
the ring of the atlas, and also on its posterior 
side. 

2. Tlbe ligaments connecting the rings of the 
two vertehrce together, or the superior and inferior 
atlo-axoid ligaments. The former represent the 
interspinous ligaments of the other vertebrcB 
— being yellow, elastic, and formed of two 
layers, which are continuous with the capsular 
ligaments — the latter is a large thin band, which 
is stretched from the inferior face of the axis 
to the inferior spine of the atlas, lying concealed 
by the longus colli muscle. Besides these two 
ligaments there is also a capsular ligament, 
which commences from the sides of the superior 
atlo-axoid ligament, and after uniting with the borders of the odontoid 
ligament is confounded with the fibres of the inferior atlo-axoid. In fact, 
ii is a mesh of white fibrous tissue connecting the three together. 

3. The odontoid ligaments, which are covered by the superior atlo-axoid 




Fia. 3. — Superior View of thk 
Joints forjied between the 
First Two Vertruii.e op the 
Neck and bdtwekn the Atlas 
AND Occiput. 



Superior fibres of the occipito- 
atloid ligauiciit. 

Atlas. 

Vertebra dentata, showing the 
superior atlo-axoid liga- 
ment. 

Third cervical vertebra. 

P. Transverse processes ol den- 
tata. 
1. Odontoid ligament. 



358 THE HORSE. 

ligament. On cutting through these the following sets of fibres will he 
made apparent : — First, a transverse band arises from the root of the 
odontoid process, and dividing into two like the letter V, is attached on 
each side to the ridge on the inferior part of the ring of the atlas — a few 
thin fibres passing on to be attached to the basilar process and condyles 
of the occiput. Secondly, a strong band arises from the point of the 
odontoid process, and is attached to the middle of the ridge on the 
inferior part of the atlas. Thirdly, a few fibres pass across from the 
inside of the ring of the atlas on one side to the corresponding part of 
the other. These serve to strengthen the capsule, but they have not the 
substance of the corresponding ligament in the human frame. 

MOVEMENTS OF THE VERTEBE^ IN GENERAL AND OF 
CERTAIN OF THEIR JOINTS IN PARTICULAR. 

The amount op motion between any two vertebrse is extremely limited, 
with the exception of the atlo-axoid articulation, in which the degree 
of rotation is considerable. But when the spine is viewed as a whole, 
these slight individual movements multiplied together are sufficient to 
allow of flexion and extension, as well as of inchnation to either side. 
In the region of the back the joints are rigid, in the loms less so, but in 
the neck and tail great liberty is allowed. Flexion and extension, as well 
as lateral motion, are dependent entirely upon the elasticity of the inter- 
vertebral substance, which allows of one part being compressed while the 
other is extended. Thus, when the loins are arched upwards, the lower 
edge of this substance is compressed, while the upper part assumes a 
more expanded condition, and at the same time the spinous processes are 
separated more widely, and their ligaments are stretched. The reverse of 
this takes place when these bones are arched downwards, while in lateral 
inclination the sides are compressed and expanded in a corresponding 
manner. Very shght rotation of the wdiole spine, or more properly 
twisting, is permitted by the elastic nature of the intervertebral substance ; 
but in the atlo-axoid articulation a perfect rotation occurs around the 
centre of the odontoid process, allowing the muzzle to be turned in either 
direction, which could not be done without an arrangement of this 
nature. The capsular ligaments and the superior and inferior atlo-axoid 
ligaments are necessarily lax to allow of this motion. Lastly, the great 
ligament of the neck serves to support the weight of the head, which 
would be too 'great for the muscles of the neclv, in consequence of the 
.length of leverage which is presented. 

'^■■'...- THORACIC ARTICULATIONS. 

The articulations which unite the bones composing the thorax may be 
divided jirsl into costo-vertebral articulations, or those which unite the 
ribs with the spine ; secondly, chondro-costal, or those which unite the ribs 
with their cartilages ; thirdly, the chondro-sternal, or those which unite 
the cartilages with the sternum ; fourthly, the articulations of the costal- 
cartilages among themselves. 

Each rib (with the exception of the fii'st and last) is connected with 
the bodies of two vertebrae, the three bones, together with the inter- 
vertebral substance, forming two joints which are separated from each 
other by a band of fibres passing from the head of the rib to the inter- 
vertebral substance. Besides these there is also an articulation between 
the rib and the transverse process of the vertebra behind it. 



I 



THORACIC ARTICULATIONS. 359 

The superio7' costo-vertehral ligament connects the head of each rib to 
the sides of the hodies of the vertebrse, and is divided into three bundles, 
of which one bundle (the middle) passes to the corresponding interver- 
tebral fibro-cartilage, whilst the anterior passes to the body of the vertebra 
before, the posterior to the body of the vertebra behind. This ligament 
is called the superior stellate ligament. From the inferior surface of the 




Fia. 4. — SuPEBiOB View of Costo-Yertebral Akticdlations. 
2. 2 



A. A. A. &c. Points where the vertebral arches 

are removed in order to expose, 
1. 1. <&c. Superior common vertebral ligament. 

B. B. &c. Transverse processes. 



&c. Superior costo-vertebral or stellate 

ligament. 
3. &c. Superior costo-transverse ligament. 



neck there is a ligament, which is disposed in the same way inferiorly as 
the foregoing is superiorly, in attaching the ribs to the bodies of the 
vertebrcC. This is called the inferior stellate ligament. 

The inter-articular ligament, or ligamentum teres, consists of a thin 
bundle of longitudinal fibres, and arises from the ridge dividing the two 
articular surfaces on the head of the rib from which it passes to be 
implanted on the side of the intervertebral substance. 

There are two distinct synovial capsules — an anterior and a posterior — 
set back to back, and separated by the inter-articular ligament* 

The COSTO-TRANSVERSE ARTICULATION. — On the superior surface of the 
tubercle of the rib is a smooth convex articular surface, Avhich is in 
apposition with a smooth concave surface, situated on the transverse 
process. 

Tu'o ligaments strengthen this articulation. First, the posterior costo- 
transverse ligament consists of a short fasciculus of fibres, which passes 
from the posterior surface of the summit of the transverse process, 
to the rough surface uncovered by cartilage at the postero-lateral part of 
the tubercle. Secondly, the anterior transverse costal ligament is formed 
of a bundle of white, thick, short fibres, which take a course from the 
anterior surface of the transverse process near its base, to the excavation 
which is close to the neck of the rib. This ligament is clothed behind by 
synovial membrane, and in front by adipose tissue, which separates it 
from the costo-vertebral articulation. 

The last two, namely, the 17th and 18th costo-transverse articulations, 
are confounded with the corresponding costo-vertebral joints. 



360 



THE HORSE. 



The chondro-costal articulation may be referred to the subdivision 
gomphosis of the s}aiartbrodial joints. It 'is formed by tire implantation 
of the inferior extremity of the rib into the superior extremity of the 




Fig. 5.— Inferior View ok the CusTO-VEr.TnBP.AL iipyncuLATioNS. 



1. 1. ire. Inferior common vertebral ligament. 

2. 2. &c. Inter-flbro-cartilaginous disc. 



3. 3. &c. Inferior eosto-transverse ligament. 

4. 4. &c. Inferior costo-veri;ebral ligament. 



cartilage, "which presents a surface corresponding with the rough 
depression in the end of the rib. Further strength is given to this arti- 
culation by the periosteum, -which, in passing from the bone to the 
cartilage, forms a strong uniting band. 

The chondro-sternal articulations occur between the inferior 
extremity of the cartilage of each rib, and the oblong cavities existing 
along each side of the sternum. The eight anterior cartilages, form, with 
the fossoe in the sternum, eight corresponding articulations. 




Fio. 6. — Profile View of Sterno-Costal and Ceondbo-Costal Articulations. 
1. Anteriorendof sternum and cariniform car- 4. 4. &c. Chondro-stemal articulations, 
tilage. 

2. 2. Ensifonn cartilage. 

3. 3. &o. Sternal cartilages. 



6. 5. &c. Ends of the true ribs with tbe articula- 
tions between them, and the cartilages 
seen between 3 and 5. 



The joints which result from the union of these two surfaces, are 
enveloped on all sides by fasciculi of white and extended fibres, the whole 
of which constitute a ligamentous capsule. The superior fibres are some- 
times described as the superior chondro-sternal ligament. The inferior 
are continuous with the origin of the pectoral muscles. 



LUMBAR ARTICULATIONS. 



361 



The foremost cliondro-sternal articulation is not separated from the 
corresponding one on the opposite side. The two cartilages being close 
together, their synovial capsule is continuous, and the two oblong fossce 
on the sternum unite one with, the other. It must be further noticed 
that this articulation frequently occurs on the cariniform cartilage, which 
is anterior to the first bone of the sternum. 

As regards the two posterior sternal cartilages, they are in close appo- 
sition one with the other, and fit into one common fossa situated on the 
posterior bone of the sternum, and with it form one synovial joint. 

A thin fasciculus of fibres connects the cartilages of the 8th and 9th 
ribs to the ensiform or xiphoid cartilage, called the chondro-xi'plioid 
ligament. 

A similar fasciculus to the foregoing connects the cariniform and 
xiphoid cartilages together — the carino-xiiihoid ligament. 

The asternal ov false cartilages are united one to the other by a yellow 
elastic ligament, which extends from the fore extremity of each to the 
posterior border of the preceding cartilage. 

On the superior and inferior surfaces of the sternum, ligamentous 
fibres may be observed running longitudinally, called the superior and 
inferior sternal ligaments. The longitudinal fibres are mixed with, those 
radiating from the costal cartUages, especially inferiorly, where they blend 
with aponeuroses of the pectoral muscles. 

PECULIAEITIES IN" THE ARTICULATION'S OF THE 
LUMBAR VERTEBRA. 

The four anterior lumbar vertebrae have nothing remarkable about 
them, but the fifth differs in having on the posterior part of each trans- 




Fio. 7. — Articulations of the Ldmb.vr vektebr.e with the SACRtJi. 



A. Last three lumbar vertelirse. 

B. Sacrum. 

C. C. Iliac bones. 

1. Transverse process 

vertebra. 

2. Transveise process offifth lumbar vertebra. 

3. Transverse process of sixth lumbar ver- 

tebra. 



of fourth lumbar 



4. 4. &c. Inferior common vertebral ligament. 

5. 5. Ligamentous fibres covering the capsules 

between the transverse processes of the 
fourth and fifth lumbar vertebrae. 

6. 6. Capsular ligaments uniting together tho 

fifth and sixth lumbar vertebrae. 

7. 7. Lumbo sacral ligaments. 

8. 8. Sacro-iliac ligaments. 



362 TEE HOUSE. 

verse process an articular surface fumislied witli a synovial capsule, for 
uniting it witli the sixth. This last has also four ai'ticulatory siu-faces on 
its transverse processes — two anteriorly, wliicli unite "with the correspond- 
ing ones on the fifth vertebra just described, and two posteriorly, which 
are similarly furnished ys-ith. synovial cajisules, and Avhich unite it "svith 
the sacrum. 

THE LUMBO-SACRAL ARTICULATION AND SACRAL 
LIGAMENTS. 

The fibro-cartilage intervening between the last lumbar vertebra 
and the sacrum is imusually thick, and the joint is protected also ex- 
ternally by some strong longitudinal fibres passing from bone to bone. The 
last lumbar vertebra joins the sacrum not onlj'' by its body and articular 
processes (wliich latter are oval, with tkeir long diameter from side to 
side), but also by two oval and slightly concave articular surfaces, which 
ai'ticulate with "corresponding faces on the last lumbar vertebra abeady 
alluded to. 

Besides the articulations between the lumbar vcrtebraj and the 
sacrum, there are also ligaments between the spines of the sacrum itself, 
which are no longer of much use after the separate bones of which it is 
composed are united by ossification. 

THE COCCYGEAL JOINTS. 

The sacro-cocctgeal ajvd inter-coccygeal articulations are con- 
structed much after the same principle as the other vertebral articulations. 
The coccygeal bones, however, are only united together by their bodies. 
The anterior and posterior articulatory sm-faces of each vertebra are both 
convex, and their inter-articular fibro-cartilage is hollow on both surfoces. 
As to ligaments, they are represented by bundles of longitudinal fibres 
spread on the sm-faces of these bones, which they envelope in a common 
sheath. 

THE TEMPORO-MAXILLARY ARTICULATION. 

The lower jaw articulates on eacb side by one of its condyles with 
the glenoid cavity of the temporal bone. Between them is placed an 
inter-articidar fibro-caitilage, with one synovial membrane above and 
another below it. 

The articular- surfaces above mentioned do not exactly fit one into the 
other. This, however, is corrected tlu-ough. the interposition of a fibro- 
cartilagiuous disc between them. This disc represents an irregular plate, 
flattened above and below, thicker in front than behind, moulded on each 
surface, which it separates, so that its superior face presents in fi'ont a 
concavity to receive the tubercle on the zygomatic process of the temporal 
bone, and a convexity behind, which, is lodged in its glenoid cavity. As 
to its inferior face, it is indented by an oblong furrow, in which the 
condyle of the inferior maxillary bone is imbedded. 

Tliese hones are united by a capsular ligament, covering a synovial 
capsule, and two lateral ligaments, one external and the other internal. 

A fibrous cover, a true capsular ligament, sm-rounds this articulation, and 
is attached by its edges to the articular sm-faces which it unites, as well as 
to the borders of the inter-articular fibro-cartilage ; thus forming two 
distinct capsules, namely, one superiorly, and one inferiorly, which are 
lined internally by synovial membranes. The larger of the two, after 
lining the upper surface of the disc, is reflected upward to the glenoid 



SACRO-ILIAC ARTICULATION. 



303 



cavity of Lhe temporal Lone. The inferior synovial mcniLranc is inter- 
posed bet^veen the infei'ior surface of the cartilage and the condyle of the 
lower jaw ; and thus a double joint is constituted. 

The external lateral ligament is a short fasciculus of fibres, attached 
superiorly to a tubercular prominence, situate on the supcro-extcrnal part 
of the squamous temporal bone, and inferiorly to the external surface of 
the condyle, and to the ])Ostero-external surface of the neck of the lower 
jaw, just below the condyle ; its fibres take a backward and downward 
course. 

The internal lateral ligament is looser and niore elongated than the 
external It extends from the inner surface of the srpiamous temporal 
bone to the cartdago and inner surface of the condyle of the superior 
maxillary bone, reaching down to the inner part of its angle. 

MovEAiENT. — The temporo-maxillary articulation is the centre of every 
movement of the lower jaw. These are — elevation, lowering, lateral 
movement, and horizontal sliding, which motions together accomplish the 
grinding action necessary to triturate the hard grain upon which the 
horse feeds. 

THE SACRO-ILIAC ARTICULATION. 
This joint establishes the union of the posterior members with the 
spine, and is formed by the sacrum and os innominatum. It belongs to 
the arthrodial order of joints. On each of these two bones is a large and 
irregular articular surface, lined with a thick layer of cartilage, which is 
firmly united to them. The joint thus formed is strengthened by four 
ligaments, namely — 1, the sacro-iliac ; 2, the superior ilio-sacral ; 3, the 
inferior ilio-sacral ; and 4, the sacro -sciatic. 




Fio. S. — PiiuiiLE Vif:w or the Imo-Sackai, and Sacko-Sciatic IjiaASii-N'TS 



A. Os ilium. 
13. Os pubis. 

C. Os ischium. 

D. Femur. 

E. Trochanter major extemus. 

F. Largo tubercle at the head of femur. 

G. Head of the femur. 



II. Rim of the cotyloid cavity. 
K. K. Sacral spiiKjs. 

K. M. O. Tubercles on the aiitero-iuferior 
spinous process of the ilium. 

1. 1 Sui)erior ilio-sacral ligament. 

2. 3. 4. Sacro-sciatic ligament. 



The sacro-iliac ligament is composed of large ligamentous fibres, which 
everywhere envelop the articulation, by firmly attaching themselves at 



364 THE HORSE. 

their extremities to the impressions around the articidar surfaces, situated 
on the sacrum and internal border of the ilium. The inferior half of 
this ligament is covered by the psoas muscles. Its posterior half, much 
stronger than the former, is hidden by the ilium. 

The superior ilio-sacral ligament is a large, strong, short ligament, 
which, arising from the internal part of the ilium, is carried backwards 
and fixes itself upon the sacral spines, where it mixes its fibres with the 
supra-spinous ligament of the kunbar vertebras. 

The inferior ilio-sacral ligament is a triangular and very resisting mem- 
branous band, formed of parallel fibres running obliquely from above 
downwards, and from before backwards. It is attached by its antero- 
inferior edge to the superior half of the ischiatic border and the internal 
angle of the ilium, mixing itself with the preceding ligament ; its superior 
border inserts itself upon the roughened ridge which bounds the sacrum 
laterally ; its posterior border is united to the aponeuroses which cover 
the coccygeal muscles. 

The sacro-sciatic ligament is a vast membranous expansion, stretched 
upon the side of the pelvis, between the sacrum and the os innominatum ; 
it serves rather as an inclosure for the pelvic cavity than as a means of 
securing the firmness of the sacro-iliac articulation. Its form is irregu- 
larly quadrilateral, presenting four borders — a superior, attached to the 
lateral roughened edge of the sacrum ; an inferior, inserted in the ridge 
below the cotyloid cavity ; an anterior, unattached in a great part of 
its course, and serving as a protection to the large vessels and nerves 
which pass through the sciatic notch ; and lastly, a posterior margin, which 
splits into two laminoe, between which the semi-membranous muscle takes 
its origin. 

A synovial membrane covers the sacro-iliac ligament, but furnishes a 
small quantity of synovia. 

Movements. — The two sacro-iliac articulations, through which all the 
efforts of impulsion are communicated to the trunk by the posterior 
members, without interfering with the transmission of locomotive force, 
permit but a slight gliding movement of their arthrodial surfaces. Indeed, 
this articulation seems exclusively designed to prevent the fractures to 
which these bones would be incessantly exposed, were they attached in 
a more intimate manner, as, for example, by bony union. 

ISCHIO-PUBIC SYMPHYSIS. 

The two ossa innominata are firmly united together in the median 
line below, by the corresponding edges of the ischium and piibes. In 
the foal this is a distinct jouit, possessing an inter-articular cartilage, and 
some transverse ligamentous fibres above and below ; but in the adult horse 
the two bones are firmly united by ossification, and the ossa innominata 
together form a complete arch, without the slightest movement between 
them. 

THE SHOHLDEE JOINT. 

The scapulo-humeral articulation, commonly known as the shoulder 
joint, belongs to the division Diarthrosis ; subdivision, EnarLhrosis. It 
is formed by the scapula uniting with the humerus, at an obtuse angle. 

The articular surfaces which compose this joint are the head of the 
humerus, and the glenoid cavity of the scapula. On examining these 
bones, described and illustrated at page 336, it will be seen that the 
head of the humerus is semi-globular, wliile the cavity in the scapula is 



SHOULDER JOINT. 



365 




very superficial, and incapable of maintaining tlie former in its place 
without some collateral aid. It is somewhat remarkable that the liga- 
ments of this joiat are extremely weak, being confined to the lax fibres 
surrounding the synovial capsule, which is so loose 
that after removing all the other soft parts, and 
making a small opening into the joint, the two bones 
may be readily separated for some distance ; these 
fibres are superiorly fixed around the margin of the 
glenoid cavity, and inferiorly round the head of the 
humerus. Chauveau states that a ligament descends 
from the coracoid process of the scapula, which 
diverges and becomes inserted into the tubercles at 
the anterior part of the head of the humerus. He also 
states that it is loose, and therefore facilitates much 
motion, but it is not easy to separate it from the 
capsular ligament. This is longer posteriorly than 
anteriorly, and presents postero-laterally two stays, 
similar to two pieces of tape. The external one, 
arising from the outer lip of the glenoid cavity, is 
attached to the outer and back part of the head of 
the humerus. The internal one arises from the 
inner edge of the glenoid cavity, and is attached to 
the inner and back part of the head of the humerus. 
But this deficiency in ligaments is made up by a 
much more powerful material in resisting disloca- 
tions. The whole joint is surrounded by elastic 
muscular fibre or by tendinous bands, having the 
same kind of support — thus it has in close appo- 
sition the foRowing muscles, viz. — 

, Anteriorly, the Coraco Humeralis, and Flexor 

Brachii. 
Externally, the Antea Spinatus, and Postea Spi- 

natus, 
Posteriorly, the Scapulo-Humeralis Posticus, &c. 
Internally, the Subscapularis, &c. 

Whenever, therefore, any violent strain is thrown upon the joint, which 
would force the head of the humerus forwards, the Coraco Humeralis and 
Flexor Brachii contract and prevent the accident. In the same manner, 
each of the above muscles acts in its own direction, and the result is that 
dislocation of the hximerus in the horse is extremely rare. 

The movements op the shoulder joint in the horse are much more 
limited than ia man, and indeed they are almost confined to flexion and 
extension. "When all the muscles are cut away from the joint, rotation 
and circumduction may be easily effected ; but in examining its movements 
during life, it will be evident that neither one nor the other of these acts 
can be effected in any appreciable degree ; this is at once proved if it is 
attempted to turn the foot inwards or outwards, when it is flexed at the 
knee, during the life of the horse, for beyond the slight motion of the 
whole limb, including the scapula, the foot is firmly fixed, and there is 
not the slightest rotation or circumduction at the shoulder joint. With- 
out the power of pronation and supination possessed by man, and partially 
by the dog and cat, the above actions would be worse than useless, and it 
is altogether a mistake to ascribe to any other of the domestic animals, as 



Fio 9. 
Profile View op the 
Scapulo-Humeral, or 
Shoulder Joint. 

A. Inferior third of sca- 

pula. 

B. Coracoid process of 

scapula. 

C. Analogue of the acro- 

mion process. 

D. Rim of glenoid cavity. 

E. Superior third of hu- 

merus. 

1. Capsular ligament. 

2. Tendon of the coraco- 

radialis muscle. 



36S 



THE HORSE. 



ChaiTveau has done, in addition to flexion and extension of the shoulder- 
joint, the four movements of ahduction, adduction, circumduction, and 
rotation. It would much puzzle that generally accurate anatomist to turn 
the horse's foot up in front so that its possessor could see the sole ; yet if 
circumduction and adduction were permitted, this could readily be done as 
by the domestic cat or dog in licking the inside of the fore paw. The 
shoulder joint is, in fact, a true hinge (ginglymus) in the horse, ass, cow, 
sheep, and goat, but in the first of these animals it is more especially 
limited in its movements, ' by the enormously powerful muscles which 
surround the joint, and which are constantly tense, though extremely 
elastic, and giving way to every voluntary movement. It is a beautiful 
provision of nature, to enable the horse to bear the shocks which his 
shoulders have to sustain in coming down from a leap with a great weight 
on his back, and without it he would be rendered comparatively useless 
to man. 

THE ELBOW JOINT, 

Or the humero-radto-ulnar articulation. — This joint is formed 
between tlie lower extremity of the humerus above, and the junction of 
the radius and ulna below. It is a complete hinge, and has no power of 
pronation or supination as in man, consequently there is no necessity for 
the peculiar additional joint between the radius and ulna, observable in 
man and partially in the dog and cat j but the two 
bones are firmly ossified together in the adult, as 
already described at page 337. 

These bones are connected together by three liga- 
ments, two lateral (an internal and an external), a 
capsular ligament, and a synovial capsule. 

The internal lateral ligament arises from a fossa on 
the side of the internal condyle of the humerus ; it 
takes a vertical course, expanding as it descends : 
and is inserted partly on the roughened inner border 
of the articular cavity of the radius. Its middle 
fibres, which are the longest, take the same course 
as the former, assuming while passing over the radius 
the shape of a cord, which is inserted into the inner 
and fore part of the radius about three inches below 
the former insertion. 

The external lateral ligament is shorter but stronger 
than the internal. It arises from the superior fossa 
and ridge surrounding it, on the outer surface of the 
external condyle of the humerus, and is inserted 
into the tuberosity on the upper and external part 
of the radius. Its superficial fibres take a ver- 
tical course, whilst its internal fibres take an 
oblique direction, from top to bottom and from back 
to front. 

The capsular ligament is attached by its superior 
border to the surfaces surrounding the condyles of 
the humerus ; by its inferior border, to the circum- 




FiG. 10. — Posterior View 
OF LEFT Elbow Joint. 

A. Inferior tliird of the hu- 

merus. 

B. B. External and internal 

condyles. 

C. Olecranon process of 

ulna. 
P. Radius, 



External lateral L'ga- 

ment. 
Internal lateral ligament 

^"suSce'ui^tiS'the fereuce of the superior part of the radius ; and by 
ulna to the racUus. jts posterior border to the circumference of the arti- 
cular surface of the ulna. 
The synovial membrane is short anteriorl}^, very extended, and spread 



KNEE JOINT. 337 

out posteriorly ; -where it forms three sacs, which tend to facihtate flexion 
of the joint. 

The movements of the elbow joint are confined to flexion and extension, 
it being a pure hinge, but these actions do not take place exactly in the 
same plane. For instance, if the knee is bent and the foot brought up to 
the elbow, the frog will not correspond with that projection, but will be 
almost entirely outside it, while the knees will also be wider apart when 
both are flexed and raised towards the bosom, than when the horse is 
standing. This arrangement is brought about by the oblique direction of 
the pulley-like articular surfaces on the humerus, ulna and radius, and 
appears to be designed to prevent the foot from hitting the opposite leg 
as it passes it in trotting. When the obliquity is insufficient, either cutting 
of the fetlocks or speedy cutting is sure to be manifested ; if too great, the 
awkward gait known as " dishing," is established. Extension is not nearly 
so complete as in the human subject, being limited by the greater length 
and breadth of the olecranon process, the upper part of which forms a 
prominence which fits into the corresponding fossa of the humerus, and 
thus serves as a check to the extension of the fore arm. In most men the 
upper arm and fore arm can be made to fall into one straight line, but in 
the horse there is always a considerable angle. 

THE kn:ee joint (caepus, or WEIST). 

This abticulation is a very complicated one, and in order to under- 
stand it thoroughly, it will be necessary to examine the parts composing 
it under three divisions. 1st. The articulations between the several 
carpal bones. 2d. The Eadio-carpal articulation ; and 3d. The Carpo- 
metacarpal joint, to which must be added (4) the examination of certain 
ligaments common to all three. 

The two rows of carpal bones, which have been described in the 
dry state at page 339, are furnished with cartilage on the faces, by which 
they correspond, thus forming a series of nearly plane arthrodial surfaces, 
having synovial capsules, but embracing several of them in one. It may 
be remembered that these bones are arranged in two rows, the upper one 
consisting of the scaphoid, lunar, cuneiform and pisiform bones, while the 
lower comprehends the os magnum, the trapezoid, and the unciform bones. 

The tipper row is united together by six ligaments, three anterior and 
three interosseous. The anterior ligaments consist of flattened bands of 
fibres which lie in front of the knee, and connect the four bones together, 
passing laterally from one to the other. The interosseous are strong and 
short fibres concealed between these bones, and attached to the rough 
excavations between the distinct facettes on the several bones to which 
allusion has been made at page 339, the ligament connecting the pisiform 
bone with the scaphoid being particularly well marked. 

The hones of the second roiv are, in a similar way, united by anterior and 
interosseous ligaments, but, instead of being three, there are only two of 
each, in correspondence with the diminished number of bones. It is 
rmnecessary to describe them more minutely. 

The two rows again, between which is a partial hinge joint, are united 
by three special ligaments, in addition to those common to the whole knee 
joint, wliich will be presently described. Two of these special ligaments 
consist of very short fibres lying behind the carpal bones, and covered by 
the great posterior ligament. The third is larger than these, and extends 
from the pisiform bone to the unciform, and to the head of the external 



368 



THE HORSE. 




small metacarpal bone. (See 5, Fig. 12.) It is united on the outer side 
with the external lateral ligament, and internally with the common poste- 
rior hgament. To its posterior border are attached the outer fibres of the 
sheath of the flexor tendons. 

The synovial capsules proper to these articulations line all the above 
ligaments and articular surfaces, being reflected from one to the other, 
and forming also pouch-like prolongations upwards between the bones of 
each row, as far as the interosseous ligaments, and 
doAvnwards in a similar manner, l^either of the 
ascending pouches is continuous with the radio- 
carpal capsule, but the external of the two lower 
communicates with that of the carpo-metacarpal 
joint. This fact is sometimes important in punc- 
tured wounds of the knee joint. 

2. The radio-carpal articulation, formed by 
the union of the lower end of the radius with the 
upper surfaces of the scaphoid, lunar, cuneiform, 
and pisiform bones, is a true hinge, but somewhat 
limited in the amount of its motion. The lower 
end of the cannon-bone can describe fully ninety 
degrees of a circle around the knee joint as a 
centre; but the full extent of this motion is divided 
between the three several articulations to which 
I have alluded, the radio-carpal taking considerably 
the largest share. The loiver end of the radius 
presents an irregular articular surface, longer from 
side to side than from before backwards, and a 
non-articular pit or fossa hollowed out to receive a 
projection of the lunar bone during the flexion of 
the joint. On each side of these are the lateral 
processes. The up-per surfaces of the carpal hones are 
moulded exactly to fit the inferior extremity of the 
radius, and a loose synovial capsule passes firom one 
to the other, extending downwards between the 
three innermost carpal bones as far as their inter- 
osseous ligaments, and sometimes also to the capsule 
between the pisiform and cuneiform bones. 

The ligaments proper to this articulation, in ad- 
dition to those common to the whole knee joint, are 
three. Of these one forms a large rounded cord, 
attached to the radius above, and to the cuneiform 
bone below, taking an oblique direction downwards 
and inwards beneath the common posterior liga- 
ment. The second, much smaller in size, is extended between the 
external lateral process of the radius and the pisiform bone, being par- 
tially covered by the common external lateral ligament, but allowing a 
small triangular space to intervene, through which the synovial capsule is 
sometimes protruded in diseased conditions of this joint. The third, still 
more thin and weak in its fibres, is situated beneath the second, and arising 
from the radius is inserted in the lunar bone, and into the interosseous 
ligament which unites the pisiform and scaphoid bones. (See 3, Fig. 13). 
(3) The carpo-metacarpal articulation is formed above by the 
three inferior carpal bones, and below by the heads of the three met? carpal 
bones, together constituting a limited hinge joint. These surfaces above 



Fio. 11. — Anterior View of 
THE Left Knee Joint. 

A. Inferior third of the ra- 

dius. 

B. Cuneiform bone. 

C. Lunar bone. 

D. Scaphoid bone. 

E. Unciform bone. 
G. The great bone. 
H. Trapezoid bone. 

K. Superior third of meta- 
carpus. 
1. Scapho-radial ligament. 
1. External lateral ligament. 

3. 8. Internal lateral liga- 

ment. 

4. 4. Ligaments existing be- 

tween upper row of 
carpal bones. 

5. 5. Carpo-metucarpal liga- 

ment. 



KNEE JOINT. 



369. 



and below are in close apposition, and are lined by one common synovial 
capsule, which, as already mentioned, communicates with that between 
the two rows of carpal bones. . ^i • • • + 

Besides the common ligaments, there are seven proper to this joint— 
tliree anterior, two posterior, and two interosseous. 





Fig. 12. — Back View of Left 
Knee Joint, seen oblique- 
ly FROM THE Right, and 
bhowinq the deep-seated' 
Ligaments. 

A. Inferior third of radius. 

B. Pisiform bone. 

C. External small metacarpal 

bone. 

D. Internal small metacarpal 

bone. 

1. External lateral ligament. 

2. 3. Scapho-metacarpal liga- 

ment. 

4. Eadio-lunar ligament. 

6. Ligament between the pisi- 
form, unciform, and 
external small meta- 
carpal bone. 



Fio. 13.— !^CK View of 
Right Knee Joint, show 
ING the Superficial Liga- 
ments. 

A. Inferior third of radius. 

B. Superior third of large 

metacarpal bone. 

C. Internal small metacar- 

pus. 

D. External small metacarpal 

bone. 

1. Internal lateral ligament. 

2. External lateral ligament. 

3. Ligament between the ra- 

dius, Imiar, and pisi- 
form bones. 

4. 5. Ligament between the 

unciform, pisiform, and 
between the external 
small metacarpal bones. 

6. Strong band of ligament- 

ous fibres, binding down 
the flexor tendons iu 
their sheath or groove. 

7. 7. Groove for the passage 

of the perforans and 
perforatus tendons. 



Of the three anterior ligaments, the external one, covered by the external 
lateral ligament, unites the unciform bone to the outer small metacarpal 
bone. The middle one unites the os magnum to the large metacarpal bone. 
The internal one unites the trapezoid to the inner small metacarpal bone. 

The two posterior ligaments, described by Eigot, are very difficult of 
demonstration, being only with the greatest care separated from the common 
posterior ligament. One of them, however, is capable of being made out 
by dissection, as a strong band of fibres passing from the back of the 
scaphoid bone to the inner small metacarpal bone (see 2, 3, Fig. 2). 

The two interosseous ligaments ascend from the roughened depressions 

B B 



370 THE HORSE. 

existing between the three metacarpal bones to the interosseous ligaments 
of the second row. 

4. The ligaments common to the whole knee joint are four — two 
lateral, an anterior, and a posterior. 

The external lateral ligament is a thick cord, formed of two kinds of 
fibres, a deep seated and a superficial set, which take a crucial direction. 
It arises from the external lateral process of the radius, and descends 
vertically on the side of the knee joint. In its passage, it gives off a band 
to the pisiform bone, and also to the os unciforme, and terminates at the 
head of the external small metacarpal bone. This ligament lies on the 
carpal bones and capsular ligament. 

The internal lateral ligament, analogous to the preceding, and situated 
on the opposite side, is thicker and larger. It arises from the internal 
lateral process of the radius, and terminates on the supero-anterior and 
internal surface of the large metacarpal and head of the internal small 
metacarpal bones. The fibres of this ligament take a crucial direction ; in 
its passage downwards, it gives off three little bands, namely, one to the 
scaphoid bone, one to the os magnum, and one to the trapezoid. 

The anterior or capsular ligament covers the anterior face of the carpal 
articulations. Its superior edge is attached to the inferior extremity of 
the radius j its inferior edge is attached to the superior extremity of the 
large metacarpal bone ; its right and left borders are in contact with the 
lateral ligaments ; its external face is connected with tendons, &c. ; its 
internal face is lined, at certain points,. by synovial membrane. This 
ligament is formed of transverse fibres, more or less obHque, crossed and 
re-crossed. 

The posterior ligament — one of the strongest of the animal economy — 
covers the posterior surface of the knee. It is inserted superiorly into the 
transverse ridge which bounds the articular surface of the radius. At the 
posterior part of the carpal bones, it becomes attached to the inner border 
of the pisiform bone, the posterior surface of the os magnum, the cuneiform 
and scaphoid bones terminating on the postero-superior extremity of 
the large metacarpal bone. The scapho-metacarpal ligament, descnbed as 
part of the posterior ligament of the carpo-metacarpal joint, is with 
difficulty separated from this ligament. 

The knee is the centre of two vert extensive movements, namely, 
extension and flexion ; to which three others, very limited in their extent, 
may be added, namely, adduction, abduction, and circumduction. 

As already mentioned, all the carpal articulations do not take an equal 
part in the execution of these movements ; in fact, it is evident that they 
chiefly take place in the radio-carpal ginglymus, and in the imperfect 
hinge formed between the two rows of carpal bones. Each of these articu- 
lations participates in the movements of the knee, nearly in the same 
proportion, the superior perhaps being slightly the more extensive, and 
both perform their office in the same manner. 

Inflexion, the first row of bones turns from before backwards on the 
radius ; the inferior row moves in the same way on the superior row. 
The metacarpus is carried backwards and upwards, thus relaxing the 
common posterior hgament. The anterior ligament, on the contrary, is 
rendered tense. The articular surfaces, especially those of the second joint, 
separate in front from one another. 

In extension, the metacarpus is carried below and forwards by an inverse 
mechanism. This movement is arrested when the radius and the meta- 
carpus are placed in the same vertical line, as in the standing position. 



FETLOCK JOINT. 371 

In flexion, the bony radii do not directly apxjroach each other ; the 
inferior extremity of the metacarpus is always carried outwards. The 
movements of abduction, adduction, and circumduction are not able to be 
performed until the foot is bent up under the fore arm, and are then only 
capable of being very partially carried out. 

The plain arthrodial surfaces, existing between the lower row of carpal 
bones and the superior metacarpal extremity, only admit of a simple 
shding of the surfaces in contact. The limited motion of this articulation 
can have but a secondary influence over the general movements of the 
knee ; but it favours them by permitting the carpal bones to change their 
reciprocal connexions, and thence lends itself, through the medium of the 
radio-carpal and inter-carpal ginglymi, to a more exact coaptation of the 
articular surfaces which constitute them. 

INTEE-METACAEPAL AETICULATIOi^S. 

Each small metacarpal bone articulates with the large metacarpal 
bone through the medium of two diarthrodial surfaces, situated on the 
inner part of their heads ; a third, of a synarthrodia! character, occurs on 
the anterior part of the body. Each of these articulates with correspond- 
ing surfaces on the large metacarpal bone. 

An interosseous ligament, composed of very short and strong bundles, is 
interposed between the synarthrodia! surfaces, and fixes them solidly one 
on the other. 

The inter-metacarpal articulations allow only of a very shght 
vertical sliding movement. 

eetlock joint. 

The fetlock joint is formed by the junction of the inferior condyloid 
extremity of the large metacarpal bone with the biconcave surface of the 
OS sufiraginis, and by the anterior smooth surfaces of the ossa sesamoidea 
with the posterior part of the condyles of the same metacarpal bone. It is 
a perfect liinge. 

The ligaments forming the bond of union between these surfaces are as 
follow : — Eirst, those which belong to the ossa sesamoidea ; secondly, those 
which connect the os coronse and pastern together ; thirdly, a ligament 
common to both. Besides Avhich, there is a synovial capsule. 

1. The first have received the general names of the sesamoideal liga- 
ments, and are six in number, namely, three inferior, two lateral, and an 
inter-sesamoideal. 

The inferior sesamoideal ligaments are divided into three, namely, the 
superficial, the middle, and the deep. Of these the first is a narrow band, 
flattened behind and before ; arising from the middle of the fibro-cartila- 
ginous mass, which completes behind the superior articular surface of the 
OS coroniB, it continues slightly expanding as it ascends, until it reaches 
the bases of the ossa sesamoidea, to which it is inserted, mixing also with 
the inter-sesamoideal ligament. The middle is of a triangular shape, and 
is formed of three bands, two lateral and a median. It is often confounded 
mth the first ligament, although easily distinguishable from it by its lower 
insertion. Fixed in common, inferiorly, to the apex of the triangular 
ridge situated on the posterior surface of the os sufiraginis, these three 
bands diverge, the two lateral to be attached to the bases of the ossa 
sesamoidea, the median becoming confounded with the surrounding liga- 
ments. The dee%)-seated ligament is formed by two little bands, hidden by 

B B 2 



372 



THE HOUSE. 



the middle ligament, tliin and short. These are fixed above to the bases of 
the ossa sesamoidea, and below to the superior extremity of the os snflPra- 
ginis near the edge of its articular surface. Tliis ligament is in close 
contact with the synovial membrane, 

1 1. 



B 



B 



dJ 



Flo. 14. — Anterior View of Fetlock 
AND Pastern Joints. 

1. 1. 1. Ijower row of carpal bones. 

2. Metacarpal bone. 

3. External sesamoid bone. 

4. Suffragineal bone. 

5. Coronal bone. 

6. Pedal bone. 

7. Tendon of the extensor pedis. 

8. Long ligament which blends inferior!}' 

with the tendon of the extensor 
pedis. 

9. Point where the extensor tendon 

begins to expand. 
10 & 11. Points to which the extensor 

tendon is attaclied. 
12. 12. Lateral cartilages. 



Fig. 10. — Posterior View of Fetlock and 
Pastern Joints. 

A. Metacarpal bone. 

B. B. Sesamoid bones. 

C. Suffragineal bone. 

D. Coronal bone. 

E. Lateral cartilages. 

F. Navicular bone. 

1. 1. 1. Lower row of carpal bones. 

2. 2. Suspensory ligament. 

3. 3. Bifurcation of same, in order to join the 
sesamoid bones. 

4. 4. Inter-sesamoideal fibro-cartOaginous sub- 
stance. 

5. Point over which the tendon of the flexor 
pedis perforans plays. 

6. Inferior superficial sesamoideal ligament. 

7. 7. Middle inferior sesamoideal ligament, under 

wliich the deep-seated ligament is placed. 

8. 9. 10. Ligament connecting the navicular 

and coronal bones. ' 
11. Ligament connecting the pedal and navicular 
bones. 

The latei^al sesamoideal ligaments are formed by two thin plates, which 
extend from the base of each sesamoid bone to the tubercle which exists 
on the superior side of the os coronae. On their internal faces they are 
liued with synovial membrane. 

The inter-sesamoideal ligament consists of fibro-cartilaginous substance, 
which runs from the posterior part of one sesamoid bone to that of the 
other, spreading over the external surface of the outer, and internal surface 
of the inner bone. It is composed of the fibro-cartilaginous substance in 
which the ossa sesamoidea were originally developed. This mass of 
fibrous matter, in common with the posterior and internal faces of the 
two bones, forms the smooth pulley-like groove over which the flexor 
tendons play. 



PASTERN" JOINT. 373 

2. The ligaments comiecting the cannon-hone to the jiastem (or, in scien- 
tific language, the metacarpus to the os suifraginis), ai'e three, namely, two 
lateral and a capsular. 

Uach later-al ligament consists of two bundles of fibres, one superficial 
and one deep-seated^ firmly united together at their adjacent surfaces. 
The superficial arises from a projection on the infero-lateral part of the 
large metacarpal bone, just above the condyloid surface. It descends 
vertically, so as to terminate on the lateral parts of the superior extremity 
of the OS sufifraginis. The deep-seated one is attached strongly to the 
excavation on the lateral surfaces of the anterior extremity of the large 
metacarpal bone, and directs its course from the ossa sesamoidea to the 
superior extremity of the os suffraginis, where it is fixed, by mixing its 
fibres with the lateral sesamoideal ligaments. 

The ca2isular ligame^it is a very resisting membranous expansion, which 
is attached to the edges of the cartilaginous articular surfaces of the bones 
composing this joint. It is internally lined with synovial membrane. 

The sus2)ensory ligament, which should be carefully studied on account 
of the numerous accidents to which it is liable, is attached to all four of 
the bones entering into this joint, and may be described as being composed 
of a strong band of white fibrous tissue, sometimes having intermixed a 
few bundles of muscular tissue. It is thin and comparatively weak 
towards the knee, but as it approaches the fetlock joint, it almost equals 
the back sinews in substance, and its volume and wiriness to the touch 
may be taken as some test of the power of any particular leg in resisting a 
" break down." Occuj^ying the space between the two small metacarpal 
bones, and lying close against the large metacarpal, it arises from the 
posterior common ligament of the knee joint, from a projection on the 
back of the large metacarpal bone just below it, and from the inner sides 
of the heads of the small metacarpals. Descending thence close to the 
large metacarpal bones, it splits into two strong bands, each of which is 
attached to the upper edge of the corresponding sesamoid bone, a few 
fibres passing on to re-unite below the joint and become continuous with 
the tendon of the extensor pedis in front of the os coronte. 

The synovial capsule of the fetlock joint is prolonged forwards in the 
form of a cul de sac lining the bifurcation of the suspensory ligament. 
There is also frequently developed, in front of the joint, a jjouch com- 
municating with this capsule which lines the posterior surface of the 
extensor tendons. 

The movements of the fetlock joint are almost entii-ely confined to 
flexion and extension, a very slight lateral motion being permitted when 
the ligaments are relaxed, as in passive flexion of the leg. 

THE PASTERi^r JOINT. 

The several parts which enter into the formation of this joint are the 
two lateral condyles on the inferior extremity of the os suifraginis, and 
the corresponding cavities on the os coroncs. This last surface is com- 
pleted behind by a very dense and thick fibro-cartilage, -which acts partly 
as a ligament, and partly by increasing the depth of the articular surface. It 
is attached above by six fibrous bands, of which two are continuous with 
the inferior sesamoideal ligaments, and four pass on to the sides of the os 
suffraginis. Below it is fixed to the os coronce, between the articular sur- 
face and the tubercle behind it. This fibro-cartilage forms a smooth surface 
posteriorly for the flexor pedis perforans to play over, and is continuous 




374 rilE HORSE. 

on eacla side with tlie two divisions of the flexor perforatus. In addition 
to these structures, and the synovial capsules lining them, the joint is pro- 
tected by two lateral ligaments, and in front by the extensor tendon. 

Fig. 16. — External View op the Pas- 
tern Joint. 

A. Inferior third of the large metacarpal 
bone. 

B. External sesamoid bone. 

C. Suffragineal bone. 

D. Coronal bone. 

E. Navicular bone. 

F. Pedal bone. 

1. One division of the suspensory liga- 
ment. 

2. Lateral sesamoideal ligament (external). 

3. Ligamentous fibres given to the ex- 
tensor pedis tendon by the suspen- 
sory ligament. 

4. Inferior superficial sesamoideal liga- 
ment. 

5. 6. 7. Extensor pedis tendon. 
S. External lateral phalangio-pedal liga- 
ment. 

9. External lateral cartilage. 

The lateral ligaments, thick and strongs take an oblique direction from 
above downwards, and from before backwards, one on each side of the joint. 
They arise from two depressions, just below the tubercles on the lateral 
parts of the os suffraginis, and terminate at the superior edge of the os 
coronse. Their lowest fibres prolong themselves beyond this bone to gain 
the extremities of the os naviculare, and constitute the posterior lateral 
ligaments of the coffin joint. 

The synovial membrane lines the posterior surface of the extensor ten- 
dons anteriorly, the lateral ligaments, and the fibro-cartUage ; it forms 
posteriorly a cul de sac, which mounts up between this and the posterior 
surface of the os suffraginis. 

The MOVEMENTS of this joint are simply of extension and flexion when 
the muscles are in action ; but when they are relaxed there is some slight 
lateral motion. 

THE COFFm JOINT. 

The coffin joint is made up of the lov/er end of the os corona), in- 
serted in the concavity of the pedal bone, and supported behind by the 
navicular bone. These are lined by one continuous synovial capside, 
and protected by ligaments which may be divided into two sets. First, 
those connecting the os coronaj to the os pedis. Secondly, that between 
the OS naviculare and the os pedis, which is of an interosseous character, 
beiQg short, and composed of very strong fibres ; and thirdly, the liga- 
ment on each side connecting: the os na'vdculare with the coronet. 

Fig. 17.' — Posterior View of 
THE Coffin Joint. 

A. Coronal bone. 

B. Nawoular bone. 

C. Pedal bone. 

1. Corono-navieular ligament. 

2. 2. Lateral ligaments of tlie 
navicular bone. 

3. Pedo-navicular ligament. 

1. The corono-'pedal ligaments are two on each side, one anterior and the 
other posterior. The former consist of two large, thick and short bundles 
of fibres attached above to the sides of the os coronse, and below to the 
lateral edges of the cacumen coronas of the pedal bone. (See page 341.) 




HIP JOINT. 375 

Each is partly covered posteriorly by the lateral cartilage in which it 
becomes lost, while the anterior edge is continuous with the tendon of 
the extensor pedis. The posterior lateral ligament on each side com- 
mences above from the lower fibres of the lateral ligament of the pastern 
joint, and from the sides of the lower end of the os coronae. It descends 
obliquely backwards, and is inserted in the retrossal process of the pedal 
bone, and in the upper edge of the lateral cartilage. 

2. Between tlie os naviculare and the os pedi^ is a very short but strong 
band of fibres in the nature of an interosseous ligament. It arises from 
the groove on the lower and fore edge of the os uaviculare, and passes 
forward to be attached to the back part of the plantar surface of the pedal 
bone. 

3. Tivo lateral ligaments, one on each side, attach the os naviculare to 
the sides of the coronal bone. 

The synovial membrane is inserted around the margins of the cartila- 
ginous articular surfaces of the os coronce, os pedis, and os navicidare ; in 
front it is attached to the tendon of the extensor pedis, at the posterior 
part of the os naviculare, and between this surface and the tendon of the 
flexor pedis perforans another capsule occurs. 

The movements of the coffin joint are similar to those of the fetlock 
and pastern, with the addition of a very limited gliding motion enjoyed 
between the os naviculare and os pedis. 

THE HIP JOINT. 

The coxo-fbmoral articulation, or hip joint, is formed by the 
cotyloid cavity of the os innominatum receiving the globular head of 
the femur. The articular surfaces of each are clothed with cartilage, 
excepting at the notch in the former, and a rough surface on the internal 
side of the latter, to which the round ligament is attached. 




Fig. is. — Profile View of Left Hip Joint. 

1. Iliac portion of os innominatum. 5. Cotyloid ligament. 

2. Ischium. 6. 6. Capsular ligament covering the 
s! Femur. ' cotyloid ligament. 

4. Trochanter major estemus. 

The ligaments of this articulation are the pubio-femoral, cotyloid, 
transverse, round or ligamentum teres, and capsular. 



376 THE HORSE. 

The puhio-fenioral is situated above the cotyloid ligament, but takes a 
course under the transverse ligament. It arises from the edge of the 
acetabulum, and from the notch in the liead of the os femoris, in company 
with the ligamentum teres, and is inserted at the symphysis pubis, -where 
it meets its fellow on the opposite side. 

The edge of the acdahulxim is deepened by a layer of fibro-cartilage, 
called the cotyloid ligament. This bridges across the notch, and forms a 
complete circle. 

At the notch in the edge of the acetabulum, where the fibres of the 
cotyloid ligament cross one another, and are continued from side to side, 
so as to render the circumference complete, some fibres are added distinct 
from the fibro-cartilage, and being both looser and broader, have been 
named the transverse ligament. 

The inter-articular round ligament, or ligamentum teres, is composed of 
three fasciculi of fibres, forming a thick, dense body, attached by one 
extremity, which is round, to the pit in the head of the os femoris, and 
by the other, which is broad and trifid, to the margias of the cotyloid 
notch, where its fibres are blended with the fibro- cartilaginous ring and 
transverse ligament. 

The ca2)sular ligament is attached by one extremity to the margin of 
the acetabulum, and by the other to the edge of the cartilaginous surface 
of the head of the femur. The superior circular edge of this capsule 
is chiefly attached to the bone within four or five lines of the cotyloid 
ligament. 




Pig. 19.— View of Hjp-Joint. 



1. 1. Iliac portion of os innominatum. 5. Pubio-femoral ligament. 

2. Femur. 6. Transverse ligament. 

3. Head of femur. 7. Ligamentum teres, or round ligiunent 

4. Ischium. S. Obturator foramen. 

Movements. — The coxo-femoral articulation is one of the joints which 
enjoys the most extensive and varied movements; namely, flexion, exten- 
sion, abduction, adduction, circumduction, and rotation of the thigh upon 
the pelvis. The mechanism of these diverse movements is most simple. 

STIFLE JOINT, OE COXO-FEMORAL AETICULATIOK 

The stifle joint is formed by the union of the inferior extremity of 
the femur, with the superior extremity of the tibia, and the posterior 
surface of the patella. 



STIFLE JOI^T. 



377 




Fio. 



Articulatory surfaces. — To coustitute this articulation, the femur 
opposes at one part its two condyles to the large undulating surfaces on 
the upper extremity of the lateral tuberosities of the tibia : at the otlior 
part its trochlear articulatory surface, to the 
posterior face of the patella. Between the tibia 
and femur are the two semilunar cartilages. 

The semilunar fihro-cartilages are two crescent- 
shaped bodies, placed on the articulating surfaces 
at the head of the tibia, and interposed between 
these and the condyles of the femur. The outer 
border of each is thick and convex, the inner 
thin and concave ; leaving the central parts of 
the superior surface of the tibia uncovered by 
them. The internal semilunar cartilage is nearly 
of a semi-circular form ; larger and thinner than 
the external, it is inserted by its anterior ex- 
tremity to an excavation in front of the tibial 
spine, and by its posterior extremity to a little 
pit behind the spine : it is in close relation 
with the posterior crucial ligaments. The ex- 
ternal semilunar cartilage fixes itself in front, 
near the anterior insertion of the opposite fibro- 
cartilage : its posterior extremity gives off tAvo 
cords, one superior, the other inferior. The 
former, which is the longer and stronger of the 
two, is attached to the fossa at the back of 
the space between the condyles. The latter, 
thinner and broader, is spread out upon the 
posterior edge of the external tibial articulating 
' surface. 

The synovial membrane lines the contiguous 
surfaces of the parts entering into the compo- 
sition of the stifle joint. Commencing to trace 
the reflections of this membrane at the border of 
the patella, it will be found to line the capsule, 
but below that bone it is separated from the an- 
terior ligaments by a considerable quantity of adipose tissue, -which prolongs 
itself to the inter-condyloid hollow, where it is attached ; from this it is 
reflected over the semilunar cartilages, around the crucial ligaments, and 
forms a partial covering for them, inclosing them as far as their attach- 
ments. At the sides of the patella it forms two shght folds, the ligamenta 
alaria. Finally it ascends in front of the femur, and passes dowmvard to 
the margin of the patella. 

The ligaments are, first, those which unite the femur to the tibia, con- 
sisting of the lateral, the crucial, the posterior, the transverse, and the 
capsular ; and, secondly, those uniting the patella to the tibia, which are 
three, an external, a middle, and an internal. 

1. The lateral ligaments are fibrous bands, situated on the sides of the 
articulation, more behind than in front; they become relaxed during 
flexion, and hold the bones strongly together during extension. The 
External, a rounded, cord-like fasciculus of fibres (the longer and stronger) 
passes from the tuberosity of the external condyle of the femur to the 
head of the fibula ; its direction is almost vertical. The Internal, broad 
and flat, connects the tuberosity of the internal condyle of the femur 



20. — Posterior View of 
Stifle Joint. 

A. Inferior third of femur. 

B. B. Condyles. 

D. Siiperior tliiid of the tihia. 

E. Fibula. 

F. Patella. 

1. Internal lateral ligament o 

the patella. 

2. External lateral ligament of 

the femoro-tihial articula- 
tion. 

3. Internal lateral ligament ot 

the fenioro-tibial articula- 
tion. 

4. Posterior crucial ligament. 

5. 5. Semilunar cartilages. 



378 



THE HORSE. 



with, the upper and inner edge of the tuberosity of the tibia. It adheres 
to the internal semilunar cartilage. 

The crucial or interosseous ligaments are placed at the posterior part of 
tlie joint, external to the synovial membrane, but partially invested by it. 
Their direction is oblique, so that they cross or decussate somewhat like 
the letter X. One is named the anterior, the other the posterior. The 
Anterior is fixed by its inferior extremity to the groove formed on the 
summit of the tibial spine, and by its superior extremity to the inter- 
condyloid hollow, and to the inner part of the external condyle. The 
fibres which enter into its composition are slightly bent and spiral. The 
Posterior, longer than the preceding, and oblique, is attached inferiorly 
to the back part of the pit behind the tibial spme, and superiorly to the 
fore part of the inter- condyloid hollow, as well as slightly to the side 
of the inner condyle of the femur ; its fibres are directed upwards and 
forwards. 

The posterior ligament, ligamentum posticum, belongs to the class of 
membranous ligaments ; it is formed of white and yellow fibres, which 
interlace with one another in different ways, and is pierced by numerous 
openings for the transit of blood-vessels, &c. It is attached by its superior 
border beneath the condyles of the femur, and 
by its inferior to the posterior circumference 
of the superior tibial surface. Its internal 
surface embraces the condyles of the femur, 
and adheres to the posterior crucial ligament, 
as well as to the inter-articular semilunar car- 
tilages. 

The transverse ligament. — Towards the front 
of the joint the convex borders of the inter- 
articular fibro- cartilages are connected together 
by a transverse band, denominated the trans-* 
verse ligament. 

Under the head of the capsular ligament are 
described certaia strong portions of fibrous 
membrane which cover exposed parts of the 
synovial sac. The first, the longest and 
strongest, terminates in the pit situated on the 
inter-condyliue hollow. The second, thin and 
flattened, is inserted upon the external surface 
of the tibia. The thu-d passes from the outer 
edge of the patella to the external condyle of 
the femur (see i. Figs. 21 and 22). The fourth 
corresponds with this on the inner side of the 
joint. These are sometimes described as inde- 
jiendent ligaments. 

2. Ligaments op the patella. The ex- 
ternal lateral ligament is the longest and 
strongest, being a flattened band attached by 
its inferior extremity to the supero-anterior 
point of the tuberosity of the tibia, and by its 
superior to the anterior surface of the patella. 

4. 4. External ligament of tiie This ligament is United to the internal liga- 

5. 5. Semilunar fibro-cartiiages. mcnt by an aponeurotic expansion, which is 

very resisting. 
The internal ligament of tlie patella forms also a flattened band, longer, 




Fio. 21. — ExTEUNAL View of the 
Left Stifle Joint. 

A. Femur. 

B. External condyle of femur. 

C. Trochlea. 

D. Tibia. 

E. Fibula. 
E. Patella. 

1. Strong band of fibres. 

2. External lateral ligament, or 

tlie capsular ligament, con- 
necting tlie patella with 
the external condj'le. 
Great ligament of the pa- 
tella. 



3. 



HOCK JOINT. 379 

but not so large as, and thinner than, the preceding. Its inferior extremity 
is attached to the internal side of the anterior tuberosity of the tibia. Its 
superior extremity, much thickened, becomes fibro-cartilaginous, and is 
inserted in the projection on the inner and upper border of the patella. 

The middle ligament, a rounded cord (situated, as its name indicates, 
between the two preceding ligaments), covers and assists in protecting the 
synovial capsule in front. 

Movements. — During flexion and extension, which are the chief motions 
permitted, the semilunar fibro-cartilages which are fixed on the superior 
tibial surfaces, transforming them into glenoid cavities, move upon the 
condyles of the femur, from before backwards, or from behind forwards, 
according to the movement executed. But at the same time they glide, in 
a very appreciable manner, upon the superior extremity of the tibia. 
Thus, at the time of flexion, they move from behind forwards upon this 
extremity, and are brought backwards during extension. Eotation takes 
place from within to without, or vice versa, and is produced not only by 
the first movement of the condyles in their glenoid cavities, but by the 
displacing of the semilunar cartilages on the superior extremity of the 
tibia. 

TIBIO-FIBULAR AETICULATIOK 

This articulation is formed by the union of the little arthrodial spot, 
found at the internal surface of the head of the fibula, with a cor- 
responding surface upon the external and superior tuberosity of the tibia. 
Short and strong fibres envelop these surfaces on the sides, and keep 
them firmly in contact. The fibula is again attached to the tibia — 1st, 
above, by little ligamentous bundles, crossed in the shape of an X, which 
form the superior part of the arcade, or bridge, formed between the tibia 
and fibula ; 2d, in the middle, by a sort of aponeurotic membrane, of 
which the breadth diminishes from above downwards, like that of the 
interval which it fills; 3d, beloAV, by a ligamentous band, which joins 
the fibula to the external tuberosity of the inferior extremity of the tibia, 
where this cord divides and unites with the two external lateral ligaments 
of the tibio-tarsal articulation. 

The movements of this articulation are very limited, 

THE HOCK JOINT. 

Two BONES only concur to form the ginglymus, or true hinge, consti- 
tuting the hock joint : these are the tibia and astragalus. l\vo articulatory 
surfaces are situated on the sides of the inferior extremity of the tibia, 
presenting two cavities, separated by an eminence, upon which a little 
spot often exists, uncovered by cartilage of encrustation. The astragalus 
presents, on its antero-superior border, two semicircular prominences, 
separated by a deep cavity which exactly corresponds to the inferior tibial 
eminence just mentioned, all being covered by cartilage. 

The tibia and astragalus are united by seven ligaments : two external 
lateral, three internal lateral, one anterior, and a posterior. 

The external lateral ligaments are two, distinguished according to their 
relative position. The siij)erficial external ligament is a large cord, flat- 
tened in its inferior half It descends from the external tuberosity of the 
tibia, behind the groove which separates this into two parts : taking a 
vertical course, it attaches itself successively to the astragalus, the os 
calcis, OS cuboides, the large metatarsal bone, and to the head of the small 
external metatarsal bones. This ligament gives off fibres, anteriorly to 



380 



THE HORSE. 



the tendon of the extensor pedis, and beliind it mixes with the calcaneo- 
metatarsal ligament. The deep-seated external ligament, much shorter than 
the preceding, is attached superiorly upon the anterior part of the external 




Fig. 22. — External View of 
THE Hock Joint. 

A. Tibia. 

B. External malleolus of tibia. 

C. Os calcis. 

D. Large metatarsal bone. 

E. Capsular ligament opened and 

partially removed. 

F. Prominence in head of ex- 

ternal small metatarsal 
bone, sometimes mistaken 
for curb. 

G. Astragalus. 

H. Cuboid bone. t 

1. Scaphoid bone. 
K. Cuneiform bone. 

2. 2. Calcaneo-tibial ligament. 

3. & 4. Ligaments between the 

astragalus and os caluis. 

5. Cuboido-metatarsal ligament. 

6. Great calcaneo-cuboid liga- 

ment. 



tuberosity of the tibia ; it takes a course obliquely downwards, to the 
outer side of the astragalus and os calcis. where it is attached. 

The interned lateral ligaments. — These are three cord-like bands, of which 
there is one superficial, one median, and one deep-seated. The superficial 
internal ligament, the strongest and largest of the three, arises from the 



Fig. 23. — Internal View of 
THE Hock Joint. 

A. Tibia. 

B. Internal malleolus. 

C. Os calcis. 

D. Large metatarsal bone. 

E. Internal small metatarsal 
bone. 

F. External small metatarsa 
bone. 

G. Astragalus. 
H. Scaphoid bone. 

1. 1. Ligament common to the 
os calcis, astragalus, and 
internal small metatarsal 
bone. 

2. Ligament between the tibia 
and astragalus. 

3. Calcaneo - astragalan liga- 
ment. 

4. Ligament between the as- 
tragalus and OS calcis. 

5. Calcaneo-cuboid ligament. 
C. Calcaneo - metatarsal liga- 
ment. 

iniero-internal tuberosity of the tibia, and inserts itself on the astragalo- 
metatarsal ligament, to the tuberosity on the internal surface of the astra- 
galus, the small cuneiform bone, and to the internal borders of the two 
remaining tarsal bones, viz. the scaphoid and cuneiform, and to the upper 
and inner surface of the large metatarsal bone, and head of the inner small 
splint bone. The median internal ligament is composed of two cords, 
attached in common beneath the preceding, to the internal tuberosity of 
the tibia ; they take a course backwards and downwards, and terminate, 




HOCK JOINT. 381 

one on the astragalus, the other upon the lower and inner surface of the 
OS calcis. The internal deep ligament is an extremely thin band ; it is 
attached ahove to the tibia, just below the attachment of the middle liga- 
ment, and below to the astragalus, nearly at the same j^oint as the superior 
insertion of the middle ligament. 

The anterior ligament is a thin layer, formed of decussating fibres, 
stronger without than "within, attached by its superior edge to the tibia, and 
by its inferior edges to the astragalus and to the os cuneiforme parvum. 

The posterior ligament, similar in structure to the anterior, is attached 
to the same bones, behind their articular surfaces. 

The synovial membrane is developed on the internal surfaces of the two 
capsular hgaments, covered also by the three internal and the external 
deep ligaments. 

Movements. — This joint allows only of flexion and extension ; but to 
avoid contact between the foot and the tibia in the act of flexion, the 
tibio-astragalan articulation causes the bones below to deviate outwards, 
owing to the obliquity of the articular surfaces. 

ARTICULATION'S BETWEEN THE BONES OF THE TAESIJS. 

The calcaneo-asteagalan articulation, between the bones of the 
first row, is a compound arthrodia, resulting from the coaptation of three 
or four articular surfaces on the posterior face of the astragalus to cor- 
responding facettes on the antero-inferior part of the os calcis. The lateral 
hgaments of the tibio-tarsal articulation are common to this joint; and we 
also have four ligaments proper to it, a superior, external, internal, and an 
interosseous ligament. 

The superior astragalo-calcanean ligament, formed of very short and 
parallel fibres thrown from one bone to the other, is situated near the 
superior extremity of the trochlear astragalan surface, and lined by the 
synovial membrane of the tibio-tarsal articulation. 

The lateral ligaments are two very thin bundles, which unite the os 
calcis to the astragalus laterally, hidden under the ligaments which bind 
the tibia to the tarsus, 

The interosseous ligament is very strong, and occupies a great part of 
the roughened excavations which separate the arthrodial surfaces of the 
os calcis and astragalus. These do not possess proper synovial membranes, 
that is, membranes proper to each, with the exception of one, formed on 
the upper and outer part of this articulation, where a distinct synovial 
membrane exists. The superior arthrodial surface is, however, sometimes 
supplied with synovial membrane, by a prolongation from the tibio- 
tarsal capsule. Two prolongations ascend from the capsule of this articu- 
lation below the inferior arthrodial surfaces of the os calcis and astragalus, 
and thus facilitate a gliding motion, which is very limited. 

The movements are so limited as to be almost nuU. 

In the articulations op the bones op the second row among them- 
selves, the cuboid bone joins with the os scaphoides by two arthrodial 'sur- 
faces, one anterior, the other posterior ; and also with the os cuneiforme 
magnum by two similar surfaces. The os scaphoides articulates with 
the magnum by a vast convex surface; the cuneiforme and magnum 
articulate internally and laterally with the parvum. 

The ligaments which keep these diarthrodial surfaces in contact are 
numerous. The astragalo-metatarsal and the posterior tarso-metatarsal 
ligaments are common to this articulation. They consist of — 

Two anterior ligaments, running from the cuboid to the os scaphoides 



382 THE HOUSE. 

and magnum, one above and the other below the groove between these 
three bones. 

Two interosseous ligaments from the superior and inferior sides of the 
forenamed groove. 

An interosseous ligament, running from the os scaphoides to the cunei- 
forme parvum. 

Ail interosseous ligament, running from the os scaphoides to the cunei- 
forme magnum. 

The SYNOViAii membrane is formed between the os scaphoides and os 
cuneiforme : this membrane belongs also to the two arthrodial surfaces 
existing on the upper parts of the internal surface of the os cuboides and 
OS cuneiforme parvnm. A capsule proper also exists between the superior 
surface of the astragalus, the superior surface of the os scaphoides, and os 
cuboides. As to the arthrodial surfaces between the os cuneiforme medium 
on the one side, and the os cuboides and cuneiforme parvum on the other, 
they are supplied with synovial membranes by two prolongations from the 
tarso-metatarsal synovial capsule. 

Movements. — Scarcely any. 

j^ETicuLATiONS BETWEEN THE TWO ROWS. — This arthrodia is formed by 
the imion of the inferior extremity of the astragalus and os calcis, on the 
one part, with the superior extremity of the os scaphoides and os cuboides 
on the other. This articulation has six principal ligaments. 

The two superficial lateral ligaments of the tibio-tarsal articulation. 

The calcaneo-metatarsal ligament, which unites the posterior border of 
the OS calcis to the cuboid bone and to the head of the external small 
metatarsal bone. 

The astragalo-metatarsal ligament is a large radiating fasciculus, whose 
fibres run from the tuberosity of the astragalus, diverge, and become con- 
founded with the internal superficial tarsal ligaments on the ossa cunei- 
forme magnum, scaphoides, and the superior extremity of the large meta- 
tarsal bone. 

The posterior tarso-metatarsal ligament is very strong, and unites, poste- 
riorly, the tarsal bones to the three metatarsal bones ; it is continuous 
below with the suspensory ligament ; it mixes at the sides with the cal- 
caneo-metatarsal ligament, and with the internal and superficial tarsal 
ligament. 

An interosseous ligament is attached to the four bones which form this 
articulation. 

It is provided with a synovial capsule, which always communicates 
in front with the tibio-tarsal capsule. This capsule prolongs itself supe- 
riorly between the os calcis and astragalus, to lubricate the two inferior 
arthrodial surfaces between these bones. It also descends between the 
OS scaphoides, os cuboides, and the little arthrodial spots between the 
os cuneiforme and os cuboides. 

Movements. — Yery limited ; gliding motion is only enjoyed. 

THE TAESO-METATAESAL AETICULATIOK 

This joint is formed by the meeting of three bones of the tarsus 
(the cuboid, os cuneiforme magnum, and os cuneiforme parvum), with the 
superior extremities of the three metatarsal bones, which are kept ii) 
contact through the medium of. the superficial lateral ligaments of the 
tibio-tarsal articulation, the calcaneo-metatarsal and astragalo-metatarsal 
ligaments, and by a strong interosseous Hgament, divided into three fas- 
ciculi, which are attached inferiorly to the three metatarsal bones. 



PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLE. 333 

The proper synovial capsule of this joint mounts between the 
cuboido-scaph.oid arthrodial surfaces and those which unite the ossa cunei- 
forms magnum and parvum ; it descends between the inter-metatarsal 
articulations. 

Movements. — Similar to the preceding. 

INTEE-LIETATAESAL AETICULATION-S. 

These are precisely similar to the inter-metacarpal articulations described 
at page 371. 

REI^IAmiXG ARTICULATIOi^S of the POSTEETOR MEMBERS. 
The descriptions of the several joints of the fore limbs at pages 
372, 373, 374. will suffice for those of the hind legs. 



CHAPTER XX. 

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 

PHYSIOLOGT OF MUSCLE — CUTANEOUS MUSCLES— MUSCLES OF THE HEAD — ANTERIOR 
MAXILLARY REGION — MUSCLES WHOSE OFFICE IT IS TO MOVE THE LOWER JAW — 
MUSCLES OP THE EXTERNAL EAR — OF THE EYELIDS — OCULAR REGION— MUSCLES OP 

THE TONGUE— OP THE PHARYNX LARYNGEAL REGION SUPERFICIAL MUSCLES OP 

THE NECK AND TRUNK LATERAL CERVICAL REGION INFERIOR CERVICAL REGION 

— INFERIOR CERVICO-OCCIPITAL REGION — SUPERIOR CERVICO-OCCIPITAL REGION — 
MUSCLES CONNECTING THE SCAPULA WITH THE HEAD, NECK, AND TRUNK — OF THE 

THORAX — DORSAL REGION — MUSCLES OF THE ABDOMEN SUPERFICIAL ABDOMINAL 

REGION — DEEP ABDOMINAL REGION — PELVIC REGION — MUSCLES OF THE FORE 

EXTREMITY EXTERNAL SCAPULAR REGION — ANTERO-INFERIOR SCAPULAR REGION 

INTERNAL SCAPULAR REGION — POSTERO-INTERNAL SCAPULAR REGION — • POSTERO- 
EXTERNAL SCAPULAR REGION ANTERO-EXTERNAL HUMERAL REGION POSTERO- 
INTERNAL HUMERAL REGION— MUSCLES OF THE ARM AND FORE-LEG — MUSCLES OP 
THE HAUNCH — GLUTEAL REGION — EXTERNAL ILIO-FEMORAL REGION — ANTERIOR ILIO- 
FEMORAL REGION — INTERNAL ILIOFEMORAL REGION — DEEP MUSCLES OP THE ILIO- 
FEMORAL REGION — ANTERIOR FEMORO-CRURAL REGION — POSTERIOR FEMORO-CRURAI 
REGION. 

PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLE. 

liViTH trilling exceptions the whole of the movements of the body 
and limbs are performed by the agency of that peculiar substance, known 
in our butchers' shops as "flesh," and recognised by anatomists as mus- 
cular tissue. This constitutes the chief bulk of the soft parts external 
to the three great cavities (the cranial, thoracic, and abdominal), and in 
the half-starved subject of the knacker or highly-trained racehorse, in 
which the fat has almost entirely disappeared, the ordinary observer will 
detect nothing but muscles (with their tendons) and bones beneath the 
skin covering the limbs. On the trunk they are spread out into layers 
varying in tliickness, sometimes interrupted by flat tendons, so as to 
form, at the same time, a protection to the organs within, easily capable 
of extension or contraction, and a means of moving the several parts upon 
each other. 

Tendons resemble ligaments in being composed of Avhite fibrous tissue, 
described at page 351. They serve to connect muscle with bone, and are 



3S-t TEE HORSE. 

useful as affording an agent for this purpose of mucli less comp&ss tLan 
nuiscle itself, and also of a structure not so easily injured by external 
violence. Thus they are generally met with around the joints, the nius 
cular substance cliiefly occupying the space between them. There are 
three varieties of tendon — 1. Funicular, consisting of cord-like bands ; 
2. Fascicular, including bands of a flatter and more expanded nature ; 
and 3. AjMneitrotic, which are membranous, and are chiefly met with 
around the abdomen. The fibres are firmly attached to the bones, which 
generally jiresent rough sui'faces for tliis purpose, and are also closely 
incorporated with the periosteum. This union is so strong, that it very 
rarely gives way ; and when extreme violence is used, either the bone 
itself breaks, or the tendon snaps in its middle. Tendons are non-elastic. 

To THE NAKED EYE, an Ordinary muscle appears to be comjiosed of a 
number of small bundles of fibres, arranged in parallel lines, and con- 
nected hj a fine membrane. These bundles may still further be separated 
into what seem at first to be elementary fibres ; but when placed in the 
microscope, they are found to be themselves made up of finer fibres united 
into fasciculi by delicate filaments. These ultimate fibrillte are polyhedral 
in section, according to the observations of Mr. Bowman, so as to pack 
closely together, and are variable in size in different classes and genera of 
animals. They also differ in appearance, one class presenting stripes 
Avhile the other is without them. The former includes all the muscles 
whose movements are under the control of the will as well as those of the 
heart, and some of the fibres of the CESophagus, while the latter is com- 
posed of the muscles investing the stomach, intestines, bladder, &c., 
which are comprehended under the general term involuntary. 

The Sarcolemma is the name given by Mr. Bowman to the areolar 
tissue investing each fibre, sometimes also called myolemma. It is very 
delicate and transparent, but tough and elastic ; in general it has no appear- 
ance of any specific structure, but sometimes it presents an aspect as if 
there was an interweaving of filaments. 

When a pibrilla of striated muscle is examined under the microscope 
of a liigh magnifying poAver, it is seen to present a beaded appearance, as 
if made up of a linear aggregation of distinct cells, alternately light and 
dark. "When the fibrilla is relaxed, each cell is longer than it is broad ; 
but, during the action of the muscle, it assumes the opposite dimensions, 
the increase in one diameter being always in proportion to the diminution 
fif the other. As the contraction takes place the substance becomes firmer 
than before, but the bulk remains the sanie, the mass merely gaining in 
thiclaiess what it has lost in length. The application of certain stimu- 
lating agents will produce the contraction for a certaiu period after life 
is destroyed, varying according to the vitality of the animal experimented 
upon and the nature of the individuah muscle. This is called irritability 
in the striated muscles, which exhibit powerful contractions, alternating 
with relaxations — while in the involuntary muscles a more steady, per- 
manent, and moderate contraction is met with, to which the name of 
tonicity has been given. 

Pure muscular fibre appears to be identical in composition with the 
fibrme of the blood, being made up of about seventy-seven parts Avater, 
fifteen and a half parts fibrine, and seven and a half parts of fixed salts. The 
whole of the flesh of the body is largely supplied with blood, and it is 
found by experiment, on the one hand, that if this is cut off contraction 
ceases very speedily after ; and on the other, that in proportion to the 
ainount of muscular action will be the demand for fresh supplies of blood. 



CUTANEOUS MUSCLES. 385 

None of tlie striated muscles, except the heart and the muscles of respira- 
tion, can go on acting without intervals of rest, during which repairs in 
their structure are effected. If, therefore, the voluntary muscles are to 
be brought into the highest state of vigour and development of size, they 
must be regularly exercised and rested at proper intervals. During the 
former condition blood is attracted to them, and at the same time that 
fluid itself is rendered more fit for the purposes of nutrition ; while during 
the latter period the increased flow of blood continuing allows for a com- 
plete reparation of the tissues. Thus we find the muscles of the well- 
trained racehorse full and firm to the touch j but if sufficient intervals of 
rest are not allowed between his gallops, they will present a very different 
feel, being flabby and wasted, and indicating that he has been " over- 
marked." 

The voluntary muscles assume various shapes, according to their posi- 
tions and ofiices. Sometimes they are merely long strips of muscular 
tissue, with a very short tendon at each end, as in the levator humeri, 
and are then called fusiform. At others their fibres radiate, as in the 
latissimus dorsi, which is hence called a radiating muscle. A tliird set 
are called penniforryi, from their fibres being attached to one side of a 
tendon, or bipenniforni, when they are fixed to both sides like the full 
tail or wing feather of a bird. A muscle with two masses of its. tissue 
connected in the middle by a tendon is called digastric. 

The special nomenclature of muscles is founded upon : 1st, their posi- 
tion, as tibialis, pterygoideus, zygomaticus ; 2d, upon their action, as 
flexor, extensor, levator ; 3d, upon their direction, as obliquus, rectus, 
ti-ansversalis ; 4th, upon their attachments, as scapulo ulnaris ; and 
5th, upon their division into separate portions or heads, as biceps, 
triceps, digastricus, &c. 

In describing each muscle it is usual to speak of it as having an 
origin from one bone, or set of bones, and an insertion into another, the 
former term being generally assigned to the more fixed division of the two. 
This is, however, merely for the sake of convenience, and is entirely 
arbitrary. 

BuRSiE MUCOSAE, which are shut sacs, varying in size from that of a pea to 
a moderate pear, and lined with synovial membrane (see page 352), are placed 
on all the prominent points of bone over which tendons glide. Thus there 
is a large one on the point of the hock, and another on the elbow, both of 
which sometimes inflame and become filled with synovia, constituting the 
states known as capped hock and elbow. A third situation is just above the 
sesamoid bones, where the swelling from inflammation receives the name 
of windgall. Where, as in the legs, the tendons have to glide to a great 
extent, they are invested with synovial sheaths, which are bound down by 
white fibrous tissue at the points where the strain is the greatest. In the 
limbs the muscles are bound up into masses by strong but thin layers of 
intercrossed white fibrous tissue, which receives the name of fascia. In 
the horse this is very firmly attached to the surface of the muscles beneath, 
and greatly interferes with the clean dissection of them. 

CUTANEOUS MUSCLES. 

Immediately beneath the skin there is a thin layer of muscle, spread 
over nearly the whole surface of the body, and called panniculus carnosus. 
It is attached internally to some of the most prominent points of the 
skeleton, chiefly through the intervention of the fascia, which binds down 

c c 



386 



THE HORSE. 



tlie various groups of muscles. Externally it is inserted at short intervals 
into the inner surface of the skin, and into the cellular membrane beneath 
it. Its action is to throw the skin into folds or wrinkles, in so sudden a 
manner as to dislodge flies or other uritating insects. It is also powerful 
enough to shake off particles of dust or dirt which have fallen upon the 
part, and are not glued to it by any adhesive matter. 



MUSCLES OF THE HEAD. 

The muscles of the head are in number above sixty, chiefly arranged 
in pairs, which correspond exactly with each other. "Want of space will 
not permit a minute description of each ; but the most important will 
be found alluded to sufficiently to give an idea of their position and 
action : — 




Fio. 1.— Superficial Muscles of the Head. 



1. Masseter. 

2. Nasalis longns labii superioris. 

3. 4. Levator labii superioris alseque nasi. 

5. Dilatator naris lateralis. 

6. Zygomaticus. 

7. Retractor labii inferioris. 

8. Depressor labii inferioris. 



9. Dilatator naris anterior. 

10. 10. Orbicularis oris. 

11. a. a. Orbicularis palpebrarum. 

— j6. Levator palpebree superioris, or corni- 
gator svpercilii. 

12. Parotido aui'icularis. 

13. Splenius. 



ANTEEIOE MAXILLARY EEGIOK 

Zygomaticus. — Situation on the middle of the side of the face. 
Origin — from the anterior two-thirds of the zygomatic ridge. Insertion 
— to the angle of the mouth. Action — to retract the angle of the mouth. 

Levator labii superioris ALiEQUE nasi is situated on and above the 
side of the face. Origin — from the lachrymal, malar, and superior 
maxillary bones. Insertion — to the su^pero-posterior part of the nasal 
opening, and to the antero-inferior part of the nostril and upper lip. 
Action — to dilate the nostrils and to retract the upper lip. 

Eetractor labii superioris is situated on the side of the face. 
Origin — from the anterior part of the zygomatic ridge, and from tlie 
corresponding part of the superior maxillary bone. Insertion — to the 
sides of the nostril and supero-lateral parts of the upper lip. Action — to 
retract the upper lip. 

Nasalis longus labii superioris is situated on the upper part of the 
face. Origin — from the infero-external part of the lachi-ymal and malar 



MUSCLES OF THE LOWER JAW. 387 

bones, and from the inferior part of the superior maxillary bone ; at 
the cartilages of the nose the tendons, the one on the right side and 
the other on the left, blend together and unite in one common tendon, 
which is inserted upon the superior part of the upper lip. Action — to 
corrugate the upper lip, and thence to raise it. 

Caninus is situated over the two anterior molar teeth. Origin — from 
the superior maxillary bone, near its junction with the anterior maxilla. 
Insertion — to a roughened depression on the inferior maxillary bone, just 
behind the lower tush. Action — to assist in closing the mouth. 

Dilatator naris anterior is situated in front of and between the 
nostrils. Origin — from the supero-anterior surface of the os nasi. Inser- 
tion — to the anterior part of the alar cartilages, blending with the 
orbicularis oris. Action — to raise the upjjer lip. 

Nasalis brevis labii superioris is situated behind the nostrils. 
Origin — from the superior and anterior maxillary bones, and from the 
suture uniting them. Insertion — to the supero-anterior part of the septum 
nasi, and to the skin of the false nostrils. Action — to dilate the nostrils. 
Buccinator is situated between the upper and lower jaws. Origin — 
from the tuberosity of the superior maxillary bone, and from the outer 
walls of the alveolar cavities of the upper molar teeth. Insertion — to 
the outer walls of the alveolar cavities of the lower molar teeth. In 
front it is blended with the orbicularis oris. Action — to draw back the 
angle of the lips, and tighten tlie outer wall of the mouth. 

Retractor labii inferioris is situated on the anterior part of the 
lower jaw. Origin — from the external part of the lower jaw, just behind 
the last molar tooth. Insertion — to the inferior part of the lower lip. 
This muscle blends with the orbicularis oris. Action — to retract the 
lower lip. 

Naso transversalis is situated between the two alar cartilages. This 
muscle runs between the antero-internal borders of each cartilage to which 
it is attached, and its action tends to approximate them. 

Depressor labii superioris lies upon the anterior part of the upper 
jaw. Origin — from the anterior maxillary bone, and from the outer 
border of the alveoli of the incisor teeth, extending as far back as the 
tush. Insertion — to the upper lip and inferior nasal cartilages. Action 
— to assist in dilating the nostrils, and in retracting the upper lip. 

Orbicularis obis. — Tliis sphincter muscle is situated within the border 
of the lips. Origin — from the outer surfaces of the superior and inferior 
maxillary bones. Insertion — it interlaces with its own fibres at the angles, 
and is also attached to the glandular substance and skin of the lips. 
Action — to contract the opening of the lijDS, and compress them against 
the jaws. 

Depressor labii inferioris lies along the side of the lower jaw. 
Origin — from the side of the lower jaw, close to that of the buccinator. 
Insertion — into the fat of the prominence of the chin. 

Levator menti is a little square muscle bracing the soft parts, covering 
the chin, up against the jaw. It arises from the edge of the alveolar pro- 
cess of the corner tooth on one side, passes beneath the chin, and meets 
there its fellow of the opposite side. 

MUSCLES WHOSE OFFICE IT IS TO MOVE THE LOWER 

JAW. 
Temporalis is situated on the top and sides of the head. Origin — 
from the occipital, parietal, squamous plate, and zygomatic process of the 

c c 2 



388 THE HORSE. 

temporal "bones. Insertion — to the coronoid process of the lower jaw. 
Action — to raise the lower jaw, and thus to assist in mastication. 

Masseter forms the prominence of the cheek. Origin — from the 
inferior surface of the zygomatic ridge. Insertion — to the whole of the 
external surface of the angle of the lower jaw. Action — to elevate the 
lower jaw, and thus assist in mastication. 

Stylo maxillaris lies behind the lower jaw. Origin — from the 
styloid process of the occipital bone. Insertion — to the angle of the lower 
jaw. Action — to retract the jaw and assist in opening the mouth. 

Pterygoideus exteknus lies within the jaw. Oi'igin — from the ala of 
the sphenoid bone. Insertion — into the rough depression at the inner 
side of the xoot of the condyle of the jaw. Action — to raise the jaw and 
draw it forwards. 

Pterygoideus ikternus is situated below the external pterygoid, and 
passes in a more horizontal direction. Origin — from the ala of the sphe- 
noid bone, from the palate bone, and the tuberosity of the superior maxil- 
lary bone. Insertion — to the inner side of the angle of the jaw. Action 
— each muscle acting separately draws the jaw towards the opjiosite side, 
and the two acting alternately produce the grinding motion necessary for 
reducing the food. 

MUSCLES OF THE EXTERNAL EAR 

Six PAIRS of muscles move the cartilage of the ears in all directions ; 
but they are not of sufticient importance to requii-e any description here. 

EXTERNAL MUSCLES OF THE EYELIDS. 

Orbicularis palpebrarum is a layer of thin muscular fibre, shown at 
Fig. \ a a. It forms a plane around the edge of the lids, extending 
upwards and downwards, and having a tendon at the inner angle, by 
Avhich it is attached to the frontal and lachrymal bones. Its action is to 
close the lids and draw them towards the inner angle. 

Levator palpebrte superioris. — Fig. 1 A is a thin slip of muscle 
wliich is attached above to the aponeurotic expansion and skin of the 
forehead, and below to the orbicularis palpebrarum. Its action is to raise 
the upper eyelid and wrinkle the brow. 

OCULAR REGION. 

Eight muscles are lodged within the orbit for moving the eyelid and 
eye. They are severally named from the offices which they perform. 

MUSCLES OF THE TONGUE. 

Ten muscles are attached to the os hyoides, or bone of the tongue, for 
the purpose of moving it backwards and laterally, and also to serve as 
agents in the various movements of the tongue. 

MUSCLES OF THE PHARYNX. 

As the mouth contracts to form the funnel-shaped tube which ends in 
the oesophagus, the latter is clothed with several muscles, which aid in 
driving the food backwards. These are the liyo-pharyngeus and palato- 
pharyngeus and the tlii-ee constrictors of the pharnyx. 



SUPERFICIAL MUSCLES OF THE KECK AND TRUNK. 
LARYNGEAL REGION. 



389 



The cartilages of the larynx are moved by seven pairs of small 
but beautifully defined muscles, named after their attachments. 



PALATINE REGION. 

Two muscles move the soft palate, the tensor palati and circumflexus 
palati ; but they can only be made out by a careful dissection of these 
parts. 




Fio. 2. — SuPEUKiciAL Muscles <w the Neck and Trunk. 



Parotido auricularis, turned back, showing 34. 

parotid gland. 35. 

17. Levator humeri. 36. 

Stemo-maxillaris. 37. 

Splenius. 38. 

Uervieal portion of serratus magnus. 39. 

Cervical portion of trapezius. 40. 

Dor.sal portion of trajjezius. 41. 

Latissiriius dorsi. 42. 

Costal digitations of serratus magnus. 43, 

d. d. d. d. &c. Intercostal muscles. 44. 

45. 

Postea spinatus. 4t). 

Triceps extensor brachii. 47. 

Scapulo ulnaris. 4«. 

Pectoralis transversus. 49. 

Extensor jiedis. 50. 

Extensor ossis suffraginis. 61. 
Flexor metacarpi extemus. 



Flexor metacarpi internus. 

medius. 

36. Obliquus abdominis externus. 

Superficialis costarum. 

Gluteus maxim us. 

Tensor vaginse femoris. 

Gluteus externus. 

Triceps abductor femoris (part). 

Semi-membranosiis and semi-tendinosus. 

[Triceps abductor femoris (remainder). 

45. Extensor pedis. 

Flexor pedis accessorius. 

Flexor pedis perforans. 

Peroneus. 

Flexor pedis perforans. 

Gastrocnemius inteinus. 

Tendon of gastrocnemius extemus. 



SUPERFICIAL MUSCLES OF THE NECK AND TRUNK. 

The MUSCLES of the neck and trunk are so intimately blended to- 
gether by their several attachments that they must be examined together. 
It will be impossible to describe more than the superficial ones ; but the 



390 THE HORSE. 

most important being those which connect the trunk with the extremities, 
they will be selected as more especially deserving attention. 

LATERAL CERVICAL REGIOK 

Splenius is situated on the superior part of the neck. Origin — from 
the three anterior dorsal spines. Insertion — to the mastoid process of the 
petrous portion of the temporal bone, crest of the occiput, wing of the 
atlas, transverse process of the second, third, fourth, and fifth cervical 
vertebrae, and to the lateral parts of the ligamentum colli. Action — to 
draw the head on one side^ when one muscle acts ; when both together, to 
erect the head. 

CoMPLEXUS MAJOR is situated n.nder the splenius. Origin — from the 
transverse processes and spines of the six anterior dorsal vertebrae. In- 
sertion — to the oblique processes of all the cervical vertebrae, wing of the 
atlas, tubercle on the occipital crest, lateral parts of the ligamentum colli, 
and by blending with the tendon of the splenius to the mastoid process of 
the petrons portion of the temporal bone. Action — to erect the head. 

Trachelo mastoideus is deeply seated under the splenius. Origin — 
from the transverse processes of the two anterior dorsal spines. Insertion 
— to the oblique processes of all the cervical vertebrae, wing of the atlas, 
and mastoid process of the petrous portion of the temporal bone. Action 
— similar to the splenius. 

Spinalis colli lies close to the bodies of the vertebrae, between their 
oblique and spinous processes. Origin — from the oblique processes of the 
five posterior cervical vertebrae and the first dorsal. Insertion — to the 
spinous processes of all the cervical vertebrae but the atlas. Action — to bend 
the neck upwards and backwards. 

INFERIOR CERVICAL REGION". 

Steeno-maxillaris is situated on the inferior part of the neck. Origin 
— from the supero-anterior part of the cariniform cartilage. Insertion — 
(opposite the thyroid body it becomes tendinous) to the posterior angle 
of the inferior maxillary bone. Action — to depress the lower jaw, and, 
through it, the whole head. 

Sterno-thyro hyoideus is situated above the sterno-maxillaris. Origin 
— from the infero-internal part of the first rib, and from the supero-anterior 
part of the cariniform cartilage. Insertion — half-way np the neck it 
bifurcates, one part going to the postero-external part of the body of the 
thyroid cartilage, the other to the spur process of the os hyoides. Action 
— to draw the tongue and larynx backwards and downwards. 

Subscapulo hyoideus is situated on the antero-superior part of the 
neck. Origin — from the supero-internal part of the body of the humerus, 
just below the inner tubercle. Insertion — to the under side of the root 
of the spur process of the os hyoides. Action — to depress the os hyoides, 
or, if that is fixed, to aid the last muscle in lowering the head. 

SUPERIOR CERVICO-OCCIPITAL REGION. 

Five pairs of small and short muscles connect the atlas and dentata 
with the head, occupying the space known as the poll. These are com- 
plexus minor, rectus capitis posticus major and minor, obliquus capitis 
superior and inferior. Their action is to raise the head and preserve the 
union of the bones intact. 



MUSCLES OF THE SCAPULA. 391 

Scalenus connects the first rib with the two posterior cervieal vertebrte. 
Action — to depress the neck, and, when that is fixed, to raise the first rib 
in forcible inspiration. 

LoNGUS COLLI is deeply seated on the under side of the vertebrae. 
It arises by fleshy digitations from the bodies of the six anterior dorsal 
vertebree, and is inserted into the bodies, transverse processes, and lower 
spines of all the cervical vertebrte, except the atlas, which has a tendinous 
insertion only into its body. Action — to flex the neck. 

INFERIOR CERVICO-OCCIPITAL REGION 

This is occupied by three muscles, antagonists to those of the poll. 
They are rectus capitis anticus major and' minor and obliquus capitis 
anticus, and connect the bodies and transverse processes of the cervical 
vertebrce with the cuneiform process of the occipital bone. Their action 
is to bend the head on the neck. 

MUSCLES CONNECTING THE SCAPULA WITH THE HEAD, 
NECK, AND CHEST. 

Besides the subscapulo htoideus, which has been described in con- 
nexion with the inferior cervical region, the following nine muscles con- 
nect the shoidder with the head, neck, and chest. When these are 
dissected, the anterior extremity may be removed and separately examined. 
The two first may be considered as occupying the humero-cervical region, 
the three next the dorso-scapular region, and the four last the scapulo- 
thoracic region. 

Levator humeri is situated on the antero-inferior and lateral parts of 
the neck. Origin — from the mastoid process of the petrous portion of 
the temporal bone, crest of the occipital bone, wing of the atlas, and 
transverse processes of the second, third, fourth, and sometimes fifth 
cervical vertebra. Insertion — slightly to the spine of the scapula and 
shoulder joint ; to the inferior part of the ridge of the humerus, that 
extends from the outer part of the outer tubercle ; and to a depression, 
" scaber canalis," on the antero-inferior part, with the pectoralis trans- 
versus. Action — to raise and draw the shoulder forwards ; to turn the 
neck on one side ; or, should both muscles act at one and the same time, 
to depress the head. 

Rhomboideus longus is situated on the supero-lateral part of the 
neck. Origin — from the lateral part of the ligamentum colli as far 
anteriorly as the third cervical vertebra, and posteriorly as the anterior 
part of the second dorsal spine. Insertion — to the inner surface of Ihe 
superior angle, border, and cartilage of the scapula. Action — to draw the 
scapula upwards and forwards. 

Trapezius is situated upon the side of the withers and neck. It pre- 
sents the figure of a right-angled triangle. Origin — from the ligamentum 
colli and spines of the dorsal vertebrae as far back as the eleventh. 
Insertion — to a tubercle on the spine of the scapula. Action — to elevate 
the scapula, and to draw it forwards and backwards. 

Latissimus dorsi is situated on the lateral part of the chest and back. 
Origin — from the ligamentum colli as far anteriorly as the second dorsal 
spine, and posteriorly as far as the fascia lumborum at the eleventh 
dorsal spine. Insertion — to the rough tubercle on the inner side of the 
body of the humerus. Action — to draw the humerus upwards and 
backwards. 



392 THE HORSE. 

Ehomboideus brevis, lying upon the side of the withers, has its 
origin from the spines of the second, third, and fourth dorsal vertebrae. 
Insertion — to the inner part of the superior border and cartilage of the 
scapula. This muscle is clothed externally with yellow elastic tissue. 
Action — to elevate the scapula. 

Pectoralis transversus is placed on the lateral, anterior, and posterior 
parts of the breast. Origin — from the lateral and posterior parts of the 
cariniform cartilage, over which it plays, being lubricated by a bursa, 
and meets its fellow by a white tendinous line. Insertion — to the antero- 
inferior part of the body of the humerus, "scaber canalis," and the 
fascia covering the leg. Action — it forms a sling to support the trunk, 
and to keep the arm close to the chest during locomotion. 

Pectoralis MAGNUS is situated on the infero-lateral part of the thorax. 
Origin — from the fourth, fifth, and sixth bones of the sternum, ensiform 
cartilage, and the cartilages of the four posterior true ribs. It is attached 
by fascia to the external oblique muscle of the abdomen. Insertion — 
bifid : one portion to the internal tubercle at the head of the humerus ; 
the other consists of a few fibres, which pass over to the external tubercle 
at the head of the humerus. Action — to draw the shoulder downwards 
and backwards. 

Pectoralis parvus lies between the fore leg and side of the thorax. 
Origin — from the lateral parts of the cariniform cartilage, and slightly 
from the four anterior bones of the sternum. Insertion — to the outer 
tubercle at the head of the humerus, and to the supero-anterier border of 
the scapula, reaching nearly to its antero-superior angle. Action — to 
assist the last-named muscle. 

Serratus MAGNUS is situated between the shoulder-blade and side of 
the chest. Origin — from the transverse processes of the four posterior 
cervical vertebrae, and from the entire length of the first, second, third, 
fourth, and fifth ribs as low as their cartilages ; from the sixth, seventh, 
and eighth as low as their middles ; digitating with four portions of the 
external oblique muscle. Insertion — to the uperior border, and by a few 
fibres to the ventral surface and cartilage of the scapula. Action — it 
tends greatly to support the trunk in a sling, especially when the weight 
of the body comes down with a sudden shock, as in jumping. The two 
muscles are more or less concerned in all the motions of the scapula, and 
will become didators of the chest whenever they are contracted, while the 
limbs remain fixed points. 



MUSCLES OF THE THOEAX. 

The ribs are approximated to each other by two layers of muscles, 
which cross each other, so that when acting together the greater length of 
fibre given by this arrangement increases their power. These are the 

INTERCOSTALES EXTERNI and INTERNI. 

Lateralis sterni and sterno costales assist the intercostals in 
contracting the chest. 

SuPERFiciALis cosTARUM lies on the back in the form of a thin layer of 
aponeurosis, edged with fleshy slips, which indigitate with those of the 
obliquus abdominis externus (see Fig. 2, 37). Its action is to raise the ribs 
and increase the capacity of the chest. 

Transversalis COSTARUM is situated on the supero-lateral part of the 
thorax. Origin — from the ribs close to the spine. Insertion — to the 



DORSAL REGION. 393 

transverse process of the last cervical vertebrte. Action — to aid the last- 
named muscles. 

Levatores costarum are fifteen or sixteen muscular slips, which con- 
nect the transverse processes of the dorsal vertebrae with the anterior 
borders of the ribs, in the spaces between their tubercles and angles. 
Action — to raise the ribs and enlarge the cavity of the thorax. 

DOESAL REGIOIf. 

LoNGissiMUS DORSi lies along the back beneath the muscles of the supe- 
rior extremity (which have been removed). It is a large powerful muscle, 
and forms the chief mass of the soft parts constituting the loins and back. 
Origin — from the crest of the ilium, side of the sacrum, and spinous and 
transverse processes of all the lumbar vertebrae. Insertion — to the angles 
of the twelve posterior ribs, and to the transverse processes of all the dorsal 
vertebrae, and of the three posterior cervical. Action — to bend the back, 
and thus raise either the fore or hind quarter, when the other is fixed. 
It is the main agent in rearing and kicking, and is strongly called into 
play in galloping and leaping. 

Spinalis dorsi is situated deeply on the sides of the withers. Origin 
— it is closely connected posteriorly with the last muscle, being attached 
to the spinous processes of the posterior dorsal vertebrae. Insertion — to 
the spines of the six or seven anterior dorsal vertebrae, and the three or 
four posterior cervical. Action — to assist the longissimus dorsi in rearing 
and in raising the fore quarters in galloping. 

Semi-spinalis dorsi is deeply buried beneath the two last muscles, 
with which it co-operates in its action. 

MUSCLES OF THE ABDOMEK 

These are naturally divided into two groups, according to the 
positions which they occupy and the offices they perform. Thus the 
superficial abdominal muscles form the lower walls of the cavity of the 
abdomen, while the deep abdominal muscles bound it anteriorly and 
superiorly. 

SUPERFICIAL ABDOMmAL EEGIOK 

The abdominal muscles, four in number, constitute the lower walls 
of the belly, and together form, as it were, a strong sheet, by means of 
which the intestines and abdominal organs are kept in position. After 
replecting the skin, they are seen to be covered by the panniculus car- 
nosus and a thick layer of yellow fibrous tissue, through which their 
division into tendon and muscle can faintly be discerned. These must be 
dissected off to bring into view the true abdominal muscles, when the 
following lines of demarcation will be discerned : — 

1. The linea alba, which occupies the median line from the os pubis 
to the ensiform cartilage, and consists of a tough layer of white fibrous 
tissue, which unites the muscles of the abdomen together. At a little 
more than a third of its length from the pubes is found a lozenge-shaped 
space in which the tissue is almost entirely absent, and through which in 
the foetus the umbilical vessels pass. This is the umbilicus, or navel, of 
the adult. 

2. On the surface of the rectus are several transverse white lines — the 
ILaeae transversales. 



394 THE HORSE. 

3. Near the edge of the rectus muscle commences the linea semilunaris, 
which marks the union of the fleshy and tendinous portion of the external 
oblique. 

Obliquus abdominis externus is situated on the lateral parts of the 
belly. Origin — by fleshy slips from the fourteen hindermost ribs, where 
it indigitates with the serratus magnus and latissimus dorsi, and from 
the fascia lumborum, reaching to the antero-superior spinous process 
of the ilium. Insertion — tendinous into the whole length of the linea 
alba, and by two strong divisions into the os pubis, between which is 
formed the triangular space called the external abdominal ring. The 
posterior of these, stretching from the ilium to the os pubis, is called 
the crural arch, and corresponds with Poupart's Ligament in human 
anatomy. Action — it flexes the pelvis on the thorax, and has the power 
of contraction, and, by this means, of expelling the ffeces, and in the 
mare the foetus ; it also serves to force up the diaphragm, and thus to aid 
in expiration. 

Obliquus abdominis internus lies deeper than the foregoing muscle. 
Origin — from the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae and 
antero-inferior spinous process of the ilium and crural arch. Insertion 
— to the inner surface of the cartilages of the three or four last ribs, 
and to the ensiform cartilage ; also in close union with the tendon of 
the external oblique to the linea alba. Action. — to expel the faeces 
and urine, and to act , as above. Like the last, it is also a muscle of 
respiration. 

Teansversalis abdominis is stQl deeper than the last-mentioned 
muscle. It has its origin from the transverse processes of the lumbar 
vertebrae, antero-inferior spine of the ilium, and symphysis pubis. In- 
iertion — to the inner surface of all the ribs, except the three last, linea 
alba, and ensiform cartilage. Action — to assist the two muscles above, and 
to support the burden of the viscera. 

Eectus abdominis is placed on each side the median line beneath the 
viscera. Origin — from the symphysis pubis. Insertion — to the carti- 
lages of all the ribs, except the three first, linea alba, ensiform cartilage, 
and four posterior bones of the sternum : it blends with the lateralis 
sterni, covering the sides of the sternum. Action — to brace the middle 
parts of the belly, and to contract the thoracic cavity. 

The parts connected with hernia formed by the above muscles 
are : — 1st. The umbilicus, which leaves a weak place in the abdominal 
parietes, especially at and soon after birth, through which umbilical rup- 
ture takes place. 2d. The external ring, and the canal of which it is the 
outer boundary, together with the internal ring, which should be carefully 
examined by the student of veterinary surgery. Want of space will, 
however, forbid more than a general description here. The external ring 
has already been described as formed by the posterior tendinous fibres 
of the external oblique, and through this descends the spermatic cord to 
the scrotum. In tracing backwards and outwards this cord to the point 
where it enters the wall of the abdomen, it will be found to lie between 
the fibres of the crural arch and those of the internal oblique, supported 
by the peritoneum and a thin fascia, which is continued from the edge of 
the transversalis muscle, but is not so distinct as the corresponding part 
in the human subject. About three or four inches from the external 
ring this fascia is pierced by the cord, and this part is called the internal 
abdommal ring, the space between the two rings being the inguinal 
canal. (See spermatic cord, chapter xxii.) 



395 

DEEP ABDOMINAL EEGIOK 

The abdomen is bounded by a muscular "wall anteriorly, which forms 
a movable septum between it and the chest, and is called the diaphragm. 
Superiorly also there are the muscles which serve to bend the spine 
downwards, in opposition to the dorsal muscles. 

The diaphragm consists of a large flat muscle and two crura, with 
a thin circular layer of tendon in the centre. The former arises by fleshy 
digitations from the cartilages of the ribs, from the eighth to the 
sixteenth inclusive, and from the ensiform cartilage. It is inserted into 
a central flat tendon of a circular shape. Each CRUS arises from its cor- 
responding side of the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae : the two cross each 
other opposite the seventeenth dorsal vertebra, and again decussate after 
allowing the oesophagus to pass through, being finally attached to the 
central tendon. Between the crura and the bodies of the vertebrae the 
aorta passes backwards, and in the central tendon is the opening for the 
vena cava posterior. The action of this muscle is to diminish the capacity 
of the thorax by reducing the convexity of its surface. 

Semi-spinalis lumborum, intertransversalis lumborum, and sacro 
LUMBALis, are three muscles having numerous attachments to the trans- 
verse processes of the posterior dorsal and lumbar vertebrae and sacrum. 
Their action is to approximate the pelvis to the thorax, and thus to oppose 
the dorsal muscles by rounding the back. 

Psoas magnus is a long and strong muscle lying beneath the spine. 
Its origin is from the necks of the last two ribs, and from the bodies 
and transverse processes of the last dorsal and all the lumbar vertebrae. 
Insertion — into the trochanter miiior internus of the femur. Action — to 
flex the haunch upon the pelvis, or, if the hind leg is fixed, to assist the 
three last muscles in rounding the back. 

Psoas parvus lies along the inner side of the P. magnus. Origin — 
from tlie heads of the last three ribs, and from the bodies of the three 
last dorsal and all the lumbar vertebrae. Insertion — into the brim of the 
pelvis. Action — to assist the last muscle in rounding the back. 

Iliacus is situated in the iliac fossa. Origin — from the crest of the 
ilium external to the sacrum, from the venter and anterior spinous pro- 
cess. Insertion — with the psoas magnus into the trochanter minor 
internus of the femur. Action — to fiex the haunch. 

PELVIC EEGIOIT. 

Several muscles are attached to the pelvis : 1st. for the control of the 
anus ; 2d. for the genital organs, and accelerating the flow of urine ; 3d. 
for the movements of the tail. 

Eetractor ani is a funnel-shaped layer of thin muscular fibres arising 
within the pelvis, and inserted into the margin of the anus. Action — to 
prevent the anus from being forced outwards by the expulsive efi'orts of 
the abdominal muscles. 

Sphincter ani is attached above to the coccyx, and encircles the anus 
with fleshy fibres, which serve to close it. 

Cremaster is a thin layer of muscle which is attached to the yellow 
fascia covering the abdomen, and to the internal oblique, from which 
it descends upon the spermatic cord after it passes through the ex- 
ternal abdominal ring, and is inserted into the fibrous covering of the 
testicle. 



396 



THE HORSE. 



The muscles of the penis, vagina, and clitoris have no general interest : 
they are, erector penis, triangularis penis, and accelerator urinal, in the 

male ; and sphincter vaginae and 
erector clitoridis in the female. 

The coccygeal muscles are de- 
scribed as in four sets, erector, de- 
pressor, CURVATOR, and compressor 
coccYGis, the names of which bespeak 
their actions. They all arise from 
the pelvis and pelvic ligaments, and 
are inserted into the corresponding 
sides of the bodies and transverse 
processes of the coccygeal bones. 

MUSCLES OF THE FORE 
EXTEEMITY. 

The muscles of the fore extremity 
are classed in three divisions — viz. 
those of the shoulder, arm, and leg. 
In the two first of these great con- 
fusion exists, in consequence of the 
different names given to them by 
English and French veterinary 
writers. Percivall only enumerates 
twelve, while Chauveau gives fifteen ; 
the former not considering the long 
extensor of the forearm as a distinct 
muscle, but as a part of the triceps. 
The scapulo humeralis posticus (or 
grele of Chauveau) is omitted alto- 
gether by Mr. Percivall, though quite 
a distinct muscle, and playing a most 
important part in supporting the 
capsular ligament of the shoulder 
joint, and preventing it from being 
pinched in the motions of the joint. 
The omission of the scapulo hume- 
ralis externus by our chief English 
authority is most unaccountable, as 
it is recognised by all previous 
writers on the subject. In order to 

Fig. 3. — External View of the Muscles of 
THE Fore Extremity. 

1. Antea spinatus. 

2. Postea spinatus. 

3. Scapulo humeralis externus. 

4. Teres externus vel minor. 

5. Insertion of antea spinatus. 

6. Humeralis externus and flexor brachii above. 

7. Scapulo ulnaris. 

8. Triceps extensor brachii. 

9. Extensor metacavpi niagnus. a. c. Tendon of 
the same receiving ligamentous slips. 

10. Extensor pe<lis. 

11. Extensor suflfraginis. 

12. Flexor metacarpi externus. 

13. Flexor pedis peiforans. e. Tendon of the same. 

14. Flexor pedis perforatus. d. Tendon of the 
same. 





EXTERNAL SCAPULAR REGION. 397 

inaVe these discrepancies more clear, and to lighten the labours of the 
student, the following table of synonyms is inserted : — 

TABLE OF SYNONYMS OF THE MUSCLES OF THE SHOULDER AND ARM. 

NAME GIVEN IN THE TEXT. USED BY PERCIVALL. ADOPTED BY CHAUVEAU. 

Antea spinatns Ditto Sur epineux. 

Postea spinatus Ditto Sous epineux. 

Coraco liuiiieralis Ditto Coraeo-humeral. 

Flexor brachii Ditto Long flechisseur de I'avant-bras 

Subscai)ularis Ditto Sous scapulaire. 

Teres internus vol major Ditto Adducteur du bras 

Scapulo ulnaris Not given . . . Long extenseur de Tavant-bras. 

Scapulo luuneralis posticus Not given . . . Seapulo-liunieral grele. 

Triceps extensor brachii— caput magnum . Ditto Gros extenseur de I'avant-bras. 

>, •) ]>arvum . Ditto Court extenseur de I'avant-bras. 

>. !. medium . Ditto Moyen extenseur de I'avant-bras. 

Teres externus vel minor Ditto Court abducteur du bras. 

Scapulo humeralis externus Not given . . . Long abducteur du bras. 

HuMieralis externus Ditto Court fl6chisseur de l'avant-br,as. 

Anconeus Ditto Petit extenseur de Tavant-bras. 

EXTEEKAL SCAPULAR EEGION. 

Antea spinatus lies upon the anterior fossa of the scapula. Origin 
— from the anterior angle, border, fossa, and anterior surface of the spine 
of the scapula. Insertion — bifid ; one part to the outer, the other to the 
inner tubercle at the head of the humerus, the insertion extending from 
the tubercular summits to a roughened depression, just posteriorly placed 
to each. This bifid insertion embraces the tendon of tlie flexor brachii. 
Action — to draw the scapula into the same line with the humerus. 

Postea spinatus is situated upon the posterior fossa of the scapula. 
Origin — from the posterior angle, border, fossa, and posterior surface of 
the spine of the scapula. Insertion — bifid : one portion to the postero- 
external tubercle ; the other is tendinous, and passes over the postero- 
external tubercle to a depression just below the outer tubercle. Action — 
to flex the scapula on the humerus or vice versa. 

ANTERO-II^FEKIOR SCAPULAE REGION. 

Coraco humeralis is situated on the infero-internal part of the 
shoulder. Origin — from a tubercle on the inner side of the coracoid. 
process of the scapula. Iitsertion — bifid : one portion to a tubercle on 
the middle third of the antero-internal part of the body of the humerus ; 
the other passes over the insertions of the teres internus and latissimus 
dorsi, just below which points it is inserted. Action — to extend the 
humerus and draw it inwards. 

Flexor brachii is placed upon the antero-inferior part of the shoulder. 
Origin — from the antero-inferior part of the coracoid process of the scapula, 
passing over the trochlea formed by the tubercles of the humerus. Inser- 
tion — to the supero-anterior and inner part of the body of the radius. 
Action — to extend the radius, and at the same time to elevate it. 

THE INTERNAL SCAPULAR REGION. 

SuBSCAPULARis fills up the venter scapulae. Origin — from the two inferior 
thirds of the ventral surface, extending from the anterior to the posterior 
border of the scapula. Insertion — to the inner ridge just below the lesser 
tubercle of the humerus. Action — to draw the humerus inwards and 
upwards. 



398 



THE HORSE. 



POSTERO-II^TEEITAL SCAPULAR EEGION". 

Teres internus vel major is situated upon the posterior part of the 
shoulder. Origin — from the inner surface of the supero-posterior angle 
and from a slight indentation internally placed to the posterior horder of 
the scapula. Insertion — to the rough tubercle on the inner side of the 
body of the humerus, in company with the latissimus dorsi. Action — to 
draw the humerus inwards. 

ScAPULO ULNARis lies upou the posterior part of the shoulder. Origin — 
from the supero-posterior and inner part of the scapula, extending from 




Fig. 4. — Internal View of the Muscles of the Shoulder and Arm. 



a. a. Cartilage at the base of the scapula. 

1. Insertion of serratus magnus turned up. 

2. Insertion of rhomboideus longus. 

3. Insertion of rhomboideus brevis. 

4. 5. Subscapularis. 

6. Teres internus vel major. 

7. Insertion of latissimus dorsi. 

8. Triceps extensor brachii (caput magnum). 



9. Coraco humeralis. 
10. Insertion of pectoralis. 
H. Flexor brachii. 

12. Triceps extensor brachii (caput tertiiun). 

13. Extensor metacarpi magnus. 

14. Flexor metacarpi internus. 

15. Flexor metacarpi medius. 



its angle to just above its glenoid cavity. Insertion — to the olecranon and 
to the postero-internal part of the ulna, extending from its summit to where 
the ulna joins the radius. Action — to assist the caput magnum of the 
triceps. 



POSTERO-EXTERNAL SCAPULAR REGION. 399 

ScAPULO HUMERALis POSTICUS is situated upon the posterior part of the 
shoulder. Origin — bifid ; one part from tlie superior two-thirds of the 
inner surface of the posterior border of the scapula, the other from 
above the postero-internal surface of the glenoid cavity. Tnsertio}i — to 
the supero-posterior part of the humerus. Action — it serves as a ligament, 
protecting the joint. 

Triceps extensor brachii (caput parvuji) is situated on the iiifero- 
internal part of the shoulder. Origin — from the internal and middle third 
of the humerus. Insertion — to the olecranon and to a tubercle on the 
supero-internal part of the ulna, close to the olecranon. Action — to 
extend the arm. 



POSTEEO-EXTERIi[AL SCAPULAE REGIOK 

Triceps extensor brachii (caput magnum) is situated upon the infero- 
posterior part of the shoulder, occupying the angular interspace between 
the scapula and humerus. Origin — from the whole length of the posterior 
border as high up as the supero-posterior angle of the scapula. Insertion — 
to the inner and upper part of the olecranon. Action — to approximate the 
scapula and humerus, and thus raise the elbow joint ; if the former is fixed, 
to extend the arm. 

Triceps extensor brachii (caput medium) lies upon the infero-external 
part of the shoulder and humerus. Origin — from the humerus, just behind 
a ridge at the postero-external part of the superior third. Insertion — 
to the supero-external and posterior part of the olecranon. Action — to 
extend the arm. 

Teres externus is situated upon the postero-external part of the 
shoulder. Origin — from a little tubercle just below the supero-posterior 
angle, and from the lower border of the scapula. Insertion — to a ridge 
descending from the outer tubercle of the humerus, and to the ligament 
which extends from the outer tubercle to the outer condyle of the same 
bone. Action — to flex the scapula on the humerus, or the hiuoierus on 
the scapula. 

Scapulo HUMERALIS EXTERNUS lics u^Don the postero-extcmal part of the 
shoulder. Origin — from the inferior two-thirds of the posterior border 
of the scapula, just above the glenoid cavity, and from its dorsal surface. 
Insertion — to the middle of the ridge extending from the outer tubercle 
of the humerus. Action — to flex the humerus, and draw it outwards. 

THE ANTERO-EXTEEI^AL HUMEEAL EEGIOK 

HuMERALis EXTERNUS lies ou the infero-external side of the upper 
arm. Origin — from the infero-posterior, inner, and outer surface of the 
body of the humerus, and winds round that bone. Insertion — to the 
supero-anterior and internal part of the radius. Action — to flex the arm. 

THE POSTEEO-INTEENAL HUMEEAL EEGIOK 

Anconeus is situated upon the hollow space between the condyles. 
Origin — from the supero-posterior part of the lower third of the humerus. 
Insertion — to the antero-external border of the ulna and capsular ligament 
of the joint. Action — to extend the elbow, and to protect the capsular 
ligament during the movement between the two bones. 



400 



THE HORSE. 



MUSCLES OF THE AEM AND FORE LEG. 

ExTEKSOR METACARPi MAGNUS IS situated on the anterior part of the 
•m. Origin — from a ridge situated at the antero-external part of the 

humerus, and also from a depression just 
above the external condyle of the humerus. 
Insertion — to the antero-superior part of the 
OS metacarpi magnum. Action — to extend 
the leg. 

Extensor pedis is situated upon the 
antero-external part of the arm. Origin — 
from the fore part of the external condyle of 
the humerus, and from a ridge just superiorly 
placed to it; from the outer part of the head, 
and from the anterior and supero-external 
part of the body of the radius ; and from 
the capsulai: ligament of the elbow joint. 
Insertion — to the coronal process of the os 
pedis, adhering firmly to the capsular liga- 
ment of the fetlock joint. A ction — to extend 
the knee, metacarpals, and j)asterns, and to 
elevate the toe. 

Flexor metacarpi externus is situated 
upon the postero-external side of the arm. 
Origin — from a ridge on the external surface 
of the heel process of the external condyle of 
the humerus. Insertion — bifid : one to the 
supero-posterior part of the pisiform bone ; 
the otherpasses through a sheath to the head 
of the external small metacarpal bone. Action 
— to flex the leg. 

Flexor metacarpi medius lies on the 
postero-internal part of the arm. Origin — 
bifid : one from the middle of a ridge ex- 
tending along the internal condyle of the 
humerus; the other from the supero-internal 
and posterior part of the ulna. Insertion — 
bifid : one part to the supero-posterior part 
of the OS pisiforme, and to the posterior 
annular ligament ; the other to the postero- 



FiG. 5. — Antero-external View of the Muscles of the 
Fore Leo. 



Antea spinatus. 

Postea spinatus. 

4. Scapulo hiiiueralis externus. 

Teres externus. 

Triceps extensor tiraohii (caput magnum). 

Pectoralis transversus, divided. 

Triceps extensor brachii (caput medium). 

Flexor bracliii. 

Extensor metacai'pi magnus. 

Humeralis externus. 

Extensor pedis: a. tendon; &. band from extemallateral 

ligament ; c insertion. 
Extensor suffraginis. 
Flexor metacarpi externus. 
Extensor metacarpi obliquus. 



MUSCLES OF THE HAUNCH. 401 

internal part of tlie head of the inner small metacarpal bone. Action — to 
flex the leg. 

Flexor metacarpi internus is situated on the postero-internal side of 
the arm. Origin — from a ridge behind the internal condyle of the 
humerus. Insertion — to the head of the os metacarpi parvum : previous 
to its insertion, it enters a sheath formed by the annular ligament. 
Action — to flex the leg. 

Flexor pedis perforans et perforatus is situated on the posterior part 
of the arm. Origin — common to both muscles, from a ridge on the heel 
process of the internal condyle of the humerus. Insertion — of perforatus 
bifid, to the external and internal border of the supero-posterior part of the 
OS coronse. Insertion — of perforans ; after receiving a strong bundle of 
ligamentous fibres from the posterior carpal ligament, it pierces the two 
divisions of the flexor perforatus, opposite the pastern, end spreading out 
is attached to the postero-inferior part of the os pedis. Action — to flex 
the knee, and bend the fetlock and pastern joints. 

Ulkaris accessorius is deeply seated at the posterior part of the 
arm. Origin — from the whole of the internal concave surface of the 
ulna, hisertion — to the tendon of the flexor pedis, with which it blends. 
Action — to assist the perforans and jierforatus in flexing the knee, &c. 

Extensor suffraginis is situated on the postero-external part of the 
fore arm. Origin — from a tubercle in the posterior and external part of 
tl " radius ; from the above bone as far down as the ulna reaches, and 
from the shaft border of the ulna. Insertion — to the supero- anterior part 
of the OS suffraginis, and to the capsular ligament of the fetlock joint. 
Action — to extend the fetlock. 

Extensor metacarpi obliquus is situated on the infero-anterior part 
oX the arm. Origin— ivovn the infero-anterior and outer part of thg 
radius, extending as high up as the middle. Insertion — after passing 
underneath the tendon of the extensor pedis, and over the tendon of the 
extensor metacarpi magnus, to the supero-anterior part of the os metacarpi 
internum. Action — to confine the tendon of the extensor metacarpi in its 
place during action and to extend the leg. 

ItADiALis accessorius is situatcd on the infero-posterior part of the 
arm. Origin — from the posterior part of the middle of the radius. In- 
sertion — to the tendon of the perforans, which it joins opposite the carpo- 
metacarpal articulation. Action — to assist the perforans. 

MUSCLES OF THE IIAUKCH. 

The difficulties experienced by the student in distinguishing the 
muscles of the shoulder are as nothing when compared with those he will 
encounter in making out the muscles of the haunch. The latter are firmly 
connected together by fascia, so that their fibres must be divided by the 
knife in order to make them agree with any description which is given of 
them by comparative anatomists. To comply Avith the desire to retain 
the names used in human anatomy, this has been done to a most ridicu- 
lous extent; but unfortunately, as the analogy is very slight, the imagina- 
tion of the dissector has been called into play, and different anatomists 
have pursued a varied nomenclature, to the great annoyance of the student. 
Thus the triceps abductor femoris of our text is the biceps of Percivall, 
and the long vaste of Chauveau, but it should either be regarded as one 
large mass of muscle, in common with the semi-membranosus and semi- 
*^endLnosus, or if it is divided from them it must itself be described as 

D D 



402 



THE HORSE. 



a tricipital muscle, for it has three distinct insertions. Again, Mr. 
Percivall describes the rectus as a separate muscle from the two vasti and 
crureus, and appends a fifth, to which he gives the name of rectus parvus. 
This appears to correspond with the grele ant^rieur of Chauveau, and, if 




Fig. 6. —View of the External Muscles of the Haunch and Thioh. 



1. Gluteus maximus. 

2. Gluteus externus. 

3. Tensor vaginaj femoris. 

4. Vastus externus. 

5. 5. 5. Triceps abductor femoris. 

6. 7. Biceps rotator tibialis, or semi-membra- 

nosus aiid semi-tendinosns. 



8. Extensor pedis. 

9. Peroneus. 

10. Plantaris. 

11. Gastrocnemius intemus. 

12. Gastrocnemius externus. 



the analogy of human anatomy is to he taken as a guide, it should 
properly be described as the crureus. By adopting the same plan as with 
the muscles of the shoulder joint, the student will be able to ascertain at 
a glance to which description, in the two authorities I have quoted, each 
particular muscle can be referred. 



GLUTEAL REGION. 



4C3 



SYNONYMS OF THE MUSCLES OF THE HAUNCH. 



NAMES USED IN THK TEXT, MR. PERCIVALl- S NOMEN 

Gluteus externus Gluteus externus 

,, maximus ,, maxinms 

,, internus „ minimus 

Tensor vaginse femoris .... Tensor vaginse . 

Triceps abductor femoris . . . Biceps abductor 



Biceps rotator tibialis 



Adductor tibialis 



Trifemoro rotuloeus 



/Rectus . . . 

(Vastus ext. and int, 

Rectus parvus Rectus parvus . 

Sartorius Sartorius . . . 

Gracilis Gracilis . . . 

Pectineus Pectineus . . . 

Adductor longus (Adductor longus 

I „ maguus 

,, brevis Adductor brevis 

Pyi-iformis Pyriformis . . 

Obturator externus Obturator externus 

„ internus ,, internus 

Gemini Gemini 



CLATURE. CHAUVEAU'S NAMES. 

Fessier superficiel. 
„ moyen. 
, , pro fond. 
Muscle du fascia lata. 
Long vaste. 
/Demi-tendiueux. 
iDemi-membraneux. 
> Triceps crural. 

Grele ant^rieur. 
Long adducteur. 
Court adducteur. 
Pectin^. 

I Grand adducteur de la cuisse 

Petit adducteur de la cuisse. 
Pyramidal. 
Obtui'ateur externe. 
,, interne. 

Jumeaux du bassin. 



GLUTEAL EEGIOE". 

Gluteus externus forms the top part of the haunch. Origin — from the 
spine of the third sacral bone and lower tubercle on the antero-inferior 
spinous process of the ilium. Insertion — to the anterior part of the 
trochanter minor externus. 

Gluteus maximus is situated on the middle part of the haunch. 
Origin — from the ligamentous structure of the longissimus dorsi, from the 
spine of the second and third sacral bones, the sacro-sciatic ligament, the 
top of the supero-posterior spine, the antero-inferior spine, crista, and 
dorsal surface of the ilium. Insertion — to the posterior part of the 
trochanter major externus and superior part of the tubercle. 

Gluteus internus is situated under the maximus. Origin — from the 
posterior half of the dorsum ilii and a small portion of the ischium. 
Insertion — to the upper part of the tubercle at the head of the femur. 
The action of the glutei is, to extend the femur on the pelvis, and to 
assist in the acts of kicking and rearing. They are the main propellers 
of the body. 

Tensor vAGiNiE femoris is placed on the antero-external part of the 
haunch. Origin — from the outer part of the lower tubercle on the 
antero-inferior spinous j)rocess of the ilium. Insertion — to the superior 
part of the patella. Action— io assist in extending the thigh. 



EXTERNAL ILIO-FEMORAL EEGIOK 

Triceps abductor femoris occupies the postero-external side of the 
haunch and thigh. Origin — from the third and fourth spines of the 
sacrum, and from the anterior part of the tuberosity of the ischium. 
Insertion — by three attachments. First, to the posterior part of the 
femur and lateral part of the patella. Secondly, to the lateral part of the 
ligament extending from the patella to the spinous ridge on the tibia. 
Thirdly, to the ridge on the tibia and fascia, which binds down the fieicors 
and extensors. Action — to rotate the leg and to turn the hock outwards. 

Biceps rotator tibialis is situated on the postero-external side of 
the haunch. Origin — from the last bone of the sacrum, the two anterior 
coccygeal bones, and posterior part of the tuberosity of the ischium 

D D 2 



404 • THE HORSE. 

Insertion — to the autero-internal and mesiau part of the tibia and fascia 
of the leg. Action — to rotate the leg. 

ANTERIOE ILIO-FEMOEAL EEGIO]!T. 

Trifemoro ROTULiEUS consists of a mass of muscle lying beneath the 
tensor vaginse, and forming the anterior prominence of the haunch. It 
consists of three divisions — the rectus, vastus externus, and internus. 
Rectus femoris is anterior and superior to the other portions. Origin 
— from the ilium, just above the acetabulum. Insertion — to the anterior 
part of the capsular ligament and supero-lateral part of the patella. 
Action — to extend the thigh and draw it under the body. The two 
vasti consist of a mass of muscle occupying the front and sides of the 
femur, and lying beneath the rectus. Origin — from the whole of the 
upper part of the femur to the roots of the trochanters. Insertion — to 
the upper edge and sides of the patella. Action — to assist thf" rectus in 
extending the thigh and lifting the stifle under the body in progression. 

Eectus parvus is an humble imitation of the human crureus, lying 
deep beneath the rectus femoris on the upper part of the femur. It is a 
small cylindrical muscle, having its origin from the ilium external to that 
of the rectus femoris, and its belly lying between the two vasti close 
upon the bone ; it is inserted on the anterior face of the femur. Its 
action is cliiefiy to defend the capsular ligament of the ilio-femoral 
articulation. 

II^TERI^AL ILIO-FEMOEAL EEGIOK 

Sartorius lies on the antero-internal part of the haunch. Origin — 
from the inferior part of the transverse process of the first sacral bone 
and venter ilii. Insertion — to the inner and inferior part of the lateral 
ligament of the patella, and through tlie medium of the gracilis to the 
supero-internal part of the tibia. Action — to bend the leg and to draw it 
inwards. 

Gracilis is situated on the internal part of the haunch. Origin — from 
the anterior and posterior ends of the symphysis pubis. Insertion — to 
the spinous ridge on the supero-internal part of the tibia. Action — to 
raise the leg and draw it iiiM'ards. 

Pectineus lies close to the sartorius. Oi^igin — from the anterior sur- 
face of the OS pubis, near the symphysis and acetabulum. Insertion — 
to the ridge of the femur, leading downwards from the trochanter internus. 
Action — to flex and adduct the femur. 

Adductor longus lies at the back of the mass of internal muscles of 
the haunch. Origin from the inferior surface of the ischium, and from 
the adjacent fascia. Insertion — by two portions, which are distinguished 
as separate muscles by some anatomists. One (A. magnus) into the pos- 
terior face of the femur external to the adductor brevis ; the other (A. 
longus), to the inner and ujDper part of the internal condyle. Action — to 
adduct and rotate the femur inwards. 

Adductor brevis lies covered by the adductor magnus. Origin from 
the inferior surface of the os pubis. Insertion — to the square rough sur- 
face on the posterior face of the femur. Action — to adduct the femur. 

THE DEEP MUSCLES OF THE ILIO-FEMOEAL EEGIOK 

Four small muscles attach the fossa of the trochanter major to the 
peh'is, and rotate the femur outwards. 



MUSCLES OF THE THIGH AND LEG. 



4«6 




Pio. 7. — Internal View of the deep Muscles 
OF THE Thigh and Leo. 



Fig. 8.— Extehnal View of the Muscles of 
THE Leo — (Thigh of the Horseman). 



a. b. c Ischium and pubes divided at the sym- 
phy.sis. 

1. Saoro-sciatic ligament. 

2. Adductor (brevis et longus). 

3. Rectus. 

4. Vastus internus. 
6. Pectineus. 

6. Gastrocnemius extemus. 

7. Flexor pedis accessorius. 

8. Tendon of the gastrocnemius passing 

down over the hock to become the 
flexor pedis perforatus. 

9. Flexor pedis perforans. 
10. Extensor pedis. 



1. Vastus extemus. 

2. Rectus. 

3. 3. Gastrocnemius extemus (divided). 

4. Gastrocnemius internus. 

5. Plantaris. 

6. 6. Flexor pedis perforans. 

7. Peroneus. 

8. 8. Extensor pedis. 

9. 9. Tendon of the same 

10. Suspensory ligament. 

11. Long tendon of gastrocnemius (flexor pedia 

perforatus). 

12. Tenaon of flexor pedis perforans. 



406 THE HORSE. 

Pyripormis. — Origin — from tlie transverse processes of the sacrum, and 
the internal face of the ihum by fleshy fibres, which are inserted into tlae 
trochanteric fossa. Action — to rotate the femur outwards. 

Obturator externus and internus are attached, one to the outside and 
the other to the inside of tlie margins of the obturator foramen, and to 
the two faces of the fascia which fills it up. Insertion — ^by separate 
tendons into the trochanteric fossa. 

Gemini arise by two bundles of fibres from the supero-posterior part 
of the ischium. Insertion — to the trochanteric fossa. Action — the same as 
the three last-named muscles, 

ANTERIOR FEMORO-CRURAL REGION. 

Extensor pedis lies superficially on the anterior part of the leg. 
Origin — from a depression on the antero-iuferior and external part of the 
external condyle of the femur. Insertion — to the coronal process of the 
OS pedis. Action — to flex the hock and extend the foot. 

Peroneus lies on the antero-external side of the leg. Origin — from 
the head of the fibula and outer part of the tibia. Insertion — to the 
supero-anterior part of the os suffraginis. Action — to assist the foregoing 
muscle. 

Flexor metatarsi is situated on the antero-internal side of the leg. 
Origin — in common with the extensor pedis, from the outer condyle of 
the femur, and from the upper part of the anterior face of the tibia. 
Insertion — to the 06 cuboides and to the large and small metatarsal bones. 
Action — to flex the hock. 

POSTERIOR FEMORO-CRURAL REGION. 

Gastrocnemius externus lies along the posterior part of the leg. 
Origin — in two portions from the fossa just behind and above each con- 
dyle of the femur. Insertion — to a depression on the centre of the point 
of the OS calcis. Action — to elevate the point of the hock, and thus to 
extend the leg. 

Gastrocnemius internus is situated on the postero-mesian part of the 
leg. Origin — from the inner part of the ridge which surrounds the fossa 
behind and between the two condyles of the femur. Insertion — above 
the hock it becomes tendinous, and passes over the point (from which it is 
separated by a large bursa mucosa, the seat of capped hock), and descends 
along the back of the flexor tendons, where it corresponds with the flexor 
perforatus of the fore leg, to be finally attached to the supero-posterior 
part of the os coronas. Action — to extend the hock and flex the fetlock 
and pastern joints. 

Plantaris is situated on the postero-external part of the thigh. 
Origin — from the superior part of the head of the fibula. Inset tion — to 
the supero-external part of the os calcis. Action — to assist in extending 
the hock. 

PoPLiTEUS lies at the back part of the stifle. Origin — from the lateral 
part of the external condyle of the femur, from which it winds round the 
liead of the tibia. Insertion — to the supero-internal and posterior part of 
the tibia. Auction — to flex the stifle joint. 

Flexor pedis perforans is situated on the postero-external side of 
the leg. Origin — from the supero-external part of the tibia, from the 
body of that bone and to the j^osterior part of the fibula. Insertion — to 



CONTENTS OF THE THORAX. 



407 



the posterior part of the plantar surface of the os pedis. Action — to 
extend the hock and to flex the fetlock and pasterns. 

Flexor pedis accessokius lies on the postero-internal part of the leg. 
Origin — from the supero-external part of the tibia and side of the fibula. 
Its insertion is blended with the tendon of the flexor pedis. 



CHAPTER XXI. 

THE THORACIC ORGANS AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 

CONTENTS OF THE THORAX — THE BLOOD — GENERAL PLAN OF THE CIRCULATION — THE 
HEART AND ARTERIES — THE VEINS — PHYSIOLOGY OF RESPIRATION — MECHANISM OF 
THE PULMONARY APPARATUS^THE NASAL ORIFICES AND CAVITIES — THE LARYNX 
— THE TRACHEA AND BRONCHI — THE LUNGS — PULMONARY GLANDS. 



CONTENTS OF THE THOEAX. 

The thorax, or chest, is that cavity formed by the bodies of the dorsal 
vertebrae superiorly ; by the ribs and their cartilages with the connecting 
muscles laterally ; by the sternum inferiorly ; by the diaphragm poste- 
riorly ; and by the inner margins of the first ribs and body of the first 
dorsal vertebra anteriorly. It contains the central parts of the important 
organs of circulation and respiration, and gives passage to the oesophagus, 
as it connects the pharynx with the 
stomach. As these lie within it, they 
are allowed to play freely in per- 
forming their functions, by being en- 
veloped by smooth serous membranes, 
called the pleura and t\iQ pericardium, 
the latter being also protected by 
a fibrous layer. A section of the 
thorax, as shown in the plan, Fig. 1, 
will give some idea of the relative 
situation of these organs and. their 
investments, as well as of the shape 
of the cavity itself in this direction. 
The heart is shown at A, lying be- 
tween the two bags of the pleura, in 
the space called the mediastinum. The 
lungs are shown at B B, covered by 
a fine serous membrane (H H), pleura pj^ j 
pulmondlis, except at their roots, 
where the air tubes and blood vessels 
pass into their substance. This por- 
tion of the pleura is continuous with 
the serous membrane lining the ribs 
(G Gr, pleura costcdis), which thus allows them to expand and contract 
freely, by allowing one surface to gUde against the other. Thus, the 
pleura on each side covering the lungs, and reflected thence to the 
inside of the ribs, and the thoracic side of the diaphragm, forms a 
shut sac or bag, which in the natural state contains only sufl&cient serum 




Sectional Plan of Thorax and its 

CONTEKTS (through THE GIRTH-PLACE). 

A. Heart. 

B. B. Lungs. 

C. E. D. F. Walls of the thorax. 
G. G. Pleura costalis. 

H. H. Pleura pulmonalis. 



■108 



THE HORSE. 



to lubricate its walls ; ' but in disease this is often increased to au 
enormous extent, ending in dropsy of the cliest, or in a collection of pus 
when the membrane is greatly inflamed. The shape of the thorax in a 




•2 "J 






9^j 



05 t-t --^ 



«o -ji t- c 



. 3 S S 

3 ffl 2 3 

O fc. t-. ^ 



longitudinal direction is shown at tig. 2, in which its posterior wall, the 
diaphragm (12 12), is seen separating the stomach (alO, 11) and tho 
liver (a small section of the left lobe of which only is left) from the lungs 



THE BLOOD. 409 

(14) and tlie heart (15), while the trachea (13 13) is seen entering 
tlirough its anterior boundary, below the oesophagus (9 9 9), and the aorta 
passes close to the spine above the latter. 

As the walls of the thorax expand by the action of the muscles 
which move the ribs, as well as by the contraction of the diapliragm, 
rendering its thoracic surface less convex, the cavity is enlarged and air 
is di'awn in through the trachea, constituting the act of inspiration. On 
the other hand the contraction of the walls, and the forcing upwards 
against the diaphragm of the stomach and liver, by the action of the 
abdominal muscles, reduces the size of the thorax, forces out the air, and 
induces expiration. The repetition of these two actions is known by the 
general term respiration. 

Before proceeding to describe the heart and lungs, it will be necessary 
to examine the blood, for transmitting which fluid to all parts of the 
body the heart and its vessels are formed ; while, for its proper aeration, 
the lungs, windpipe, and larynx, are intended by nature. 

THE BLOOD. 

The blood, supplied from the food by the digestive process hereafter 
to be described, furnishes all the tissues of the body Avith a constantly 
renewed stream of the materials which they severally require, whether for 
their nutrition or for the functions of secretion and excretion performed 
by the various organs devoted to these purposes. It is necessary, there- 
fore, that this fluid should be composed of elementary matters capable of 
combining to form the materials required, or of those substances ready pre- 
pared. Thus, the muscles demand for their proper action fibrine and 
oxygen, both of which are largely combined iii arterial blood, while the 
nervous system cannot respond to the calls of its grand centre without 
having a due supply of fatty matter, also, in combination with the oxygen 
obtained by respiration, which, however, is not only intended to afford 
this gas, but also to remove the carbon that would otherwise accumulate 
to a prejudicial extent. For these several purposes the blood must be 
supplied with liquid elements by absorption from the digestive organs, 
and with its oxygen, by imbibition tlirough the delicate membrane lining 
the lungs on which it is spread as it passes through the system of blood- 
vessels specially set apart for that purpose. Wlien it is considered that 
the stomach, bowels, liver, pancreas, and sjileen, are all occupied almost 
solely in supplying the fluid with its grosser materials, and that the heart, 
lungs, kidneys, and skin, are constantly engaged in circulating it, sup- 
plying it with oxygen, and purifying it from noxious salts and gases, its 
importance in the animal economy may be estimated as it deserves. 

As IT CIRCULATES in, or immediately after it is drawn from, its appro- 
priate vessels, the blood consists of an opaque, thickish fluid, composed of 
water, fibrine, albumen, and various salts, and called Liquor sanguinis, 
coloured red, by having suspended in it a quantity of corpuscles of a 
peculiar nature, some being without any colour. When di-aAvn from an 
artery or vein, and allowed to remain at rest for a few minutes, a coagula- 
tion takes place, by which the blood is separated into the clot (coagulum) 
and the serum. The former is composed of fibrine, having entangled iu 
its meshes the corpuscles ; and the latter is the liquor sanguinis, without 
its fibrine. The blood corpuscles of the horse measure about the five- 
hundredth part of a line in diameter, being considerably larger than those 
3f man, whose diameter is only the four-hundred-and-thirtieth part of a 



410 



THE HORSE. 



line ; those of the ass "being still smaller, though only slightly so. As in 
all of the mammalia hut the camels, these hoclies are circular flattened 
discs, and are of the same size (iiearly) in all animals of the same species, 
whatever may be the age or sex. According to Messrs. Prevost and 
Dumas, the blood of the horse contains less solid matter than that of man, 
in the proportion of 9"20 to 12-92 in 1,000 parts. The temperature is 
also lower by about two degrees of the centigrade thermometer, the pulse 
slower in the proportion of 56 to 72, and the respirations 16 per minute 
against 18 in our own species. The shade of colour in the red corpuscles 
depends upon the proportion of carbonic acid and oxygen combined with 
them. If the former preponderates, a deep purple-red is developed, known 
as that of venous blood ; while a liberal supply of oxygen develops the 
bright scarlet peculiar to arterial blood. The saline matters dissolved in 
the liquor sanguinis consist of the chlorides of sodium and potassium 
(which comprise more than one half of the whole salts), the tribasic 
phos]Dhate of soda, the phosphates of magnesia and lime, sulphate of soda, 
and a little of the phosj)hate and oxyde of iron. 



GENERAL PLAN OF THE CIECULATION. 

The blood is circulated through the body, for the purposes of nutri- 
tion and secretion, by means of one forcing pump, and through the lungs, 
for its proper aeration, by another ; the two being united to form the 

heart. This organ is therefore a 
compound machine, though the two 
pumps are joined together, so as to 
appear to the casual observer to be 
one single organ. In common lan- 
guage, the heart of the mammalia is 
said to have two sides, each of which 
is a forcing pump ; but the blood, 
before it passes from one side to the 
other, has to circulate through one 
or other of the sets of vessels found 
in the general organs of the body, 
and in the lungs, as the case may 
be. This is shown at Fig. 3, where 
the blood, commencing with the 
capillaries on the general surface 
at A, passes through the veins 
which finally end in the vena cava 
(B), and enters the right auricle 
(C). From this it is pumped into 
the right ventricle (D), which, con- 
tracting in its turn, forces it on into 
the pulmonary artery (E), spreading 
out upon the lining membrane of 
the lungs, to form the capillaries 
of that organ at F, from which it 
is returned to the left auricle (G) 
through the pulmonary veins. From the left auricle it is driven on to the 
left ventricle ; and this, by its powerful contractions, forces the blood 
through the aorta (I), and the arteries of the whole body, to the capil- 
laries (A), from which the description commenced. But though this organ 




Fig. 3. — Plan of the Circulation. 

Capillaries on the general surface. 

Vena cava. 

Right auricle. 

Right ventricle. 

Pulmonary artery. 

Capillaries of the lungs, uniting to form 

the pulmonary veins, which enter 
The left auricle. 
The left ventricle. 
The aorta posterior, dividing into smaller 

arteries, and united with the capillaries 

at A. 
The trunk of the aorta anterior. 



THE HEART AND ARTERIES. 411 

is tbus made tip of two pumps, yet they are united into one organ, and 
the two auricles and two ventricles each contract at the same moment, 
causing only a double sound to be heard, instead of a quadruple one, 
when the ear is applied to the chest. In the diagram it will be seen that 
one-half of the cavities and vessels is shaded, indicating that it contains 
dark blood, while the other contains blood of a bright red colour. But 
though we commonly call the one venous, and the other arterial, the dis- 
tinction only applies to the general circulation ; for that of the lungs is 
exactly the reverse, the pulmonary artery (E) containing dark blood, and 
the pulmonary veins bringing it back to the heart after it is i^urified, and 
has again received oxygen sufficient to develop the scarlet colour again. 
Between the auricles and ventricles, and again at the openings of the 
latter cavities into their respective arteries, valves of a form peculiar to 
each are placed, so as to allow of the free passage onwards of the blood, 
but not of its return by regurgitation. If they become diseased, the 
action of the heart is impeded, and the circulation of the blood is more or 
less seriotisly interfered with. So, also, if the muscular fibres, of which 
the walls of the auricles and, in much thicker layers, of the ventricles are 
composed, become weak by want of proper exercise, or from the deposit 
of fat in their interspaces, a corresponding degree of mischief is effected in 
the passage of the blood. The force with which the left ventricle con- 
tracts may be estimated from the fact, that if a pipe is inserted in the 
carotid artery of a horse, and held perpendicularly, the blood will rise in 
it to a height of ten feet ; and the rapidity of his circulation is such, that 
a saline substance will pass from the veins of the upper part of the body 
to those of the lower in little more than twenty seconds. ISTow, as this 
transmission can only take place through the current that returns to the 
heart, and passes thence through the lungs and back again, afterwards 
being forced into the lower vessels through the aorta, it follows that every 
particle of this fluid passes completely through the whole circulation in 
the above short period of time. 

THE HEAET AND ARTERIES. 

The heart of the horse (composed, as has been already mentioned, 
of two auricles and ventricles, with their several valfes, and placed within 
the thorax in the space called the mediastinum, between^ the two sacs of 
the pleura) is covered by a fibro-serous sac of its own, called the peri- 
cardium. It is situated opposite the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth ribs, 
immediately in front of the diaphragm, and above the sternum, as shown 
in Fig. 2, at page 408. It presents an irregular cone, with the base turned 
upAvards, and the apex directed towards the sternum. It is about ten and a 
quarter inches from the base to the apex, seven inches in its antero-posterior 
diameter, and five and a quarter from side to side. In weight it varies 
from six and a half to seven pounds ; but these dimensions can only be 
taken as an approximation to the actual average. The right auricle and 
ventricle are directed forwards, and the left backwards. The auricles 
have much thinner walls than the ventricles, and the muscular substance 
of the left ventricle, occupying the apex of the heart, is very much 
thicker than that of the right. The organ is supplied with blood Xox its 
nourishment by two arteries (the coronary), which leave the aorta close to 
its origin, and their trunks lie in the space on each side between the two 
ventricles. The movements of the heart may be carried on independently 
of the brain and spinal cord, if these parts are gradually removed ; but if 



412 THE HORSE. 

they are suddenly destroyed or partially injured, it ceases to beat. Its 
nerves are derived from the pneumogastric and sympathetic. 

The pericakdium is made up externally of a thin layer of white fibrous 
matter, attached to the roots of the great vessels above, and by a few pro- 
longations to the sternum below, and the central tendon of the diaphragm 
behind. Within this the heart lies, loosely covered with a serous bag, 
which also lines the fibrous coat above mentioned, and forms with it the 
pericardium as a whole. The iise of the external layer is to restrain the 
movements of the heart within due bounds, and of the serous layer to 
allow it to play freely without being restrained by the friction of its 
exterior against the surrounding parts, which would be the case in the 
absence of the double, sac of serous membrane which it is endowed with. 
Like the pleura, this sac, during health, contains only sufficient serum to 
lubricate it ; but after inflammation or congestion, serum, lymph, or pus, 
are thrown out, so as to interfere with its proper functions. 

Each artery has three distinct coats : an outer cellular coat, capable 
of great distension ; a middle coat, consisting in part of yellow fibrous 
tissue and in part of non-striated muscular fibres, Avliich is highly elastic ; 
and an inner serous coat, intended to diminish the friction of the blood 
as it rushes on. It is in the elastic middle coat that the power resides of 
equalizing the flow of blood, retarding its velocity when the vessel con- 
taining it is near the heart, and accelerating it at a distance from it. In 
this way the intermittent jets which are produced by the ventricular con- 
traction become at length converted into a continuous stream, havmg 
midway between the two extremities developed the arterial pulse, which 
can be felt in all the arteries of any size throughout the body, and most 
conveniently within the lower jaw. 

The capillaries are generally spoken of as a distinct system of small 
blood-vessels, but no line of demarcation can be demonstrated either at 
their junction with the larger branches of the arteries, or with the veins ; 
and they should be regarded simply as the minute terminations of the one 
set and commencement of the others, together making a fine net-work of 
vessels which vary greatly in the mode of their ramifications, according as 
they minister to muscular fibre, gland, or membrane. Lilve the arteries 
themselves, they possess the power of contraction and dilatation, which is, 
apparently, under th*e influence of the nervous system. Thus, on the 
application of a local stimulus, the capillaries of the part admit more 
blood without any increase of the heart's action, and this may go on to 
the states known as congestion and injlammation according to the presence 
or absence of other circumstanees bearing upon their action. 

The arteries are arranged in two great groups, one of which has been 
sufficiently alluded to at page 411, as conveying black blood to the lungs ; 
the other commences at the left ventricle as the aorta, and dividing at once 
into the aorta anterior and aorta posterior, supplies the corresponding 
parts of the body with arterial blood, after branching off into innumerable 
subdivisions. This is clearly marked in the accompanying plan, which 
indicates the position of the heart in the thorax, and most of the principal 
arteries of the body; but being on so small a scale, it can only convey a 
general idea of their numbers and the situation at which they each leave 
the pai-ent trunk. 

The aorta, or great artery of the body, as it emerges from the sub- 
stance of the heart and rises towards the spine, describes a curve whose 
convexity looks upwards and forwards. Immediately above the valves at 
its root are the origins of the two coronary arteries, supplying the heart as 



THE ARTERIES. 



413 



3 ^ «. TO 






23-3 'S C" 






oi cd f3 C c; <U 










Pulmonary artery. 

Left auricle. 

Left ventricle. 

The trunk of the aorta. 

Aorta anterior. 

Aorta posterior. 

Axillary artery. 

6. Internal pectoral. 

Right vertebral artery. 

Right carotid artery. 

Left carotid. 

10. Left vertebral artery. 

Occipital artery. 

Bifurcation of the carotu 

Internal oarotid. 

Internal maxillary. 

Sub-maxillary. 

Ocular. 

FaciaL 

Infra orbitar, 

Co'liac. 

Ant. mesenteric 


^cgi-i(Nco-<a<'Otct-ooo>2'~S22lS 


;2S::SS§ 



414 THE HORSE. 

described at page 411. About two inches above these it gives off a large 
branch — the anterior aorta — sujDplying the anterior extremities, the neck, 
and the head, and then receives the name of the posterior aorta, which is 
destined to afford blood to the walls of the thorax and abdomen, to the 
contents of these cavities, and to the hinder extremities. 

The anterior aorta is about an inch and a half in length before it 
gives off any of its branches. It ascends between the two lamina of the 
anterior mediastinum, lying above the right auricle and below the trachea, 
■with the vena cava on its right hand. Opposite the body of the third 
dorsal vertebra it divides into the right and left arteria innominata. The 
former is considerably the larger of the two, being nearly double the 
diameter of the left. This is owing to its supplying both the carotids in 
addition to those which it has previously given off in correspondence with 
the left arteria innominata. These branches common to both are seven 
in number : — 

1. — A. dorsalis branches backwards, and supplies a twig to the superior 
mediastinum, and the four or five first intercostal arteries. 

2. — A. cervicalis superior, distributed to the muscles of the neck lying 
above the spine. 

3. — A. vertehralis, a vessel of considerable size, is given off behind the 
first rib, and passes beneath the transverse process of the seventh cervical 
vertebra to enter the foramen in that of the sixth. From this it pro- 
ceeds through the foramina of all the cervical vertebrse in succession, 
and enters the foramen magnum to supply the base of the brain with 
blood. 

4. — A. ihoracica interna, given off opposite the last artery, descends at 
once to the upper and inner surface of the sternum, on each side of 
which it lies, supplying the intercostal muscles, and, inosculating with 
the intercostal arteries, terminates by meeting the ascending branches 
from the epigastric artery. 

5. — A. thoracica externa, a small branch which is given off externally to 
the first rib, and descends at once to the inferior surface of the sternum, 
on the muscles covering which it terminates. 

6. — ,'1. cervicalis inferior is a short branch, and supplies the muscles and 
glands at the root of the neck. 

7.— A. axillaris descends at once to the inside of the fore extremity, and 
supplies the scapula, arm, and leg. It is the continuation of the main 
artery after it has given off the above branches, and lies deeply 
imbedded in the cellular membrane which fills up the space between 
the sternum and the shoulder joint. Here it supplies (a) three or 
four thoracic branches ; (6) the A. " dorsalis scapula3 ; (c) A. subsca- 
pularis ; the destinations of Avhich will be explained by their names. It 
then runs along the inner side of the head of the os humeri, where it 
receives the name of A. humeralis, and gives off three or four muscular 
branches, having the ulnar and spiral nerves on its inner side, and in 
front the radial nerve, with the humeral veins behind. Above the 
elbow joint, and in front of the humerus, it splits into three, A. ulnaris, 
spiralis, and radialis ; the last again dividing into two, A. plantaris 
externa and A. P. interna, which will again be alluded to in describing 
the anatomy of the foot. 

The common carotid artery, which is the continuation of the right A 
innominata, after it has given off its axillary branches, ascends along the 



THE ARTERIES. 



415 



lower face of the trachea for a very short distance, and then divides into 
the right and left carotids, which lie on each side the trachea, gradually- 
sinking deeper among the muscles of the neck till they arrive at the 
level of the larynx, when they respectively divide into three branches — 
A. carotidcea externa, A. occipitalis^ and A. carotickea interna. In this 
course they supply the thyroideal artery and several small muscular 
branches. The external carotid gives off (a) the submaxillary artery, 




Fio. 5 

1. Posterior aorta. 

2. 2. 2. 2. Intercostal branches of posterior 

aorta. 

3. Anterior aorta. 

4. Right arteria innominata, ending in common 

carotid and 

5. Axillary artery. 



Branches of the Rioht Arteuia Innominata. 
6. 6. 6. A. dorsalis. 



7. 7. A. cervicalis superior. 

8. 8. 8. Vertebral artery. 

9. 10. Inosculations of these three arteries. 
11. Origins of the internal and external thoracic 

arteries. 



which has a number of branches supplying the muscles of the pharynx, 
palate, and face; (b) the parotideal; (c) internal pterygoid; (d) branches 
to the massetcr and auricular muscles ; and hnally (e) the internal 
maxillary, which penetrates deeply behind the lower jaw, and supplies those 
parts ; then going on to the eye, for which it gives off a special branch, 
the ocular, destined to the muscles of the eye and the fat in which it lies. 



416 THE HORSE. 

The occipital artery passes backwards, deeply hidden by tlie muscles 
of the neck and the transverse process of the atlas, where it unites with the 
vertebral artery. 

The intern'al carotid, a comparatively small artery, ascends towards 
the base of the skull, which it enters at the point of the petrous part of 
the temporal bone, and supplies the brain in common with the vertebral 
arterjr, with which it freely anastomoses. 

The posterior aorta must now be described. It is much longer and 
of larger diameter than the anterior, commencing opposite the fourth 
dorsal vertebra, where it lies at some little distance below the body of 
that bone. Passing upwards and backwards it becomes closely connected 
with the bodies of the vertebras, lying a little to the left, and having the 
wsophagus and vena azygos on the right, and the thoracic duct on the left. 
Here it is called the thoracic aorta ; but passing through the crura of the 
diaphragm it enters the abdomen, and receives the name of abdominal 
aorta. The thoracic division supplies small branches to the bronchi and 
oesophagus, as well as the intercostal arteries to all but the four or five an- 
terior intercostal spaces. After passing through the diaphragm, the aorta 
gives off the phrenic arteries right and left to the diaphragm, and then 
supplies the important arteries of the viscera, namely : (a) the OxUac 
artery, dividing into the splenic, gastric, and hepatic arteries ; (6) the 
anterior mesenteric ; (c) the renal ; [d) the spermatic ; (e) the posterior 
mesenteric ; (/) the lumbar arteries ; and finally, just below the last 
lumbar vertebra, it subdivides into {g) the two internal, and {h) the two 
external iliac arteries. In the horse there is no common iliac artery, 
as in man, the four being given off in one group, but the two internals 
generally forming a short continuation of the trunk. 

The internal iliac artery has a very short trunk, which passes 
backwards and outwards in close connexion with the sacrum. Its first 
branch is {a) the umbilical artery. It then gives off (6) the artery of the 
bulb, after which and just opposite the sacro-iliac articulation it divides 
into a leash of branches, which are (c) the obturator, {d) the lateral sacral, 
and (e) the gluteal artery. The umbilical artery is almost entirely obli- 
terated in tlie adult, but a small branch still remains passing along the 
cord which exists as the only remnant of the large artery which in the 
foetus carries on the circulation peculiar to that condition. The artery of 
the bulb supplies the bladder and the internal organs of generation. The 
obturator artery give off branches to the muscles of the haunch, and finally 
ends in the internal pubic artery, which gives blood to the penis and 
adjacent organs. The lateral sacral artery proceeds backwards along the 
side of the sacrum to the bones of the tail, along which it ramifies. 
Lastly, the gluteal artery passes out of the pelvis through the hole in the 
sacro-sciatic ligament in company with the sciatic nerve, and supplies 
muscular branches to the glutei. 

The external iliac artery is smaller than the internal, and takes the 
same course as far as the articulation, beyond which it passes, lying just 
within the brim of the pelvis, in close contact with the psoas and iliacus 
muscles and covered by the peritoneum. About midway between the 
symphisis pubis and the anterior spinous process of the ilium it gives off 
the circumflex artery of the ilium, and then receives the name of the 
femoral artery. At this point the femoral vein lies posterior to it, and it 
is also accompanied by the internal saphena nerve. Proceeding in an 
oblique direction down the middle of the haunch, it reaches the hollow at 
the back of the stifle joint, where it is called the poplitceal artery, and 



THE VEINS. 417 

opposite tlie head of the tibia this bifurcates into the anterior and 
posterior tibial arteries. Just after emerging from the pelvis it gives 
off a considerable brancli, profunda femoris, then the epigastric ; and in 
running down through the muscles of the thigh it gives off numerous 
small branches to theixu 

THE VEINS. 

The veins generally correspond with the arteries, the blood of which 
they return to the heart. Thus there is a large vein which conveys all 
the blood from the anterior half of the body supplied by the anterior 
aorta, and this is called vena cava anterior. In a similar manner the 
posterior vena cava is made up of vems which accompany the several 
arteries that are found throughout the body, with one remarkable ex- 
ception connected with the secretion of bile. If the splenic and mesen- 
teric veins are traced they will be found to unite together into a large 
trunk, which, instead of going on to empty itself into the vena cava 
posterior, enters the liver, where it is called the vena portce, and branches 
out again like an artery, the general purposes of which it serves by 
furnishing blood for the secretion of bile. This wiU be more fully 
described under the head of the liver, in the next chapter. From the 
terminations of the portal veins and hepatic artery the hepatic veins arise, 
and these empty themselves into the posterior vena cava, just behind 
the diaphragm. Besides that brought by the two vense cavse, the blood 
from the heart itself enters the auricle through the coronary veins. 

Although, in general, the veins and arteries correspond in their rami- 
fications, yet there is a large class of superficial veins which are not 
accompanied by any of the latter vessels. In horses which for many 
generations have been accustomed to fast work, these superficial veins 
are strongly developed, and are particularly plain in the Arab and his 
descendants. As a consequence of this, and of the fact that many of the 
arteries are accompanied by two veins, the whole number of veins is much 
gi'eater than that of tlie arteries, and the internal area of the former may 
be considered to be nearly double that of the latter. In their walls the 
veins are much thinner than the arteries, though like them they have 
three coats, the serous and cellular bemg very similar in structure, but the 
fibrous is very much thinner and devoid of muscular fibres. A feature 
peculiar to the veins is the existence of valves, whicli are sometimes 
single, at others double, and occasionally arranged in threes and fours 
around the interior of the large veins. They vary in numbers, and are 
altogether absent in the pulmonary veins, in the vense cavae, and the 
vena portae. 

The anterior vena cava is made up of the jugular vein, the pectoral, 
vertebral, axillary, and cervical veins, and the vena azygos. The jugular 
vein, which is that usually selected for bleeding, returns the blood from the 
brain, jaw^s, and neck, along each side of which it lies, separated from the 
carotid artery in the upper part of the neck by a layer of oblique fibres 
belonging to the levator humeri. In the lower half the vein becomes 
more deeply seated, approaches more closely the carotid artery, and, 
entering the chest with it, falls into the vena cava anterior between the 
first and second ribs. Near its termination it receives the superficial 
brachial vein (the plate vein), which passes up in front of the arm, along 
the anterior edge of the flexor, and winding upwards in the hollow 
between the arm and sternum joins the jugular vein. The vertebral 

G E 



418 THE HORSE. 

and axillary veins correspond -with the arteries of the same name, the 
divisions of the latter contained within the foot being described -wdth that 
organ. The left axillary vein receives the contents of the thoracic duct 
which opens into it close to its junction with the vena cava. 

The posterior vena cava commences by the junction of the two 
common iliac veins (each made up of an external and internal iliac cor- 
responding to the arteries of the name). It is then joined by the lumbar 
veias, the spermatic and renal veins, after which, and close to its termina- 
tion, the hepatic and phrenic veins empty themselves into it. 

The pulmonary veins, commencing with eight trunks as they emerge 
from the lungs, soon unite into four, in which number they enter the left 
auricle. They carry arterial blood, and differ in this respect from all the 
other veins of the body, as has been aheady mentioned. 

PHYSIOLOGY OF EESPIEATIOK 

The essence of the act of breathing consists in the absorption of 
oxygen from the air, and the excretion of carbonic acid from the blood 
which is circulated through it. In a state of rest this interchange must go 
on with regularity, for carbonic acid is constantly developed by the decay 
of the tissues, arising from the peculiar necessities of the muscular and 
nervous tissues, and by the conversion of the carbon of the food which 
appears to be required for the development of heat. But when the 
muscles of the whole body are called into play with unusual rapidity and 
force, the development of carbonic acid is largely augmented, and thus, 
not only is there a necessity for extra means of excreting the carbonic 
acid, but there is also a demand for more oxygen to unite with the carbon, 
which is the result of the disintegration of the muscular fibres employed. 
Hence the acts of respiration are more -complete and rapid during exercise 
than in a state of rest, and while much more carbonic acid is given off, a 
greater volume of oxygen is absorbed from the air which is inspired. 

It is found by experiment that if venous blood is exjDosed to the 
action of oxygen, through a thin membrane such as bladder, it absorbs 
a portion of that gas, and changes its colour from dark red to a bright 
scarlet. This is in accordance with the recognised laws of endosmose and 
exosmose ; and as the blood circulates in very fine streams within the 
vessels of the lungs, whose walls are much thinner than an ordinary 
bladder, it may readily be understood that it is placed in more favourable 
circumstances for this interchange of gases than when tied up in a large 
mass within a comparatively thick membrane. On examining the struc- 
ture of the lungs, they are found to be made np of a pair of cellular sacs, 
communicating with the trachea, which admits air into them ; and 
these sacs are furnished with a fijie network of capillary vessels distri- 
buted on their Avails, and on those of the numerous cellular partitions of 
which they are composed. Thus the blood, as it enters the lungs in a 
venous state, is submitted under very favourable circumstances to the 
agency of atmospheric air ; it readily absorbs the oxygen while it gives off 
large volumes of carbonic acid gas, the result of the combination of pre-' 
viously absorbed oxygen with the carbon given off by the various organs! 
of the body already alluded to. 

The exact chemical changes which have taken place in the atmo- 
spheric air exlialed from the lungs and in the blood itself are believed to 
be as follows — 1. A certain portion of oxygen has disappeared from the 
air. 2. It has received a considerable volume of carbonic acid. 3. It 



NASAL CAVITIES. 41& 

has absorbed fresh nitrogen. 4. It has parted with some of the nitrogen 
o^ which it was previously made up. The last two changes cannot 
readily be demonstrated, but are inferred from the fact that, under varying 
conditions of the body, the nitrogen in the exhaled air may be either 
above or below the proper proportional. Besides these, the air also 
receives a considerable quantity of moisture, and some organic matters, 
which in certain cases are largely increased. The changes in the blood 
are not so fully known ; but it is now the general opinion of physiologists 
that the formation of carbonic acid does not take place in the lungs, but 
that the blood arrives there surcharged with it already made, and not 
with carbon, as was formerly believed. The action chiefly consists in the 
excretion of this carbonic acid, and in the absorption of oxygen, which is 
stored up for the several purposes for which it is required in the course of 
its circulation through the body. Magnus demonstrated by experiment 
that arterial and venous blood contain very different quantities of carbonic 
acid, oxygen, and nitrogen in a free state, for on obtaining, by means of 
the air-pump, a volume of the gas contamed in each kind of blood, and 
analysing them, he found them to be made up as follows : — 

Arterial. Venous. 

Carbonic acid 62-3 71 '6 

Oxygen 23-2 15-3 

Nitrogen 14-5 IS'l 

It appears, therefore, that in passing through the capillaries, the gas in 
the arterial blood loses about eight per cent, of oxygen, and receives about 
nine per cent, of carbonic acid, which action is reversed as it passes 
through the lungs. 

MECHAI^ISM OF THE PULMO^AEY APPAEATUS. 

Although the whole of these parts are not contained within the 
thorax, it will be convenient to examine them together, since they all 
mutually bear upon each other both in health and disease. 

The pulmonary apparatus of the horse consists of four parts — 1st, 
The nasal cavities, destined to prejjare the air for entering the larynx ; 
2d, Of the larynx, which acts as a portal or guard against the admission 
of noxious matters flioating in it ; 3d, Of a set of tubes, consisting of the 
trachea and bronchi, which convey the air from the larynx to the air- 
cells ; and 4thly, Of the air-cells themselves, where the changes are effected 
in the blood, for which the lungs are specially designed. 

THE ITASAL ORIFICES AI^D CAYITIES. 

The nasal orifices in the horse and ass differ from those of the other 
domestic animals, and also from the human nostrils, in being the sole 
means of admitting air to the lungs. The ox, sheep, dog, cat, &c. can 
breathe either through the nostrils or the mouth, but the horse is pre- 
vented, by the formation of his soft palate, from drawing in air through 
his mouth, and hence he requires nostrils of a size calculated to admit an 
extra supply of air. The orifices or nostrils consist of an oblong opening 
on each side of the nose, separated from each other externally by the skin 
covering the cartilaginous alee, which encircle three-fourths of the opening. 
These alae, together with the septum, which divides the two nostrils ver- 
tically, constitute the five cartilages of the nose, all being lined by the 
Schneiderian membrane, upon which the nerves of smeU are freely dL«s 

TSE 2 



420 THE HORSE. 

tributed. Each nostril lias two flexible and easily dilated alse— a superior 
or internal ala, having a broad cartilaginous plate, and an inferior ala, of 
a crescentic shape, with its concavity turned inwards. The four alae, 
when in position, resemble the letter X, and form a framework which 
keeps the openings always patulous, while it resists the actions of the 
muscles when they draw the external folds of the skin away from it in 
order to enlarge the openings. Two Httle pouches of skin are found 
internally above the true nostrds, and are called the false nostrils, the use 
of which is not known. At the inner and inferior part of the nasal fossa, 
underneath the fold of skin covering the inferior ala, is the orifice of the 
nasal duct, which leads down from the eye, and conveys the surplus 
secretion of lachrymal fluid from that organ to the nose. In the ass and 
mule this orifice is found just within the superior ala. If these alae are 
not of full size and the nostrils patulous, it may generaLy be surmised 
tliat the other organs of respiration are equally undeveloped, and that the 
horse's wind will be proportionally bad. 

The nasal cavities, or fossje, are partly bounded by bone, and partly 
ty the cartilage known as the septum nasi. The surface of membrane is 
much increased -by the convolutions of the turbinated bones, so that the 
air, as it passes through these chambers, is warmed if cold, and if dry it 
is moistened, so as to render it fit for respiration. The frontal, eethmoidal, 
sphenoidal, and maxillary sinuses also open into these fossae, the whole 
of them being lined by a continuation of the Schneiderian membrane. 

THE LARYNX. 

Immediately behind and below the nasal cavities is the larynx, which 
serves the double purpose of acting as a portal to the inspired air, and 
of forming the few vocal sounds uttered by the horse. It consists of five 




J 



Fin 6.— Profile View oe the Os Hyoides and LA.KY^x. 
1 Lateral plates of the thyroid cartilage. 6. Spur process, or appendix. 

o i?..itTintHa 7. Shorthorn. 

■ Wl^ S^S^^tilage I r^r^^^^^-o^ the traC.a 

': Bn'^chJl the l^dy of tK hyoides. 10. 10. 10. Membranes connecting these riu«s 

cartilages, united together by ligaments, and moved by a number of deli- 
cate muscles. It is lined with a fine mucous membrane, and is supplied, 
like aU other parts of the body, by its proper vessels and nerves, it is 
suspend(;d from the os hyoides, or bone of the tongue, by a strong but 
thin membrane, and terminates posteriorly in the trachea, or air-tube 
leading to the lungs. 



THE LARYNX. 



421 



The thyroid cartilage (dvpio's, a shield, fl^os, like) is composed of two 
lateral plates, each presenting the form of an oblique-angled parallelogram, 
joined together in front, and separated by a considerable space behind, 
which is occupied by the cricoid cartilage. The point in front, which 
corresponds with the pomum Adami in man, is called the body. The 
posterior angles of the lateral plates are each terminated by a prolonga- 
tion, called a cornea or ala — the two superior being united by ligaments 
to the OS hyoides, and the two inferior to the cricoid cartilage. In the 
upper part of the anterior angle is fixed the epiglottis, by means of the 
union called amphiartlu'osis. 

The cricoid cartilage (fcpiKos, « ^'ing, etSo?, like) is a complete ring, 
but it is much deeper behind than 
before. It is somewhat depressed 
from side to side, especially in those 
horses which are deficient in wind. 
On the upper edge behind it has two 
rounded surfaces, which articulate 
with the arytenoid cartilages. In 
the middle is a vertical ridge, to 
which the oesophagus is united by 
cellular membrane, and on each side 
of this is a hollow for the lodgment 
of muscles. 

The arytenoid cartilages {apv- 
Taiva, a pitcher, ftSos, like), two in 
number, are triangular in form, 
broad and thick below, and pointed 
above. They give attachment to 
the vocal chords, and are the means 
by which these are rendered tense 
or lax, open or close, by the action 
of the muscles of the larynx. 

The epiglottis (en-tyXioTTis) is a 
cartilage of a heart shape, attached 
to the angle between the lateral 
plates of the thyroid cartilage. 
When pressed backwards, it closes 
the rima glottidis or fissure between 
the vocal chords, and in this way 
prevents the food from passing into 
the larynx. 

By the aid op these cartilages, 
and of the ligaments connecting 
them, as well as by means of the 

muscles which move them, a triangular opening called the rima glottidis 
is formed, having its base behind at the arytenoid cartilages and its 
apex in front, below the epiglottis. The sides of this opening are formed 
by ligamentous bands, attached to the arytenoid cartilages, so that as 
these are drawn backwards they are rendered tense ; and if they are 
drawn apart the rima or fissure is widened and admits more air. When 
this fissure is contracted, either by thickening of the edges or by the 
wasting of the muscles which keep it open, roaring or whistling is 
produced ; so that it is important to arrive at a correct idea of its 
mechanism. 




Fro. 



■Posterior View ok the Os Hvoidks 
AND Larvnx. 

1. Ejiiglottis. 

2. Ai'j-tenoid cartilages. 

3. Cricoid cartilage. 

4. Spur process, or appendix of the os liyoidos. 

5. 5. Branches of the body of the os hyoides. 
0. 6. Short horns. 

7. 7. Long horns of the os hyoides. 

8. Membrane completing the back of the 

trachea. 

9. 9. 9. Tracheal rings incomplete behind 

10. 10 10. Membrane between the rings of the 
trachea. 



422 THE HORSE. 

THE TRACHEA A^J) BEONCHI. 

Tlie TRACHEA is a flexible and elastic tube, formed of a series of iBCom- 
plete cartilaginous rings, about fifty in number, connected together by an 
elastic membrane, wbicli also fills up tbe space left at the back of each 
ring. It passes down the lower margin of the neck, and, on arriving at 
the level of the base of the heart, it divides into two bronchi or lesser 
tubes, of somewhat the same character and structure as itself In its 
course, it has the sterno-hyoideus and thyroideus in front, the oesophagus 
behind ; and the carotid artery, with the pneumogastric, recurrent, and 
sympathetic nerves on each side ; the jugular vein being more superficial 
than these, but also on the side of the trachea. At the upper and back 
part of the trachea a layer of muscular fibres is found, connecting together 
the posterior edges of the cartilages. These are supposed by IMr. Percivall 
to have the power of dilating the trachea by their contraction. He 
explains this somewhat paradoxical action, 'by imagining that " in conse- 
quence of the passage being naturally elliptical, and the muscle being 
extended across its long diameter, the contraction of its sides wiU give the 
tube a circular figure, by increasing the curvature of the ring anteriorly, 
and therefore, in effect, wiU expand, and not contract, the calibre of the 
canal." This theory is, however, now entirely abandoned, and it is 
generally admitted that the sole ofl&ce of these muscular bands is to 
diminish the area of the trachea. 

The bronchi consist at first of the two tubes into which the trachea 
divides, the right being the more capacious of the two. Afterwards they 
.subdivide, like the branches of a tree, into lesser tubes, still called bron- 
chial, which finally open into the air-cells of the lungs. These tubes 
differ from the trachea in that each ring of cartilage is made up of several 
distinct pieces, which overlap each other, and thus allow of considerable 
dilatation during forcible expiration. The rings are held together by an 
elastic cellular substance, and are lined first by a fibrous layer, with which 
it is supposed that some muscular tissue is mixed up, as in the larger 
bronchi, and internally by fine mucous membrane. 

THE LUNGS. 

The lungs consist of two conical spongy bodies, adapted to the shape 
of the thorax, the left being the smaller of the two. Between these 
halves of the lungs is a space caUed the mediastinum, already described, 
occupied by the heart, great blood-vessels, nerves, and glands ; they are 
capable of great dilatation by the act of inspiration, and of being again 
reduced in size by expiration. In structure, they are made up of three 
distinct parts — (1) an external or serous coat, called the pleura, described 
at page 407 ; (2) a middle or true pulmonary tissue, consisting of the 
intercellular passages and air-cells, of the arteries and veins, lymphatics 
and nerves, bound together by an areolo-fibrous tissue, and called the 
parenchyma; (3) the terminal branches of the bronchial tubes. The 
pleura is simply a layer of serous membrane, liable to its peculiar acci- 
dents and diseases, hereafter to be described. The parenchyma has a 
beautiful pale rose colour in the healthy subject. Though very delicate, it 
strongly resists external violence, and is not easily torn. It is divided 
into a vast number of little polyhedral lobules, each of which receives one 
of the terminating branches of a bronchial tube, and is again broken up 



PULMONARY GLANDS. 423 

into a cluster of air-cells, on the walls of which the capillary branches of 
the pulmonary arteries and veins are thickly spread out. The extent of 
surface upon which these vessels ramify is enormous, probably ten or 
twelve times that of the skin. Tlie parenchyma of the lungs appears to 
be entirely passive in respiration, being filled with air by the expansion 
of the cavity in which it lies ; and that, again, being due to the act of the 
inspiratory muscles. 

The bronchial tubes divide and subdivide until they diminish to a 
diameter of 2V of an inch, when they terminate in the intercellular 
passages, by which they communicate with the air-cells. At their 
terminations, the mucous membrane ceases abruptly, the fibrous envelope 
being alone continued, together with the vascular network common 
to both. Thus the mucous membrane lining the bronchi, and the 
fibrous walls of the air-cells, are quite distinct; and this will account 
for each being often the seat of a peculiar inflammation, without extend- 
ing to the other. 

PULMO:^AEY GLANDS, &c. 

In connexion with the lungs are three bodies, the uses of two of 
which are not very clearly made out. These are the thyroid body, just 
below the larynx ; the thymus gland, chiefly developed in the foetus ; 
and the bronchial glands, which are merely lymphatic glands of the usual 
character, situated around the principal divisions of the bronchi. 

The thyroid body is not very fully developed in the horse, and has 
little interest connected with it, seldom being enlarged, as in the dog and 
in the human species. It consists of two oval masses, about the size of an 
egg, lying on each side of the trachea, just beneath the larynx, and con- 
nected by a band or middle lobe. The use of the thyroid body is not 
ascertained. 

Just within the thorax, and in close contact with the trachea, a 
somewhat similar body to the preceding is met with in the foetus and 
young foal ; but it soon wastes away as the young animal grows up. This 
is the thymus gland (known to cooks as the sweetbread), resembling in 
shape the thyroid body, but of a paler colour. Like it, the use of this 
gland is not fully known ; but in structure it is more like the con- 
glomerate glands ; and Sir Astley Cooper, who examined it most minutely, 
supposed that it is intended " to prepare a fluid, well fitted for the foetal 
growth and nourishment, from the blood of the mother, before the birth 
of the foetus." 

The bronchial glands are merely lymphatic glands, similar to those 
in other parts of the body, and grouped around the large bronchial tubes. 
They are of a greyish colour, stained with black in patches. 



424 THE HORSE. 

CHAPTER XXII. 

THE ABDOMINAL AND PELVIC VISCERA. 

THE ABDOMEN AND ITS CONTENTS — PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION — ABSORPTION — STRUC- 
TURE OP GLANDS AND PHYSIOLOGY OF SECRETION — DEPURATION AND ITS OFFICE 
IN THE ANIMAL ECONOMY— ANATOMY OF THE SALIVARY GLANDS, PHARYNX, (ESO- 
PHAGUS, AND STOMACH — THE INTESTINES LIVER — SPLEEN PANCREAS — KIDNEYS — 

PELVIS — BLADDER — ORGANS OF GENERATION, MALE AND FEMALE. 

THE ABDOMEN ANT) ITS CONTENTS. 

Lying immediately behind the thorax, from which they are separated 
only by the diaphragm, are the important organs of digestion, and the 
space in which they are closely packed is called the ahdomen. This part 
is capahle of being distended downwards and sideways to an enormous 
extent, or of contracting till the lower walls approach very closely to the 
upper. The anterior boundary, as before remarked, is the diaphragm, 
the plane of which moves considerably in active respu^ation, causing the 
tianks, or postero-lateral walls of the abdomen, to rise and fall, in a corre- 
sponding manner, and thus to indicate the extent of distress in an 
exhausted animal, or any peculiarity of breathing, as hi " broken wind," 
or in the several inflammatory conditions of the lungs. Posteriorly, the 
boundary is an open one, being the anterior boundary of the pelvis, and 
corresponding with the brim of that cavity. Superiorly are the crura of 
the diaphragm, the lumbar vertebroe, and psoas and iliacus muscles ; and 
laterally, as well as inferiorly, the abdominal muscles, and cartilages cf 
the false ribs. Although the abdominal muscles are capable of great 
dilatation, yet in the natural condition they maintain a gentle curve only 
from their pelvic to their costal attachments, and hence the depth and 
width of the back-ribs and pelvis are the measure of the ordinary 
capacity of the abdomen. Shallow and narrow back-ribs give a small 
abdominal cavity, and generally speaking a correspondingly weak con- 
dition of the digestive organs ; for though this rule is not invariable, yet 
it is one which may be held as a sufficient guide for practical purposes. 
Instances do occur of stout and hearty horses possessed of contracted 
middle pieces, but they are so rare as to be merely objects of curiosity. 
The small space which is devoted to the organs of digestion in the horse 
whose back ribs are shallow will be readily understood by reference to 
the annexed section, in which the enormous mass of intestines and the 
liver have been removed, leaving only the stomach and spleen. When 
the walls of the abdomen are distended laterally and downwards, as they 
always are in horses at grass, the capacity of the abdomen is at least 
doubled. 

The contents of the abdomen are the stomach, the liver, the pancreas, 
the spleen, the small and large intestines, the mesenteric glands and 
chyliferous ducts, and the kidneys, together with their vessels and nerves. 
Some of these organs are fixed closed to the spine, as the kidneys and 
pancreas ; but the others glide upon each other as they are alternately 
empty or full: and to facilitate this motion they are (like the lungs) 
invested with a serous coat, the peritoneum. They may be divided into 
the hollow organs, Avhich form one continuous tube (the alimentary), and , 



THE ABDOMEN AND PELVIS. 



425 



tlie solid viscera, whicli, with the exception of the spleen, are all of a 
glandular structure, though differing in their minute anatomy. The 
alimentary canal consists throughout of three distinct layers : the external 







ft. -s. 



n>. 



« a 



o S 



e 7 



^1 



1 Tj 

d3 



serous coat {-peritoneal), the middle or mnsadar coat, and the internal 
mucous coat, which are united by cellular membrane, sometimes regarded 
as forming two distinct additional coats. 



426 



THE HORSE. 



The peritoneum, like tlie pleura, is a serous membrane, forming a shut 
sac, and arranged in such, a manner that all the abdominal organs are 
behind it, and two layers of it must be divided before reaching the 
interior of any of the organs from the lateral or inferior boundaries of 
the abdomen. This will be better understood by examining the annexed 
plan, in which the solid black part represents the interior of the peritoneal 
sac, a space usually extremely small, but capable of being distended to a 
great extent by a secretion of serum from the internal surface, as in 
abdominal dropsy. The white line indicates the whole continuous surface 
of the peritoneum inclosing the black space, which is exaggerated, in 
order to render the plan more distinct. It will thus be readily understood 
that unless the peritoneum is detached from the upper walls of the 
abdomen, and its layers are separated, as at E E, the viscera cannot be 
reached without dividing it twice ; first, as it lines the walls of the abdo- 
men ; and secondly, as it closely covers the organ which it is desired to 




Fio. 2. Sectional Plan of the Horse's Abdomen behind the Stomach and Livek. 



A. A. Large Intestines. 
B. B. B. B. Small intestines. 

C. C. C. Peritoneum covering intestines. 

D. D. Peritoneum lining the walls of the ab- 
domen. 
E. E. Folds connecting the large intestine 
with tlie parietal peritoneum, called 
mesocolon. 



F. F. Folds connecting the small intestmes 
with the same, and called the mestu- 
tery. 
G. Abdominal muscles. 
H. H. Ribs. 
I. I. Lumbar muscles. 
J. J. Kidneys imbedded in fat 



open. In certain conditions it is important to remember this, as for 
instance in distended states of the colon, when it may be a question 
whether the bowel may be punctured from the flank without wounding 
the peritoneum. It is a very delicate and irritable membrane in the 
horse, and should never be interfered with if it is possible to avoid it. 
Its secretion is a clear serum, merely sufficient in health to lubricate the 
surface, but in disease becoming very profuse and greatly altered in 
character. 

The muscular coat of the hollow viscera varies in thickness ; but 
the whole of it belongs to the unstriped division of muscles, and its 
action is purely involuntary. In all but the large intestines the fibres 
are arranged in a circular direction, but in these they are divided into 



PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION. 427 

sets, one circular, and the other collected in separate longitudinal bands. 
By the consecutive action of these fibres (called peristaltic), the food is 
driven onwards from one end to the other of the alimentary canal. 

The mucous membrane, which lines the whole length of the alimentary 
canal, from the mouth to the anus, is continuous with the skin at these 
two orifices — with the mucous membrane lining the air-passages of the 
lungs at the entrance to the larynx — with that investing the nasal 
passages and cavities at the antero-superior part of the pharynx — and, 
lastly, Avith the internal ear through the eustachian tubes which open 
into the back of the pharynx. It is also reflected into the ducts of the 
salivary glands, which open into the mouth, and into those of the liver 
and pancreas, so that it has very extensive communications with these 
several organs. Like the skin, this membrane has a base composed of 
primary membrane, called the corium, on Avhich are scattered the glands 
that secrete the gastric juice, imbedded in loose areolar tissue. In the 
intestines we shall fi.nd it extensively supplied Avith absorbents, which 
open upon its velvety pile or villi, and the whole protected by epithelium, 
wliich serves an important part in the production of the mucus every- 
where found upon its surface when in a healthy state. In the oesophagus 
it is thick, and disposed in longitudinal folds, allowing of lateral disten- 
tion. In the stomach it exists in coarse folds or rugae, and in the intes- 
tines it is gathered into sharp folds, chiefly manifested in the duodenum. 
It is extensively supplied with blood throughout its whole surface, but 
especially where it lines the stomach and small intestines, and it is also 
liberally furnished with nerves, chiefly derived from the great sympathetic 
system. 

The abdominal viscera are supplied with blood by branches from 
the aorta, passing between the folds of the peritoneum to reach their 
destination, excepting in the cases of the kidneys and pancreas, which 
have no such folds. The same folds also include the veins returning the 
blood to form the vena portpe (see page 417), and also the lymphatics and 
chyliferous absorbents, to be hereafter described. 

The nerves are chiefly derived from the great sympathetic system ; 
but branches from the cerebro-spinal system are also distributed to the 
contents of the abdomen, and especially to the stomach, by means of the 
pneumogastric nerve. 

PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION. 

Before proceeding to examine into the anatomy of the abdominal 
organs, it may be well to investigate the nature of the processes which 
are carried out by them. To do this, the food must be traced from its 
prehension by the lips and teeth to its expulsion from the anus. Thus, 
commencing with the mouth, we find it there ground into a coarse pulp, 
and mixed with the saliva, which acts as a kind of ferment in converting 
the starchy matters, which form so large a proportion of the horse's food, 
into sugar, and, with the aid of the gastric juice, into the proteine com- 
pounds necessary for the formation of flesh. Perfect mastication and 
insalivation are therefore highly important processes to healthy digestion. 
When it reaches the stomach, the food undergoes still further changes by 
the agency of the gastric juice and of maceration ; but this organ beino- 
small in the horse, it cannot remain there long enough to be converted into 
perfect chyme (the result of the first process of digestion), but is passed on 
into the duodenum for that purpose. Here it is further elaborated, and 



428 THE HORSE. 

receives the bile and pancreatic juice, wliich are poured out througli their 
ducts opening on the internal surface of this intestine. The nutritious 
parts of the food are now gradually converted into chyle; and as it passes 
into the jejunum and ilium, it is there absorbed by the lymphatics (here 
called ladeals), whose mouths open upon the villi thickly lining this part 
of the canal. These unite into one duct (the thoracic), and the chyle is 
by it carried into the veins through an opening at the junction of the left 
vena cava anterior, with the axillary vein. From the small intestines, the 
food, minus its nutritive portions, is passed on into the large intestines, 
and finally reaches the rectum and anus, in the form known as faeces. 
The peculiar offices performed by the bile and pancreatic fluid will be 
described under the sections treating of each of those organs. 

The absorption op fluid from the inteiior of the alimentary canal ia 
effected in two different modes — first, by the lacteals, which take up the 
chyle through their open mouths ; secondly, by the veins, which absorb 
it through their walls by the process known as endosmose. In the former 
case, the chyle is at once carried to the heart ; but in the latter, it passes 
through the liver, and becomes purified and chemically altered in that 
organ. The lacteals pass through the mesenteric glands, which lie between 
the layers of the mesentery. 

STRUCTURE OF GLANDS AN"D PHYSIOLOGY OF 
SECRETION". 

A GLAND may be defined to be an organ whose office it is to separate 
from the blood some peculiar substance, which is poinded out through an 
excretory duct, whose internal surface is continuous with the mucous 
membrane, or skin. A simple gland is, in fact, nothing more than a 
pouch of mucous membrane ; and a collection of these pouches consti- 
tutes a compound one, which, if the groups of Avhich it is composed are 
loosely bound together like grapes, as in the salivary glands, is called con- 
glomerate ; wliile, if they are united into a solid mass, such as the liver, 
the term conglobate is applied. 

By secretion is understood the process of separation of various matters 
from the blood ; the term being also applied to the products of the 
process, such as saliva, bile, &c., wlaich are commonly known as secretions. 
These are all removed from the blood for one of two purposes — first, in 
order to be employed for some ulterior object in the various processes 
going on in the body, either for its own preservation, or that of others ; 
cr, secondly, as being injurioi;s to its welfare, and therefore to be discarded. 
The term secretion is sometimes confined to the former, while the latter 
action receives the distinguishing term excretion : but as in many cases 
the fluid which is removed as being injurious to the system is also used 
for beneficial purposes, the distinction is not capable of being strictly 
maintained. The nature of the process is essentially the same in all cases, 
being carried out by the development of simple cells, each possessing its 
own independent vitality. These cells select certain ingredients from the 
blood, and then set them free by the rupture of their walls ; and being 
situated on tlie free surface of the lining membrane of the gland, which is 
continuous with the mucous membrane or skin, the secreted fluid gradually 
reaches the one or tltfs other. It is impossible, at present, to ascertain the 
precise means by which each gland is made up of cells having special 
powers of selection ; but that the fact is so is capable of demonstration. 
Thus, the cells of the liver select the elements of bile ; those of the. 



DEPURATION. 429 

salivary glands saliva ; and so on. But, as we shall hereafter find, there 
ire minute points of difference in the arrangement of these cells in the 
iifferent glands. It is now ascertained that the elements of the various 
secretions exist in the blood ; and therefore the office of the glands is 
jonfined to the selection and separation of their products, and they have 
■ittle or nothing to do with their conversion. 

DEPUEATION, AND ITS OFFICE IN" THE ANIMAL 
ECONOMY. 

The whole of the various secretions which go on in the body are 
accessary for the due preservation of its health ; but the most important 
jf the class alluded to above as excretions, must be removed from the 
blood, or death will speedily ensue. Thus, if saliva and gastric juice, as 
well as the other secretions aiding digestion, are not mixed with the food, 
the nutrition of the body will be imperfectly carried on, and its health 
ivill suffer. But if the elements of bile and urine are retained in the 
blood, not only is the system upset, but absolute death is produced in 
severe cases. Hence it follows, that attention to the state of the organs of 
iepuration, or excretion, is of more importance even than to those of 
secretion, using these terms in the sense explained in the last paragraph, 
rhe chief organs of depuration are the lungs, which remove carbon from 
the blood ; the liver, which secretes the bile ; the kidneys, which get rid 
Df the urea ; and the skin, which relieves it of its superfluous watery and 
some small proportion of its solid particles. Experiment shows that the 
retention of carbon, or urea, in the blood is speedily followed by death ; 
tvhile the non-secretion of bile, if entire, poisons the system ; and in 
coilder cases, its absence from the alimentary canal interferes with the due 
ilaboration of the chyle. 

ANATOMY OF THE SALIVARY GLANDS, PHAEYNX, 
(ESOPHAGUS, AND STOMACH. 

The salivary glands are grouped around the jaw, three on each side, 
md are named the parotid, submaxillary, and sublingual glands. 

The parotid (so named from its proximity to the ear, -n-apa, near ; ov?, 
wros, the ear) is the largest of the three, and lies in the space between the 
ramus of the lower jaw and the petrous part of the temporal bone, covered 
by the parotido-auricularis muscle (see muscles, fig. 2-16). It is enveloped 
in a case of dense cellular membrane, being itself made up of a number 
3f little lobes, each of which has an investment continuous with the 
Bxternal one. Tlie lobes have each an excretory duct, and these unite 
together like the stalks of a grape to form one single duct, which passes 
along the inner part of the angle of the jaw, along the border of the 
masseter, piercing the mucous membrane of the mouth opposite the second 
molar tooth. The submaxillary gland lies within and before the angle 
of the jaw, and is of the same structure as the parotid. Its duct passes 
forward by the side of the root of the tongue, and opens on the side of 
bhe froenum. The sublingual gland is the smallest of the three, and i? 
situated between the middle of the tongue and the lower jaw. Its ducts, 
which are several in number, open on the side of the froenum of the tongue, 
close to the orifice of the submaxillary gland. The saliva secreted by 
these glands contains various saline and earthy matters identical with those 
of the blood, and a peculiar substance called ptyaline, which is the ferment 



430 



THE HORSE. 



used in the digestive process. The earthy phosphates in the saliva collect 
around the teeth, being held together by animal matter, and forming what 
is known as tartar. 

The pharynx and oosophagus receive the food from the back of the 
mouth and convey it to the stomach. The former is a funnel-shaped bag, 
lined with mucous membrane, and covered by the three constrictors of 
the pharynx, Avhich suspend it to the os hyoides and palate bones. Pos- 
teriorly it lies close to the spine, being only separated by a thin layer of 
muscles (see anterior cervico-occipital region). Anteriorly and superiorly 
it opens into the mouth and nasal cavities, from which it is separated by 
the soft palate and epiglottis. Posteriorly and superiorly the eustachian 
tubes open into it bell-mouthed ; and inferiorly it contracts to connect 

/ 




Fio. 3.— The Stomach and Spleen. 



1. Pylorus (tied with a ligature). 

2. 2. The pyloric sac. 

3. Cai'diac orifice (tied). 

4. 4. The cardiac sac. 

6. 5. 5. The greater curvature. 



6. 6. 6. The lesser curvature. 

7. 7. The spleen. 

8. 8. 8. Omentum attaching the stomach to the 

spleen. 



itself with the oesophagus. The velum-palati is so arranged as to act as a 
valve in preventing the entrance of air into the larynx through the mouth, 
but in. the act of coughing the latter is convulsively drawn down, and the 
valve ceases to cover its orifice, so that forcible expiration can then be 
effected. 

The CE80PHAGUS commences where the pharynx ends, being at first 
placed behind the larynx and in front of the cervical vertebrae. It soon 
inclines to the left, and continues to occupy that position as regards the 
trachea aU down the neck, entering the thorax above it. From the first 



THE STOMACH. 431 

rib it ascends towards tlie superior mediastinum, where it lies below and a 
little to the right of the posterior aorta. On reaching the crura of the 
diaphragm it passes through the opening made for it by the decussation of 
their fibres (see diaphragm), and is connected with the stomach about the 
centre of its anterior curve. Throughout this course it has a muscular 
coat, composed of striped fibres at its commencement, but afterwards they 
are unstriped. It is hned by mucous membrane, which is very thick and 
white. 

The stomach is situated on the left side of the abdominal cavity, im- 
mediately behind the diaphragm. It resembles in shape the bag of the 
Scotch bag-pipes, having two openings, two curviitures (a lesser and a 
greater), two surfaces, and two sacs, which are generally divided by a 
constriction as shown in the accompanying engraving. Its volume varies 
with its contents, but in the horse of average size it will not contain more 
than three gallons, while the stomach of man, whose weight is only one- 
eighth that of the horse, holds tliree q^iarts. It lies across the abdomen, 
with its anterior stirface in contact with the diaphragm on the left side, 
and in the middle having the liver between it and the central tendon of 
that muscle. Its posterior face is in contact with the colon ; its inferior 
or larger cu^rvature with the spleen, attached to it by the omentum, and 
separated from the abdominal muscles by the curvatures which the colon 
here makes. The left, or cardiac sac, is in contact with the supero- 
lateral Avails of the abdomen and the left extremity of the pancreas, 
approximating to the anterior border of the left kidney. The right, or 
pyloric sac, is in contact with the right lobe of the liver, and the curva- 
tures of the colon. Like the rest of the alimentary canal within the 
abdomen, the stomach is made up of three coats ; the external serous, 
which is a continuation of the peritoneum; the middle or muscular ; and 
the internal, or mucous coat. On slitting it open and examining the 
interior, it is at once apparent that the two sacs are very differently lined. 
The cardiac mucous membrane resembles in appearance the interior of the 
oesophagus, being whitish brown, tough, comparatively dry, and covered 
with a thick layer of epithelium. On tracing the mucous membrane to 
the left sac, it presents an abrupt line of demarcation opposite the con- 
striction between the two sacs. Beyond this, to the right, it is of a 
brownish red, marbled Avith lighter shades of the same colour, easily torn, 
and covered with a very thin epithelium. The left sac is in fact a simple 
reservoh" of food, while the right is the true organ of digestion. Each of 
the two orifices also presents a peculiarity. The cardiac is slightly con- 
stricted, and has several small folds of mucous membrane around it, Avhich 
accounts for the absence of vomiting in the horse. On the other hand 
the pyloric orifice is larger, and is merely surrounded by a raised cushion, 
which no doubt can be closed by the muscular sphincter, the fibres of 
which envelop it, but which is most probably kept patent during the 
ordinary process of digestion. The muscular coat of the left sac is com- 
posed of three planes, the fibres of which pass in different directions, all 
tending to empty its contents into the right. The latter sac is, however, 
surrounded by only one plane of muscular fibres, all passing in a circular 
direction, forcing the contents towards the pylorus. The arteries of the 
stomach are large and numerous, being derived from the aorta tlirough the 
superior gastric, the right and left gastric, and the vasa brevia, which are 
given off by the trunk of the splenic artery. The veins empty themselves 
into the vena portae ; and the nerves are derived from the pneumogastric 
and solar plexus of the sympathetic. 



432 THE HORSE. 

The mucous membrane of the pyloric sac of the stomach is made 
up almost entirely of tubular follicles closely applied to each, other, their 
blind extremities resting upon the submucous cellular membrane, while 
their mouths open into the stomach ; they are arranged in bundles or 
groups, bound together by a fine areolar membrane, and the follicles from 
each of these groups open into small pits or depressions, which may be 
seen in the interior of this part. They secrete the gastric fluid, which 
contains besides other matters, of which the acid, so variable in its nature, 
is the most remarkable, a peculiar organic compound known as pepnne, 
which seems to be a main agent in the digestive process, acting, like 
ptyaline, as a species of ferment, but of a more powerful kind. From the 
researches of physiologists it appears that the acid is the solvent, while 
the pepsine acts in converting the dissolved materials into a condition fit 
for absorption into the blood, there to be used fur the general purposes of 
that fluid. 

THE INTESTINES. 

The intestines, large and small, constitute a hollow tube, very vari- 
able in diameter, and measuring from eighty to ninety feet in length in 
an average-sized horse. They extend from the stomach to the anus : and 
though nature has only divided them into two portions, the small and 
large, yet anatomists have subdivided each of these into three more — 
namely, duodenum, jejunum, and ileum : coecum, colon, and rectum. All 
have three coats : the external, or peritoneal, which is very partial in the 
duodenum and rectum ; the middle, or muscular ; and. the internal, or 
mucous ; but the last two are also differently arranged in the large and. 
small intestines. 

The small intestines are about seventy feet long, and vary from an 
inch to an inch and a half in diameter, except at their commencement, 
where there is a considerable dilatation, forming a sort of ventriculus or 
lesser stomach. They are gathered, up into folds, in consequence of the 
mesentery, which attaches them to the superior walls of the abdomen, 
being of very limited extent as compared with theiT length ; and thus they 
may be described as presenting two curves, a lesser mesenteric curvature, 
and an outer or free one covered by the peritoneum. The outer layer 
of the muscular coat consists only of a few scattered fibres, while the 
inner one is circular in its arrangement, and though thin as compared 
with the stomach, yet it is easily distinguished. The mucous coat is 
gathered into a few longitudinal folds when empty, which are very 
marked at its commencement ; but there are no valvular appendages, as 
in the human intestines. It is everywhere studded with villi or little 
projections, like the pile of velvet, through the open mouths of which the 
chyle is taken up; and beneath it are numerous glands, named after their 
discoverers. The small intestines are liberally supplied with blood by the 
anterior mesenteric artery. Commencing at the pyloric opening of the 
stomach, the small intestine swells out into a second little bag, having, 
like that organ, a large and small curvature, the former being presented 
to the lesser curvature of the stomach. The enlargement soon ceases, 
and this part of the intestine (in England called duodenum) is bound 
up against the walls of the abdomen by the root of the mesentery and 
mesocolon. It then crosses the spine and enters the left lumbar region, 
where it becomes loose or floating in the cavity of the abdomen, being only 
retained by the mesentery (see plan. Fig. 2, page 426). About twenty 



THE INTESTINES. 



433 



four inches from the commencement it receives the name of jejunum, 
which it retains until within the same distance of its termination, when 
it becomes ileum : but in the French school it is divided only into the fixed 
portion or duodenum, and the loose or floating portion, comprehending 
what is here called the jejunum and ileum. In this course it receives 
the biliary and pancreatic fluids ; the duct from the liver, and that from 
the pancreas, opening together into the duodenum, six or seven inches 
from the pylorus. At its termination in the coecum there is a valve, 




Fig. 4.— The Large and Small Intestines, detached. 



1. The duodenum, with its cul de sac removed. 

2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. The convolutions of the jejunum 

and ileum. 

3. 3. The mesentery. 

4. The apex of the coecum. 

5. Its body. 



6. 6. Commencement of colon. 

7. 7. Transverse colon. 

8. Terminal portion of colon. 

9. Rectum. 

a. a. Muscular bands of colon. 



called ileo coecal, which prevents the return of the contents of the ctEcum 
iato the ileum. 

The large intestines, as their name implies, are of much greater 
diameter than the small ; but they are not above one-third of their length. 
Instead of being convoluted, they are puckered into pouches by a peculiar 
arrangement of the longitudinal muscular fibres, which are collected into 
bundles or cords (a a, Fig. 4), and, being shorter than the intestine, gather 
it up into ceUs. The mucous membrane also has very few villi, which 

1 F 



434 THE HORSE. 

become more and more rare towards the rectum. At the commencement 
the gut is enlarged to an enormous size, and forms a cul de sac called the 
coecum, which is about four feet long, and terminates in a point, the 
whole being compared to a jelly bag, and forming a reservoir, where the 
watery particles of the food are absorbed, leaving the faecal matter in a 
comparatively solid state. Indeed this gut at once receives nearly all the 
water which is swallowed, it passing through the stomach and intestines 
without any delay, when of course, as this sac has only one opening, it 
must alternately receive and disgorge its contents, the valve at the 
entrance of the ileum preventing its return into the small intestine. The 
coecum occupies the right flank, and takes an oblique direction from above 
downwards and forwards. » 

The colon extends from the Ueo-coecal valve, occupying the right 
flank, in an elliptical direction to the left flank, where it ends in the 
rectum, and thus ends very near the point where it began, after traversing 
nearly the whole abdominal cavity. It is of such an enormous capacity, 
that it wiU hold from twelve to thirteen gallons of water. Its largest 
diameter is at the commencement, from which it begins to contract, and as 
it crosses from the right of the abdomen near the liver to the other side, 
where it is iu close proximity to the stomach, it is contracted to a com- 
paratively small diameter, but enlarges again as it lies in the left flank. 
Like the coecum, it has three longitudinal muscular bands for three-fourths 
of its course, but these afterwards are reduced to two, and as it merges in 
the rectum they disappear altogether, the longitudinal fibres being then 
equally distributed. The coecum and colon are supplied with blood by 
tlie posterior mesenteric artery. 

The rectum, or straight gut, begins on the margin of the pelvis, from 
which it extends in a straight line to the anus. It gradually expands to 
form a considerable reservoir for the faeces, and is uncovered by peri- 
toneum after its commencement. 

THE LIVEE. 

This important organ is in close contact with the right side of the 
diaphragm. It is of an irregular figure thick in the middle and thin at the 
edges ; divided into three lobes ; convex on its anterior surface, where it is 
adapted to the concave aspect of the diaphragm ; concave posteriorly. 
The colour is that which is so well known, and peculiar to itself. It is 
everywhere invested by the peritoneum, excepting the spaces occupied by 
the large veins as they enter and pass out, and the coronary ligament 
which suspends it, as well as the three other folds of peritoneum, which 
have also received particular names. 

The structure of the liver is most peculiar ; but it will be impossible 
to enter fully into its minute anatomy for want of space. Suffice it to 
observe that it is composed of lobules, of an areolo-fibrous connecting 
medium (which has received the name of the capsule of Glisson), of the 
ramifications of the vena portce, hepatic artery, hepatic veins, hepatic 
duct, lymphatics and nerves, inclosed in the investing peritoneal coat. 
The portal vein returns the blood from the stomach and small intestines 
to be circulated through the lobules, and from this the bile is secreted. 
It distributes its numberless branches through canals which are every- 
where worked out in the substance of the liver, and from which the 
lobules are supplied. Erom these, which are each a small gland perfect 
in itself, the bile is received by a network of minute ducts, ultimately 



THE SPLEEN. 435 

coalescing to form tlie hepatic duct, which opens into the duodenum. 
The secretion of bile is entirely from the venous blood, and the hepatic 
artery is solely destined to nourish the gland. The nerves are chiefly 
from the sympathetic system, a few small branches being derived from 
the pneumogastric through the solar plexus. The horse has no gall 
bladder like the cow, as well as the human species. 

The FUNCTION" of the liver is doubtless chiefly of a depuratory nature, 
but the soapy nature of the bile seems to be destined to aid in dissolving 
the fatty materials which are contained in the food, and to stimulate the 
intestines to perform their duties. 

THE SPLEEK 

The spleen can scarcely be considered as a gland, inasmuch as it has 
no excretory duct, but it contains within its substance a number of little 
bodies, called Malpighian corpuscles, which most probably perform the 
same office as the absorbent glands. Its weight as compared with the 
whole body is aboixt the same as in man, whose spleen weighs six ounces, 
while that of the horse rarely exceeds three pounds. It is attached by 
the lesser omentum (a fold of the peritoneum) to the stomach (see fig. 3, 
page 430), and occupies the left side of that organ. It is covered by a 
serous coat continuous with the peritoneum, and its internal structxu'e is 
spongy, and made up of cells which contain a large quantity of blood. 

The function of the spleen is not positively ascertained, but.it is 
believed to perform the office of a reservoir for the blood required by the 
stomach, with which it is closely connected by a set of vessels (vasa brevia), 
and also to efi'ect some change in the blood itself 

THE PAJ^CEEAS. 

The pancreas is an elongated gland resembling in structure the 
salivary glands, placed close to the spine, above the stomach. It has two 
excretory ducts, which carry the pancreatic fluid secreted by it into the 
duodenum through a valvidar opening common to it and the hepatic 
duct. The use of the pancreatic fluid appears to be similar to that of 
the saliva. 

THE KIDE^EYS. 

The kidneys are two oval organs situated beneath the psoas muscles, 
and only retained in their position by the fatty cellular membrane which 
envelops them, and by the upward pressure of the other abdominal viscera 
below them. The right kidney is completely within the ribs, but the 
left scarcely advances at all beyond the eighteenth rib : each averages 
about forty ounces in weight, but there is a considerable variation in size 
and form. Unlil^e the corresponding organ in the cow, the horse's kidney 
is not split up into lobules, though there is some little irregularity of 
outline and surface, as may be seen in the annexed figure, which was 
taken from a specimen somewhat remarkable in these respects. A trans- 
verse section shows the internal structure, which is composed of a central 
cavity, the pelvis, into which the urine flows, and from which it is carried 
to the bladder by the ureter. In this pelvis several conical projections 
are visible, having minute openings around their apices, which are the 
terminations of the tubuli uriniferi composing the substance of the inter- 
nal part of the organ. The external is the true secreting portion, and in 

p F 2 



4:>r> 



THE HORSE. 



this are contained a multitude of minute red globular bodies, composed of 
a flexus of capillary vessels, and of a coil of tube in connexion with the 



/ 




X-. 




Fia. 5. — The Kidnev. 

A Fissure through which the vessels enter and the ureter passes out. 
1. 2. 3. 4. Surface of kidney. 

uriniferous tubuli, both being inclosed in a membranous capsule. Each 
cone is contained within a cup-like pouch of the pelvis, which is called a 
calyx. 




Fig. 6. — Trausverse Section of Kidney. 

0. Pelvis. 4. 4. 4. 4. Tubular Portion. 

1. 2. Ureter. 6. 5. 5. 5. External cortical portion. 
3. 3. Papillae or cones. 

At the anterior extremity of each kidney is a small body called the 
suprarenal capsule, the use of which is not ascertained. 



THE PELVIS AND ITS CONTENTS. 437 

THE PELVIS. 
The cavity of the body known as the pelvis is situated behind the 
abdomen, with which it communicates freely, each being lined by a con- 
tinuation of the peritoneum. A ridge of bone (the brim of the pelvis) is 
the line of demarcation anteriorly. The sacrum and os coccygis bound it 
superiorly, the anus posteriorly, and the ossa innominata inferiorly and 
laterally. It contains the bladder and rectum in both sexes, and in each 
the organs of generation peculiar to it. 

THE BLADDER. 

The bladder is a musculo-membranous bag destined to contain the 
urine as it is gradually received from the ureters, which bring it down 
from the kidneys. It lies in the middle of the pelvis, occupying also 
more or less of the abdomen according to its condition in point of reple- 
tion or emptiness. It is of an oval shape, with its posterior extremity 
somewhat more pointed than the other, and called its neck. At this point 
it gives origin to the urethra, a canal for carrying off the urine. It 
receives the two ureters at its superior surface, about an inch in front of 
the neck, where they pierce the several coats in an oblique direction 
forming a complete valve, which prevents the return of the urine, and so 
invisible that the presence of two openings is scarcely ever suspected by 
the ordinary observer. Only about one-third of" the bladder is covered by 
the peritoneum, the remainder being made up solely of the muscular and 
mucous coats, which compose all the hollow viscera. It is retained in its 
place by the cellular membrane which connects it with the loAver walls of 
the pelvis, posteriorly by the urethra, and by the folds of the peritoneum, 
which are continued from it to the sides of the pelvis, and are called tlie 
broad ligaments of the bladder. 

THE OEGAJt^S OF GENERATION, MALE AND FEMALE. 

The male organs of generation consist of the testes and their ducts, 
the vasa deferentia, the latter conveying the semen to the urethra or to 
the vesiculae seminales, which are oval bags connected with the upper 
surface of the neck of the bladder. Here the seminal fluid is stored up 
for use, and when wanted is conveyed into the vagina by means of the 
external organ or penis. The anatomy of the testicles is that which 
mainly concerns the horsemaster, as they are generally removed by 
operation. They are contained within the scrotum, which is externally 
composed of skin, wrinkled in the foal, but subsequently distended by the 
size and weight of its contents. Beneath this is a layer of a pale yel- 
lowish fibrous membrane called the dartos, which envelops the testes and 
forms a separation between them. A thin coat of cellular membrane 
alone separates this from the double serous membrane, the tunica vagi- 
nalis, which almost entirely envelops each testis, just as the pleura does 
the lung. In the early stages of foetal life the testes are contained within 
the abdomen above the peritoneum, but being attached to the scrotum 
by a thin muscle (the cremaster), they are gradually dragged downwards 
through the inguinal canal; and each brings a double layer of peritoneum, 
which continues its connexion through life, so that fluid injected into the 
cavity of the tunica vaginalis will flow into the peritoneum. Hence 
inguinal hernia in the horse becomes scrotal in a very short space of time. 



438 THE HORSE. 

and rarely remains confined to the former position. The testicles with 
their appendages, the vesiculse seminales, form the semen by the usual 
process of secretion. They are of about the size of a duck's egg, and 
besides their attachment by the reflexions of the tunica vaginalis to the 
scrotum, they have also the spermatic cord which suspends them to the 
inguinal canal through which it passes. Tliis cord it is which is divided 
in castration, and it is well to ascertain its comjDonent parts. They 
are, 1st. The artery which supplies the testicles with blood, and is of 
considerable size and tortuous in its course. 2d. The artery of the cord, 
small and tmimportant. 3d. The veins which accompany these arteries. 
4th. The nerves and absorbents, the division of the former givuig great 
pain and causing a sHght shock to the system. 5th. The vas deferens or 
duct carrying the semen to the urethra, and possessing walls of such 
thickness that it feels like whipcord under the finger. These several 
parts are coimected together by cellular membrane and covered by the 
tAvo layers of reflected peritoneum, namely, the tunica vaginalis and tunica 
vaginalis reflexa, by the thin layer of cremaster muscle, as well as b^"- a 
fourth inv-estment, a continuation of the superficial fascia of the abdomen. 
All these parts must be divided before the canal is reached, for oj)erating 
in castration. 

The female organs of generation are essentially the ovaries, the 
uterus and its appendages forming the bed in which the embryo is nurtured 
to maturity. The ovaries are two small oval bodies, about the size of large 
walnuts, situated behind the' kidneys, and having the fijubriated extremi- 
ties of the fallopian tubes hanging loosely adjacent to them. These tubes, 
one on each side, terminate m the uterus, which is pf a remarkable shape 
in the mare. It consists of a body and two horns. The body has a mouth, 
or OS, which opens into the end of the vagina, Avhile, in itself, it is oblong, 
and in the unimpregnated state it is entirely contained within the 
pelvis. Anteriorly it divides into two horns (cornua), which diverge* 
towards the loins, turning upwards, and lymg under the wings of the ossa 
ilii (see fig. 1, page A25). They terminate in rounded extremities. Each 
cornu receives the fallopian tube of its own side, the opening being so 
small as scarcely to admit a silver probe. The vagina lies between the 
bladder and rectum, and is about eighteen inches in length ; it is lined 
with mucous membrane, and surrounded with muscular fibres, which form 
the sphmcter vaginae. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM — CHIEF DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM — 
THE SPINAL CORD — MEDULLA OBLONGATA — THE ENOEPHALON — THE SYMPATHETIC 
SYSTEM. 

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

Hitherto we have been engaged in examining into the conformation of 
the framework of the body ; into the structure and action of the muscles, 
which serve to move this framework ; and into the several organs which 
afford nourishment to the whole, and keep it sound and in good order. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 439 

We have now to consider the prime mover of all these several agents, the 
aervous system, which may be compared to the fuel that heats the water 
of the steam-engine, and converts that apparently most simple and inno- 
cent fluid into the powerful agent which is capable of developing almost 
any amount of force. This fuel, however, is itself inactive until it is en- 
dowed with life by the agency of fire ; and, in the same way, the nervous 
system of the animal being must be provided with the living principle, of 
whose nature we can only judge by its effects when present, and by the 
cessation of all action when absent. There are many processes which are 
carried on in the animal as in the vegetable without the necessity for any 
direct stimulus from a nervous centre, such as the growth of each separate 
tissue throughout the body, which takes place in the former, just as it 
does in the latter, by a species of cell-development and metamorphosis 
independent of nervous energy ; but though this growth is thus accom- 
plished, yet it Avould soon be starved out for Avant of pabulum, were it 
not for the supply of food to the stomach, which requires the mandate of 
the nervous system for its performance, and so on "with every corresponding 
action of the body. 

The nervous system is made up of two distinct substances, one grey 
in colour, and granular in structure, which is the seat of all nervous power; 
the other white and fibrous, which is the telegraph wire by which this 
power is communicated. Sometimes the grey matter envelops the white, 
and at others it is inclosed within it, but in every case each has its pecu- 
liar office as above mentioned. Each collection of grey matter is called a 
ganglion, whatever its shape may be ; but the white fibres may be either 
in the form of commissures for connecting the ganglia together, or they 
may be agents for communicating with other organs, and are then called 
nerves, 

CHIEF DIVISIONS OF THE JS'ERVOUS SYSTEM. 

In the horse, as in all the vertebrata, the nervous system is made up 
of the following parts. 1. The ganglia, which are intended to subserve 
what are called the reflex actions of the organs of locomotion, &c., and which 
occupy the whole length of the spinal cord, one on each side. 2, The 
respiratory ganglia, situated higher up towards the brain, constituting the 
part called medulla oblongata, and placed in superintendence over the 
functions of respiration, mastication, and deglutition. 3. A series of 
ganglia controlling the organs of special sense, situated at the base of the 
brain. 4. The cerebellum, which seems specially intended to combine 
and balance the several muscular actions of the body. 5. The cerebrum, 
which is the seat of intelligence and will. 6. The sympathetic system 
of ganglia, which specially controls the vital organs of circulation, diges- 
tion, and depuration. The first five divisions are generally included imder 
the head of the nervous system of animal life, the last being considered 
to be peculiar to organic life. The diagram on the next page will show 
at one view the chief component parts of the two systems. 

THE spi:n'al coed. 

The spinal cord may be considered to be the primary division of the 
nervous system, because it represents the lowest development of this 
organ in the animal kingdom. But instead of consisting of a series of 
locomotive ganglia, as in the articulata, it is here found in the shape of 



■*'**^ THE HORSE. 



Jj O »J 00 ;-^ 



7^ cs o jfc. Co to HJ 



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p CO tr^p-C0~*E— "^ "^ "I CO B 

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fo f- p to 00 ~i er, j;, 



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f §1^4 lis: E 

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S3 9 m* W t> <: OC WCC^CCti) 

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Oppositeeach joint, between the vertebra, a nerve is given off which 
passes out in the foramen specially contrived for its exit, and thence goes 



THE MEDULLA OBLONGATA. 



44T 



on to lis destination. Each of these nerves has two distinct origins ; one 
from the upper part of the grey central matter 
(the sensitive root), the other from its inferior 
surface, which is the motor portion. The 
superior has an accession of grey matter around 
it, soon after ths union of its nervelets, 
called its ganglion, beyond which the two 
divisions unite to form a large nerve, which 
soon begins to subdivide again for supplying 
the several parts of the body. The termi- 
nating branches reunite in loops, so that 
these nerves may be considered to form a 
complete circle, those of sensation receiving 
impressions from the parts on which they are 
distributed, and conveying them to the central 
ganglion, while the motor nerves cause the 
muscles which they supply to contract on 
receipt of the proper stimulus from the centre. 
The spinal nerves are from forty-two to forty- 
three in number on each side ; namely, eight 
pairs of cervical, seventeen pairs of dorsal, 
six pairs of lumbar, five pairs of sacral nerves, 
and six or seven coccygeal. Each of these 
nerves divides at once into a superior and 
inferior branch, the latter giving off a small 
nervelet to communicate with the sympa- 
thetic, and then going on to supply the lower 
parts of the body and the extremities. The 
cord varies somewhat in size in the several 
regions of the spine. It commences at the 
occiput of full size, then diminishes to the 
fifth cervical vertebra, where there is a sliglit 
swelling, after which it is gradually reduced 
in dimensions to the loins, where it spreads 
out into a wide but thin plate, after which 
it divides into its terminal branches, which 
have been compared to a horse's tail. 

THE MEDULLA OBLONGATA. 

The medulla oblongata is the anterior 
enlarged portion of the spinal cord, of a 
conical shape, which extends to the pons 
Varolii. On its inferior face it presents two 
pyramidal bodies, and on its superior two 
flattened cords, the corpora restiformia, while 
between the two are the corpora olivaria. On 
making a section of this part, the corpus 
olivare is seen to be chiefly composed of grey 



ei 



ei 



Fio. 2. — Spinal Cord removed from its Canal. 

a a. a. a. Roots of the spinal nerves. 

6. 6. b. The filaments going to unite to form each of these 

nerves. 
* c. c. Clear spaces between the roots of the nerves. 



442 



THE HORSE. 



matter, and is a ganglion, superadded for the special purpose of estabUsh- 
ing the respiratory function. From its lower border proceed the filaments, 
which unite to form the hypoglossal nerve, while from the upper side 
emerge the glosso-pharyngeal and pneumogastric nerves. 

THE ENCEPHALON" {Iv, in, Ke<l>aX-^, head). 

The cerebellum together with the cerebrum form the mass of the 
encephalon, and they may be examined together with advantage. The 
two completely fill the cavity of the cranium, and are invested by three 
membranes ; — the dura mater, fibrous and strong ; the pia mater, vascular 
and tender; and the arachnoid, a serous membrane of the ordinary cha- 
racter. The dura mater also dips down between the lobes of the cerebrum 
to form a protection against lateral displacement called the falx, and is 



Fig 




View of the Superior Surface of the Encephalon 



a. Anterior termination of the longitudinal fissure, d. MicUlle lobe of the cerebeUum 

6. 6. Lateral hemispheres of the cerebrum. e. e. Superior median fissure. 

c. c. c. Corpus callosum. /. g. Membranes covering the spinal oord 

spread across from one petrous bone to the other, constituting the tentorium 
cerebelli. The mass of the encephalon in the horse is small as compared 
with that of man, weighing not quite a pound and a half, while the 
human brain averages thi'ee pounds in the male, and four or five ounces 



THE SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM. 443 

less in the female. Taking into consideration that the body of the horse 
Aveighs at least eight times as much as a man's, it follows that the brain 
of the latter is relatively sixteen times as large as that of the horse. 
The cerebellum occupies the postero-superior part as the head is usually 
carried, and is much smaller than the cerebrum, being only one-sixth of 
its volume. Examining it from above it presents three lobes ; a middle 
and two lateral lobes. The former is prominent, and subdivided into 
iobuli by several grooves, constituting the anterior and posterior vermiform 
processes. The lateral lobes are flattened and oval, to correspond with 
the inferior surfaces of the tentorium cerebelli. The cerebellum is made 
up of alternate layers of grey and white matter, the former being dis- 
tributed throughout the interior in such a way that when sliced it presents 
an arborescent appearance. On partmg the hemisj^heres of the cerebrum, 
the convolutions on the surface of which are composed of grey matter, a 
white band slightly striped from side to side makes its appearance. This 
is the corpus callosum, which is the great commissure, and consists 
entirely of white fibrous matter, luiiting the two halves. Beneath this, 
on each side, are the lateral ventricles, and within each are the optic 
thalamus, and corpus striatum, with the choroid plexus lying between. 
Turning the brain with its inferior surface in vieAV it presents anteriorly 
the continuation of the longitudinal fissure. On each side of this are 
the olfactory nerves, which look like prolongations of the hemispheres. 
Close behind these two are the optic or second pair of nerves, connected 
together by their commissure. Then tAvo small white bodies, the corpora 
albicantia, and behind these again the third pair of nerves, supplying the 
muscles of the eye. Still further back is a square eminence, the pons 
varohi, fi'om the sides of which the fourth and fifth pairs of nerves arise, 
while its posterior border gives origin to the sixth pair in the middle and 
the seventh externally to these. The eighth and ninth nerves have 
already been alluded to, as arising from the medulla oblongata. 

THE SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM. 

This division op the nerves consists of a series of ganglia, lying 
on each side the spine, from the head to the coccyx, communicating with 
the cranial and spinal nerves, and distributing branches to all the internal 
organs of digestion, circulation, depuration, and generation. The branches 
of distribution accompany the arteries, forming a plexus, or series of 
meshes, around each of them. In the head there are four small ganglia, 
in the neck three, and posteriorly a small ganglion lies opposite each 
vertebra. The posterior cervical ganglion communicates with the spinal 
nerves of that region by a branch which accompanies the vertebral artery, 
and sends forward filaments to form the bronchial and cardiac plexus, the 
former being largely supplied also with branches from the pneumogastric 
nerve. Erom the dorsal ganglia a large nerve is formed, the greater 
splancnic nerve, and also the lesser splancnic, which enter the abdomen 
close beneath the crus of the diaphragm, where they give off a number of 
branches which, together with filaments of the pneumogastric nerve, unite 
on both sides to form the semilunar ganglion, or collection of ganglia 
arranged somewhat in that shape. They lie close to the posterior aorta, 
and surround the root of the coeliac artery, supplying branches to form 
the phrenic and the splenic plexus, the gastric plexus, the hepatic plexus, 
the anterior and posterior mesenteric plexus, the renal plexus, and the 
spermatic plexus, aU surrounding the corresponding arteries and supplying 
the important organs whose names they bear. 



444 THE HOiiSK. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

SPECIAL ORGANS. 
THE ORGAN OF SMELL — THE EYE — THE EAR — THE ORGAN OP TOUCH — THE FOOT. 

THE ORGAN OF SMELL. 

The nose of the horse, like all the solipedes, is endowed with a sen- 
sibility far greater than that of man ; but in this respect he is not equal 
to many other animals, such as the dog and cat kinds, and the sole use 
which he makes of this sense is in the selection of his food. I have 
already alluded to the nasal fossae at page 419, and need only here remark 
that the large mass of nervous matter composing the olfactory nerves 
pierces the cribriform plate of the setlmioid .bone in numerous fibrillse, 
which spread over the membrane (Schneiderian) lining the aethmoidal 
cells, the turbinated bones, and the septum nasi. 

THE EYE. 

The organ of sight may be considered as consisting, first of all, of an 
optical instrument very similar to the camera obscura, now so commonly 
used in photography, and, secondly, of the parts which are employed to 
move, adjust, and protect it from injury. 

The eye itself consists of three transparent humours, which answer 
the purpose of the lens of the camera, by collecting the rays of light 
upon the back of the eye. These are the aqueous in front, the crystalline 
lens in the middle, and the vitreous humour behind. The first is a per- 
fectly transparent and limpid fluid, secreted by the lining of the chamber 
in which it lies, and capable of being rapidly renewed in case of a punc- 
ture letting it out. The lens, on the contrary, has the consistence of very 
hard jelly, and is arranged in concentric layers, like the coats of an oniun. 
It is merely a double convex lens, precisely like that of the camera in its 
action, and is the chief agent in producing the impression of an object 
upon the sensitive part of the eye. Behind it is the vitreous humour, 
composed, like the abueous, of a limpid fluid ; but instead of being uncon- 
fined except by the walls of the chamber in which it Hes, it is bound up 
in a network of transparent cells, which give it the consistency and 
appearance of a delicate jelly. Upon the perfect transparency and proper 
shape of these humours depends the sight of the animal. But in addi- 
tion to the risk of blindness from any defect in these parts, if the 
investing coats or membranes are inflamed or disorganised, their func- 
tions are not performed, and the sight is either impaired or destroyed. 
Thus the rays of light may be fairly collected, so as to throw the impres- 
sion of every object within the sphere of vision upon the back of the 
eye, and yet the horse may be blind, because the retina or expansion 
of the optic nerve is disorganised by disease. When inflammation 
attacks the coats of the eye, it generally extends to the investments of 
the humours, and to the substance of the lens itself, producing cataract 
or opacity of that part ; but it is possible to have the sight impaired 
from a mere defect of shape in the anterior coat, so as to make the 



THE EYE. 445 

surface too convex, and thus alter tlie focus of the sight. This is the 
" buck-eye," which leads to shying, and is perfectly incurable. The 
membranes are, first, the cornea, a perfectly transparent coat, placed 
in front of the eye, and inserted, like a watch-glass,^ in the sclerotic coat 
covering the posterior four-fifths of the globe. The latter is a white 
fibrous membrane, strong and inelastic, so as to afford protection to the 
parts within it from external violence. This forms the white of the eye, 
which, however, is only occasionally visible in the horse. Beneath the 
sclerotic is the choroid coat, consisting of a network of blood vessels, 
and lined with a black pigment, which again has on its internal surface, 
at the part opposite the pupil, a greenish- white iridescent lining, called 
tapetum lucidum, or luminous carpet. Lastly, within the whole of this 
surface is spread a beautiful expansion of the optic nerve, called the 
retina, which receives the impressions derived from the rays of light, 
forming a distinct figure upon it exactly similar to the objects which are 
presented to it, except in point of size, and in being inverted. Beyond 
these parts, there is a provision made for moderating the rays of light, 
according to their intensity. This is effected by means of an opaque 
septum, pierced with an oval hole ; the former being called the iris, and 
the latter the jDupil. The substance of the iris itself is composed of con- 
tractile tissue, which has the power of expanding or contracting the pupil 
in obedience to the impression produced upon the retina ; and thus, if the 
eye is examined in a strong light, the pupil Avill appear large when shaded 
by the hand, but contracts immediatelj' on exposing the eye. The horse's 
iris is brown, varying somewhat in shade in different individuals, and at 
the upper part of the pupil it presents one or two little floating appen- 
dages, which serve to moderate the sun's rays. Sometimes the brown 
colour is absent, and the iris is either partially or entirely white, in which 
case it is called a " wall eye ; " but though this is considered unsightly, it 
does not interfere with vision. The iris is stretched across the chamber 
of the aqueous humour, and is thus enabled to act freely. There are 
many other delicate structures worthy of being examined, but want of 
space must prevent any further allusion to them. 

The appendages of the eye are : 1st. The conjunctiva or membrane 
protecting the exposed surface of the eye. 2d. The eyelids. 3d. The 
membrana nictitans or haw. 4th. The muscles of the eye. 5th. The 
lachrymal apparatus. The conjunctiva covers the whole front of the eye, 
being thin, and perfectly transparent in a healthy state, but on the occur- 
rence of inflammation speedily becoming red and puffy. It is reflected from 
this face to the inside of the eyelids, and the whole membrane is extremely 
liable to inflammation from any external irritation. The eyelids have 
nothing very remarkable about them, being merely cartilaginous shutters 
covered with fine skin, and lined with conjunctiva, and raised and 
lowered by muscles peculiar to them. The membrana nictitans or haw is 
a cartilage lying just within the inner corner of the eye, but capable of 
being thrust outwards so as to partially cover it when the muscles retract 
the eye, and for want of space drive it forward. This happens whenever 
the eye is irritated either by an insect or by the dust or hayseeds which 
are so often deposited upon the conjunctiva, and which, causing the eye to 
be drawn back, displace the fat deposited in the back of the orbit, and 
this again pushes forward the haw. For this reason in all irritable states 
of the eye the haw is prominent: but it by no means follows that its 
removal will diminish the irritation ; on the contrary, the usual effect is to 
increase it ; and the operation is not only useless, but injurious. The 



446 THE HORSE. 

muscles move the eye in all directions, and hare the peculiar property of 
keeping the long diameter of the pupil always nearly in a line parallel 
with the horizon. Practically they are not of any great importance. 
The lacrimal apparatus consists of the lacrymal gland, situated beneath 
the outer wall of the orbit, and secreting the tears, which are intended to 
wash the conjunctiva clear of any foreign body. The secretion is thrown 
out upon its surface through a number of small ducts, and, traversing 
from the outer angle to the inner, is conducted through two small 
openings in the lids to the lacrjrmal sac, and from that by the nasal duct 
to the nose. 

THE EAE. 

This organ is divided into the external ear for collecting the waves of 
sound, and conveying them inwards, and the internal ear wMch is situated 
within the petrous part of the temporal bone. The latter is a very com- 
plicated and delicate organ ; but its formation does not differ in any 
essential features from that of the other vertebrate animals, nor are the 
diseases attacking it in the horse of any particular importance, so that its 
description will be omitted. 

THE OEGAI^ OE TOUCH. 

The sense op touch is necessary for the proper appreciation of the 
mechanical form and nature of the objects placed in apposition to the 
body, and of their temperature. It is seated generally in the termina- 
tions of the nerves of sensation on the skin ; but there are certain parts 
specially endowed with these nerves, which in the horse are the lips and 
the four extremities. 

The skin is composed of two layers, one internal and living termed 
the dermis or chorion, the other a secretion from it, and called the 
epidermis, the inner, and freshly secreted layer of which is the rete 
mucosum of the old authors. The dermis constitutes nearly the whole 
substance of the skin, and varies in thickness in different regions of the 
body, and also in the nature of it,s attachment to the subjacent parts, 
being very loosely connected in some, and in others so tight that it cannot 
be pinched up. It consists of a layer of cellular and elastic fibres crossing 
each other in all directions, and abundantly supplied with blood vessels 
and nerves. Its external surface is provided with numberless little eleva- 
tions termed ^:>a/M7/cF, each of which contains the termination of a nerve : 
and it is pierced with an immense number of holes; some of which allow 
the hairs to pass through, others are the pores through which the sweat is 
poured out, and others again are follicles for the secretion of sebaceous or 
half-oily fluid, for the purpose of lubricating the skin. These last are 
particularly numerous at the flexures of the joints, as at the inner part of 
the hock, knee, and heel, in each of which situations they are liable to 
become clogged, leading to the conditions known as mallenders, sallenders, 
and cracked heels, which will be hereafter described. 

The epidermis, cuticle, or scarf-skin, is very thin but tough, and in the 
horse its innermost layer is generally of a dark slate colour, the better to 
protect the dermis from the rays of the sun. It is composed of scales 
agglutinated together, and its internal surface is reflected in the form of 
fine sheaths around all the hairs which pierce it, and of linings to the 
sweat pores and sebaceous follicles. As fresh cuticle is secreted the outer 
layers fall off; and in the horse this growth is very rapid, so that in a very 



THE ORGAN OF TOUCH. 



447 



few days the coat of hair becomes loaded with, them if it is not regularly 
cleansed. They afford a gi-eat protection against wind and rain, and foi 
that reason they should not be removed by friction from those horses- 
which are about to be turned out of doors. 

The hairy appendages of the skin of the horse are of two kinds : — 
1st. The general coat. 2d. The horsehair, which is of a thicker and stiffer 
kind, and grows from the top of the neck, forming the mane, from the 
dock as the tail, from the backs of the legs, asid from the eyelids and 
lips to act as feelers in enabling them to avoid injury. Each hair is 
secreted by its bulb, which is seated partly in the dermis and partly in 
the cellular membrane, closely subjacent to the true skin. Unless, there- 
fore, the whole thickness of the dermis is destroyed, the bulb may be safe, 
and the hair is restored in the course of time. The coat is shed twice a 
year, in spring and autumn, tlie secretion from the bulb ceasing for a 
short period, and the hair, losing its connexion, falls out ; but the young 
hair soon takes its place, and grows to a length suited to the temperature 
to which the skin is exposed. The horsehair on the contrary is not shed, 
but if it is plucked out it is reproduced, though slowly. 

Evert part op the skin is sensible to impressions from external ob- 
jects, but the sense of touch, such as we possess in the fingers, can only be 




Pig. 1. — Nerves op Sensation supplied to the Lips of the Horse, showing also the 
Oeigin of the Jugular Vein. 

said to reside in the lips, and partially in the feet. All these parts are 
profusely supplied with nerves of sensation, and the horse may often be 
observed to use them in examining external objects, especially his lips, 
which are the most delicate of his organs of touch. The annexed en- 
graving of a preparation of the nerves of the face shows this distribution 
very clearly, and will give an idea of the numerous ramifications of sensi- 
tive nerves supplied to the lips. Mr. Earey has lately drawn special 
attention to this subject; but it has long been known to those who are 
familiar with the habits of the horse. The feet are also largely supplied 
with nerves, though not to the same extent as the human fingers ; and 
being covered with horny matter, the sensibility of the surface is greatly 
reduced : still there can be no doubt that the horse uses them occasionally 



448 



THE HORSE. 



in making out the nature of olijects presented to him : and this is especially 
the case with the fore feet, though it will sometimes happen that the hind 
extremities are used for the same purpose ; as, for instance, in ascertaining, 
the nature of a hard body before kicking at it. 

THE rOOT. 

It is necessary to examine the structure of the foot most carefuUy, 
not as an object of curiosity connected with the sense of touch, but on 
account of the numberless diseases and accidents to which it is subject. 
1^0 part of the horse is so liable to the effects of hard work and mis- 
management as this, and there is consequently none which more requires 
our care both in health and disease. The bones and ligaments entering 
into the composition of this organ have already been described ; the former 
at page 325, the latter at page 355. We have now to examine into the 
structure of the sensible and insensible parts which cover these bones. 

The parts entering into the composition of the foot will be better 
understood by a reference to the annexed section of the phalanges or 




Fig. 2.— Section of the pakts entering into the composition of the Foot and the 
Fetlock and Pasteen Joints. 



a. Os suffraginis. 

B. Os coronae. 

C. Os pedis. 

D. Os na^iculare. 

E. E. The perforans and perforatus tendons. 
G. Inferior sesamoideal ligament. 



H. Cleft of frog. 
I. Side of frog cleft. 
J. Sole. 
K. Crust. 
L. Coronary substance. 



fingers terminating the metacarpal or metatarsal bones, as the case may 
be, with their investments. It will be seen that there is very little 
space between the pedal bone and the crust, which, together with the sole, 
forms a horny case or natural shoe, for the sensible and delicate invest- ; 
ments of the bone. So small is this space, that when inflammation takes 
place there is no room for any swelling (the invariable accompaniment of | 
that disease), and intense pain is occasioned, as well as rapid disorganisa-j 



THE FOOT. 



449 



tion of the structui'e itself. The horny case is attached to the foot by a 
delicate membrane, which lies in folds upon the pedal bone, and it can be 
torn away by violence, or when putrefaction has commenced, with great 
ease. These parts are here separately displayed. The several parts which 
we shall have to examine, commencing from without, are — -1. The horny 
case or hoof ; 2. The parts which secrete it ; 3. The arteries which supply 
it with blood ; and 4. The pedal bone and cartilages, as well as the 
navicular bone, which it encases. 

The hoof consists of three distinct parts, which, though in the recent 
state they are inseparably united, may be readily separated after maceration 
for a few days. These are the external wall or crust, the sole or slightly 
concave surface forming the bottom or floor of the case, and the triangular 
central portion of this called the frog. The crust reaches from the edge 
of the hair}^ skin to the ground, and averages about three inches and a half 




Fio. 3. — Thk Hoof. 

A. Outer surface of crust. 

B. Inner suiface of crust. 

C. Upper surface of sole. 

D. Part corresponding with tile 

cleft of the frog. 

E. Coronary band. 



Fig. 4. — Fkont View ok xais 
Foot, with the Hoof re- 
moved. 

A. Coronary substance. 

B. Laminae. 



ji'iQ. 5. — The UNUEiiyuuF.'.cu 
OF THE Foot. 

A. Cleft of frog. 

B. B. Sole. 

C. Cleft, between heels. 



in depth. The front is the toe, the back the heel, and the intermediate 
part the quarter on each side. It is said by Bracy Clark ;to be a segment 
of a cylinder, but it is really narrower at the top than at the bottom, and 
it should rather be described as a section of a truncated cone. "When 
examined from the side, the anterior surface should form an angle of 
about forty-five degrees with the line of the sole, and the upper edge or 
coronary band should join the sole, so as to leave a moderate substance at 
the heel ; for if too great the foot does not expand, and is liable to disease 
from that cause ; or if too thin and narrow, the foot is weak and gives w^ay 
downwards, ending in a convexity of the sole instead of the reverse. The 
front of the crust is rather more than half an inch in thickness, and in a 
strong foot of average size gradually diminishing to the quarters, at the 
back of which it is generally barely a quarter of an inch thick; especially 
at the inner of the two. This proportion is however confined to the fore 
foot, for in the hind there is little difierence between the toe and quarters 
in point of thickness. The superior border, or coronary band, is marked 
by its whitish colour. On its external surface it resembles the crust 
below; but internally it differs in being smoothly excavated, whilst the 
crust exhibits perpendicular striae, corresponding Avith the laminae ; but 
this is not well shown in Fig. 3. In examining the cut of the sole. Fig. 5, 
it will be seen that the crust is bent inwards towards the frog at the heel 

G G 



450 ■ THE HORSE. 

on each side : tliere are the bars, which m the natural foot appear as 
sharpened prominences, extending from the heels into the centre of the 
foot, between the- sole and the frog, and which are useful as buttresses, 
supporting the crust from bemg crushed inwards by the superincumbent 
weight. The sole is the plate at the bottom of the foot, which should be 
sHghtly concave downwards, and is fixed to the inner edge of the crust, and 
the outer sides of the bars, and not to their lower surfaces. Its iisual 
thickness is about one-sixth of an inch, but it wiU vary greatly in different 
horses, and it is thicker where it runs back between the bars and the 
crust. It is secreted in plates, which can readily be separated with a 
knife in that direction. The frog is the prominent, triangular, and elastic 
substance, which fills up the space between the heels posteriorly, the bars on 
each side, and the sole in front. In the middle is a longitudinal fissure, 
called the cleft, the sides of wliich should form an angle of about forty-five 
degrees. In front of tliis cleft is a solid wedge of the elastic horny sub- 
stance, constituting the frog, which lies immediately beneath the navicular 
bone, and has received the name of the cushion. Posteriorly it is spread 
out into a thin band on each side which covers the bulbs of the heels, and 
passes round the upper part of the wall constituting the coronary frog- 
band of Bracy Clark, which is continuous with the coronary substance. 
The structure of the horn wliich forms these three divisions, varies a 
good deal. In the crust it is fibrous, somewhat resembling whalebone 
in this respect, but not c^uite so hard ; these bristly fibres are united 
by a gelatinous substance, but they are arranged so as to lie in straight 
lines descending from the coronary circle to the ground. The wall may, 
therefore, be considered as composed of hairs agglutinated together, 
and each secreted by one of the villi, which are so thickly spread over 
the surface of the coronary circle. The sole is also fibrous, but not 
nearly so much so as the wall; and the fibres are not arranged in so 
parallel a manner, taking rather an oblique direction from behind 
forwards, and being more easily separated into scales. The frog dilfers 
from both, in possessing finer fibres and in smaller quantity, in com- 
parison with the gelatine, which formation renders it more soft and elastic 
and also more prone to decomposition. The horny matter is sometimes 
coloiired a greyish brown, sometimes white, and sometimes marbled by a 
mixture of the two colours. (These parts are sho^^^l more clearly in the 
article treatmg of Shoeing in the 32d Chapter.) 

The hoof is developed by secretion, which has its seat in the coronary 
substance and laminae. It consists in a pouring out on their surface of a 
plasma, in which rounded cells develop themselves, in correspondence 
with the villi from which the secretion is poured out. These cells are 
arranged in layers, corresponding with the secretory surface. In the crust 
this growth takes place from the superior border to the inferior, but in the 
sole and frog, from the internal surface to the external. This groAvth is 
constant througli the life of the animal, and it would give the hoof an exces- 
sive development if it were not either for the wear of the soil in the unshod 
horse, or of the action of the smith's knife in the shod one ; but the increase 
of the wall being solely from above downwards, it does not require any re- 
duction on its external surface. The coronary substance, sometimes called 
the coronary ligrament, is a fibro-cartilaginous band intervening between 
the skin of the leg and the hoof, covered mth cuticle externally, and 
with villi, which form a secretory surface on the edge towards the hoof 
It is most liberally supplied with blood, as we shall presently see, and is 
attached to the upper part of the coffin bone and extensor tendon by 



THE FOOT. 



451 



cellular tissue. It gradually becomes thinner as it descends upon the 
pedal bone, and ends in puckers or folds, which are continuous with those 
of the laniinse, and are not even separable from them by maceration. Tlie 
lamince tlias continuing upon the pedal bone, consist of about five hundred 
parallel folds or plaits, plentifully suppKed with blood, and forming a 
secretory surface, which aids the coronary substance to form the horn. 
They lie upon an elastic substratum of fibrous periosteum, which is of great 
service in taking off" the jar from the foot in its battering upon hard roads, 
for it appears that the weight of the body is suspended /rom these plates, 
and not carried ujmii the sole. The lamina are continuous at the toe with 
the sensible sole, which is a vascular membrane covering the floor of the 
pedal bone, and secreting the horny 
sole. In the centre of the posterior 
part of this is the sensible frog, 
which is of nearly the same shape 
as the horny frog, and is still more 
liberally supplied with blood tlmn 
the sensible sole. 

The arteries supplying these 
vascidar structures with blood, and 
the veins talking it back, are of 
great importance, and doubly so be- 
cause it is in these vessels that an 
operation is often performed in in- 
flammation of the foot, calculated 
to afford rehef by a local abstrac- 
tion of blood. Commencing with 
the large metacarpal artery, which 
is the continuation of the radial 
below the knee, we find it descend- 
ing by the side of the tendo-perfo- 
ratus under the posterior-annular 
ligament. Immediately above tLe 
fetlock joint it splits into three 
branches ; the middle one passing 
to the deep parts of the leg, and 
the two others, forming the plantar 
arteries, descend on each side the 

posterior joint to the postero-lateral Fig. 5— View of Vessels of the Foot, injected. 

parts of the coronary substance, i. piantar vein. 
Here they divide into two leading 
portions, the anterior running 
round to meet its fellow of the 
opposite side, and giving off with 
it a complete fringe of vessels, which are displayed in the accom- 
panying representation of an injected preparation of the foot. The 
branches uniting in front of the foot and encircKng the coronary ligament 
are called the superior coronary circle. The posterior division of the 
plantar artery gives off", opposite the pastern jomt, the arterj' of the frog, 
which descends obliquely inwards through the substance of the sensible 
frog, and divides into two branches within it, after which it supplies the 
whole of that substance with numerous vessels, and then goes on to the 
sole, to which it gives off" a number of radiating branches. After giving 
off the artery of the frog, the plantar artery ends posteriorly in the lateral 

G G 2 




Plantar artery. 

3. Branches to the coronary substance and laminse. 

4. Posterior divi.sion of plantar artery. 

5. Perpendicular branch. 

6. Anastomosis with opposite plantar artery. 



462 



THE HORSE. 



laminal branch wliicli passes throxigli the foramen in the ala of the os 
pedis, and supplies the laminae. Thus the whole of these structures are 
full of blood-vessels, for not only are the arteries above described ramifying 
thus extensively upon them, but the blood is retiu'ned by corresponding 
veins. 

The pedal, and navicular bones have been minutely described at 
pages 324-5, but there are also two cartilaginous plates at the back of 
each ala of the pedal bone, which are of considerable importance. These 
have been called by the late Professor Coleman the lateral and inferior 
cartilages, whilst others have given them the name of the true and false. 
The lateral cartilages extend backwards and outwards from the posterior 

and upper borders of the coffin or 
pedal bone. They are united in 
front with the expanded termina- 
tions of the extensor tendon, and 
by cellular membrane with tlie lower 
end of the os coronas. Posteriorly 
they Avind upwards around the ala 
of the pedal bone, to which they 
are firmly fixed, forming the founda- 
tion for the heel. But in addition 
to these lateral or true cartilages, 
there are also two others, of a fibro- 
cartilaginous nature, which com- 
mence from the sides of the former 
and proceed forwards towards the 
heels of the pedal bone, and spread 
inwards upon the surface of the 
tendo-perforans. They are scarcely 
worthy of being described as dis- 
tinct cartilages, and appear more 
like ordinai-y condensed cellular 
membrane. 

It will thus be seen that the foot 
of the horse is a most complicated 
structure, which is liable to de- 
rangement whenever the hoof or 
horny case is interfered with, and 
this may occur either from mis- 
management in shoeing, causing 
mechanical uijury, or from inflam- 
mation of the secreting surface, which will end in the formation of imperfect 
horn, or from punctures or other wounds of the foot. Perhaps in no organ 
does an injury so soon produce a leturn at compound interest, for the 
inevitable first result is a malformation of the hoof, and this again only adds 
to the original mischief. Hence it is that in the foot, more than in any other 
part even, prevention is better than cure, for in many of its diseases it 
happens that a cure cannot be obtained without rest ; and yet it is also 
the fact that the secretion of horn will not go on perfectly without the 
stimulus of necessity afforded by exercise. The position of the leg is such 
that its veins have a hard task to perform at all times in returning the 
blood from the feet, but "when the horse is not exercised at all they become 
doubly sluggish, and congestion in them is almost sure to occur. 




Fig. 6. — View of the Arteries op the Frog 
AND Sole, ikjected. 

A. Lower porous surface of pedal bone. 

B. Lateral surface of pedal bone. 

C. C. The plantar veins. 

D. D. The plantar arteries. 

E. Lateral cartilage contracted by drying. 

F. Veins of the frog, injected. 



THE 

DISEASES OF THE HOESE, 

AND 

THE ACCIDENTS TO WHICH HE IS LIABLE, 
WITH THEIE TEEATMENT. 



CHAPTER XXV. 

THE DISEASES AND INJURIES OF BONE. 

GENERAL REMARKS — SPLINTS — RINGBONE AND SIDEBONE— OSSIFICATION OF THE LATERAL 
CARTILAGES — BONE SPAVIN — EXOSTOSIS OP THE HUMERUS AND SCAPULA — FISTULA OF 
THE WITHERS — POLL EVIL — CARIES OF THE JAW — OSTEO SARCOMA — FRACTURES. 

GENERAL REMARKS. 

The diseases of bone are not commonly attended by any constitu- 
tional disturbance, and neither require an examination of general symptoms, 
nor the adoption of any but local treatment, beyond that attention to the 
health which is always necessary. Tliey may all be included under the 
heads of, — 1st. Exostosis, or increased growth of bone. 2d. Caries, or 
ulceration. 3d. Anchylosis, or unnatural union of two bones, in conse- 
quence of exostosis, or caries, or both. 4th. Fractures, or disunion by 
external force. Malignant diseases of the bone also occur very rarely in 
the horse, so that it will be scarcely necessary to occupy any space with 
their description, especially as they are perfectly incurable. 

Exostosis is the result of increased action in the nutrition of the part, 
and is much more prevalent in young horses than in old. Indeed, after 
six or seven years of age it is very rarely met with, and never attacks the 
bones at. that age for the first time. It may be recognised by a hard 
swelling of the part, which in recent cases is painful on pressure; but 
sometimes its site cannot be reached with the finger, and the disease can 
then only be detected by its effects. * A blow upon any of tlie bones 
when unprotected by anything but skin will produce inflammation fol- 
lowed by exostosis ; but the most ordinary cause is the over-stimulus of 
bard v.oi'k. Heavy horses are more prone to exostosis than light ones, 
partly from tlie v/eight of their bodies and their high lumbering action 
jarring their limbs in a greater degree, but also from the more spongy and 
open texture of their bones which admit of the pressure of large blood 
vessels within them, and are thus more liable to congestion, and conse- 
quent morbid secretion. Exostosis is shown in the form of splints, ring- 
and sidebone, and ossified lateral cartilages, as well as in the growths 
which occur occasionally in other parts of the body which have received 



454 THE HORSE. 

no distinguishing name. The vitality of the new growth in exostosis is 
less than that of healthy bone, and as a consequence, when excessive 
inflammation is set up in the part, it will often die and be separated by 
absorption. 

Caries (ulceration) occurs as a consequence of inflammation, and in the 
horse either results from external injury, as in poll evil and fistulous 
withers, or from mismanagement, as in navicular disease, which latter 
affection will be considered under the diseases of the foot. It is always 
attended with pain, and in severe cases with the formation of sufficient 
matter to require an outlet, but in very restricted ulcerations, such as 
occur in navicular disease, the pus passes into the joint, and is reabsorbed 
with the synovia. 

Anchylosis, when it is the result of caries in the two adjacent surfaces 
of a joint, produces union betAveen them, but in the horse it is generally 
of a secondary kind, the result of bony growths (exostosis), thrown out 
from the surfaces of the two bones near the jouat, which coalescing, unite 
into one mass, and thus destroy all motion. 

SPLINTS. 

The strict definition of tliis disease is " an exostosis from the lower 
part of the small metacarpal bone, connecting it by bony union with the 
large metacarpal bone," but among horsemen, any bony growth from the 
cannon bone is considered a splint, and the latter is almost as common 
as the former. The regular splint rarely attacks the outer small meta- 
carpal bone alone, but sometimes in very bad cases both are implicated in 
the disease, a specimen of which is given in fig. 2. It is difficult to give 
a valid reason for this greater frequency of splint on the inside than on 
the out, but it is commonly said that the inner splint bone receives more 
of the weight of the body than the outer one, and that it is more under 
the centre of gravity, but as it is merely suspended from the carpus, and 
is not supported from below (in. any way, mediately or directly), this can 
produce no injurious effect upon it. The fact is so, however, whatever 
may be the cause. 

The symj^toms of splint are generally a greater or less degi'ee of lameness 
during its formation, but sometimes it may go on to attain a large size 
without any such residt, especially if its growth is slow, and the horse is 
not severely worked. It is commonly remarked that a splint is of no con- 
sequence unless its situation is such as to interfere with the back sinews, 
or suspensory ligament, and although it is qi;ite true, as lias been asserted 
by learned veterinarians, that the spHnt is far removed from the former, 
and seldom interferes with the latter, yet it is almost always directly con- 
nected with the attachments of the sheath of the tendon, and this being 
stretched every time the leg is extended will occasion the pain which is 
expressed by the limp in the action. The size of the morbid growth has 
no relation with the amount, or even with the existence of lameness, for 
a very small splint will often be far more productive of this symptom than 
a very large one. In examining a leg it is often only after careful 
manipulation in the flexed condition that a small bony tumour (of the 
size perhaps only of a garden pea) can be detected, but when once the 
finger presses upon it, the horse will almost invariably be found to flinch, 
and usually it will be thrown out just where the sheath of the tendon is 
attached. Here there is no union between tlie small and large meta- 
carpal bones, and the injury is confined to the inflammation produced in 



i^ 



SPLINTS. 



455 



the sheath, which will generally go off after j)roper treatment and rest. 
These small hony growths are not very uncommonly met with in the 
hind legs, but they are not recognised there as splints. No constitutional 
symptoms are met with in these cases, and they miist he ascertained hy 
the local symptoms alone. Unless the splint is in the way of the action 
of the other foot, and the skin on its surface is bruised by repeated 
blows, there is seldom any swelling of the soft parts, but when this 




Fig. 1. — Splint attaching Internal Small 
Metacarpal Bone. 

1 Internal small metacarpal bone. 

2. External small metacarpal. 

3. Large metacarpal bone. 

4. 4. Bony gi-owth constituting a large splint, and 

attaching the small to the large metacarpal 
bone. 



Fio. 2. Enormous Splint, attaching both 
Small Metacarpals to the Large. 

1. Large metacarpal bone. 

2. 3. Mass of exostosis connecting the three 

metacarpal bones together. 



occurs, the skin and cellular membrane become puffed and hot, and 
extreme lameness is the result, temporarily aggravated by every blow. 

The treatment of a splint will depend upon the state in which it exists, 
and upon the purpose to which the horse possessing it is destined. K no 
lameness exists, and the blemish is not objected to, it is far better not to 
meddle with it, for in the course of a few years it will disappear by 
absorption as a matter of course. Moreover it often happens that in 
attempting to remove a splint by some irritating appHcation, extensive 
inflammation is set up in the fibrous structures attached to it, and lame- 
ness, which was not previously in existence, is thenceforth a most trouble- 



456 THE HORSE. 

some attendant. If, however, the horse is for sale, in which case the 
existence of a spHnt would be regarded with suspicion, or if lameness has 
shown itself, it will he necessary to adopt measures likely to effect the 
absorption of the morbid growth, and these are chiefly two : — 1st. Sub- 
cutaneous scarification, or without, a seton, or the seton alone ; and 2d. 
Counter-irritation by means of some form of blister. If the soft parts 
covering the splint are much inflamed, the horse should have his corn taken 
away, and a dose of physic given him, during which a wet bandage should 
be kept constantly applied, and indeed, in any case of splint severe enough 
to require operation, the cooling remedies mentioned above should be 
adopted beforehand. The operation is performed with a probe-pointed 
narrow knife, shaped like a scimitar, with the cutting edge on the convex 
side. A small opening is made in the skin about an inch below the 
splint, and just large enough to admit the knife, which is then introduced 
and pushed upwards with its flat side towards the skin, till it reaches the 
tumour, when the convex edge is turned towards this, and several exten- 
sive scarifications are made in the periosteum covering it, after which the 
knife is withdrawn and a fine seton-needle is introduced in its place, and 
passed upwards until it reaches above the splint, when it is pushed 
through, and the tape drawn out, and properly secured with a 
bandage. Of course the horse must be cast and properly secured 
before resorting to the knife. In the course of ten days or a fort- 
night, the tape may be withdrawn, and the splint will almost in- 
variably disappear. Sometimes the seton is tried vdthout the scarifica- 
tion, but it is not nearly so successful, and is nearly as troublesome 
an operation. In most cases both these operations are unnecessary, and 
the application of the following blister (which has a tendency to pro- 
duce absorption, independently of its counter-irritative powers) will have 
the desired effect. 

Take of Biniodide of Mercury .... 1 drachm 

Lard 1 ounce. Mix, 

and after cutting the hair short, rub a little into the skin covering the 
splint, every night, until a free watery discharge is produced from the 
surface. To facihtate this the leg should be fomented with very hot 
water every morning and afternoon, and this should be continued for 
several days after the ointment has been discontinued. The horse will 
not gnaw the skin after this application, and it is a very useful one for 
general purposes, when counter-irritation is required to produce absorption. 
If, after a week's interval, the splint does not appear much reduced in 
size, the ointment should be re-applied, and repeated at similar intervals 
till the swelling is removed. When the bony growth is very extensive, 
as shown in fig. 2, page 45-5, neither scarification nor counter-irritation will 
be of much service, and the leg must be fired, and afterwards repeatedly 
bhstered, but even with the best and most energetic treatment, the part 
will seldom become sufliciently sound to stand anything but slow work. 

RINGBOl^E AND SIDEBOI^E. 

liiNGBONE AND siDEBONE both cousist in the throwing out of bony 
matter about the joints of the os coronse ; the former name being given 
to the disease when it attacks that between it and the os suflfraginis, and 
the latter when the seat is the parts around its union with the os pedis 
or coffin bone. Very often, and esjiecially in heavy cart or dray horses, 



1 



RINGBONE AND SIDEBONE. 457 

ringbone and sidebone co-exist in the same leg, " as shown at fig. 3, 
where the three bones are completely anchylosed, and in which, dunng 
life, the only action was in the fetlock joint. The disease attacks the hind 
leg as well as the fore ; but it is more common in the latter than in the 
former. 

The symptoms are a greater or less enlargement of the leg, of a hard and 
unyielding nature, either immediately above the coronet, as in sidebone, 
or a little higher, as in ringbone. In the latter case, if thoroughly 
established, it surrounds the joint, whence the name of ringbone ; but in 
the early stages it appears at certain points from which it spreads all 
round Sidebone is seldom so extensive, and usually attacks the postero- 
lateral parts of the OS coronae, where the swelling is defined, and, except in 
very hairy-legged or gummy-heeled horses, can easily be felt. In the 




Fia. 3. — Case of Ringbone and Sidebone occurrino in a ueavy Dray Horse. 



1. Os suffraginis. 

2. Os coronEe. 

3. Os pedis. 



4. Complete union by ossitic matter between tlie 

(;j' pedis and os coroniB, but still incomplete 
in the joint above. 

5. Complete union of the three bones. 



early stages the action is not impeded, but there is more or less soreness 
or lameness. After much bone is thrown out, the joints are either com- 
pletely fixed or their movements are extremely limited. 

The treatment in the early stage is precisely similar to that for splint ; 
but the operation of scarifying the periosteum requires great care and some 
knowledge of the anatomy of these joints, or the knife wiU pierce the cap- 
sular ligament, and increase the evil it was intended to relieve. A seton 
without the scarification will often be of service, and for sidebone, firing 
ill the early stage will be serviceable, though it is objectionable on account 



458 THE HORSE. 

of the blemish it leaves behind. The biniodide of mercury ointment already 
described is most useful in slight cases, but in severe ones it will rather 
tend to aggravate the growth, and when anchylosis has taken place, nothins 
but time and patience for the subsidence of the inflammation will avail. 
When this has taken place, and the joint is fixed, a high-heeled shoe will 
enable the horse to work, wdth some awkwardness it is true, and the addi- 
tion of a leather sole will to some extent take off the jar, which occurs in 
a greatly increased ratio when the elastic action of the pastern joints is 
destroyed. 

OSSIFICATION OF THE LATERAL CARTILAGES. 

This is commonly known as ossification of the cartUages, or false ring- 
bone, no other cartilages being subject to ossification, and these being 
therefore known pcv excellence as the cartilages. In heavy cart horses it 
often co-exists with ringbone and sidebone, especially the latter ; hut it 
also attacks well-bred carriage horses, and high-actioned hacks, which are 
comparatively free from those diseases. 

The symptoms are more or less enlargement of the back of the coronet, 
and heel, the part feeling unnaturally hard and irregular or lumpy. If 
recent, there is generally increased heat on careful examination with 
the hand ; but in old standing cases there is nothing of the kind to be 
detected. Lameness is not always present, but if the horse is rattled 




Fig. 4. — Ossification of the Lateral Cartilaoes. 
1. Pedal bone. 2. 3. The lateral cartilages ossified. 

over hard ground, he will be more likely to show the effects on the next 
day, by going short and sore, than if he were free from this disease. 

The treatment should be confined to recent cases, for in old standing 
ones, unless lameness shows itself, it is better to avoid any interference. 
A seton, with rest, has sometimes proved very efficacious, even in confirmed 
ossification, and repeated dressings with the biniodide of mercury ointment, 
will, in those cases where the inflammation does not run very high, afford 
the best chance of causing the absorption of some of the bone, for a com- 
plete cure is never effected. When there is much heat in the part, bleed- 
ing from the foot may be adopted, and afterwards, the appUcation of cloths 
dipped in cold water, with the addition of a glass of tincture of arnica to 
quart of water. In confirmed cases, where the parts have become cal- 
lous, a leather sole to the shoe will take off the vibration, and should 
be used during the summer season. Scarification of the skin covering 
the enlargement with a lancet, encouraging the bleedmg by warm water, 
and followed by the use of cold water as soon as the bleeding has ceased, 



BONE SPAVIN. 



459 



will sometimes do wonders in recent, cases. The scarification should be 
repeated at intervals of five or six days, taking care to avoid injury to the 
coronary substance near the hoofs, which is sometimes followed by trouble- 
some sores. 

BONE SPAVIN. 

This disease, so frequently the cause of lameness in those horses which 
use theu- hocks severely (as for example race horses, hunters, carriage 
horses, and more particularly cart horses), consists in exostosis from 
the adjacent external surfaces of the tarsal bones, always showing 
itself at the inner side of tlie hock joint, on the scaphoid and cunei- 
form bones, and extending to the head of the internal small meta- 
tarsal bone. As in the case of splint, the occurrence of exostosis on 
the internal rather than on the 
external side of the hock has been 
accounted for by the supposition 
that increased weight is thrown 
upon the internal small metatarsal 
bone, from the turning up of the 
outer heel of the shoe, Avhich is the 
common practice of smiths. It 
appears to me, however, that the 
contrary is the case, and that though 
more stress is laid upon the foot on 
that side, there is less Aveight on 
the inner side of the hock, Avhich 
has a tendency to spring open in 
that direction. This will cause a 
strain upon the ligaments connect- 
ing the tarsal bones, and nature 
coming to their aid throws out bone, 
Avhich ultimately substitutes anchy- 
losis for ligamentous union between 
these bones. In all the actions of 
the hind leg, from the natural shape 
of the hock, and more especially 
in those horses which are naturally 
" cow-hocked," there is a tendency 
to yield inwards rather than in the 
opposite du-ection. The consequence 
is that there is moi'e strain upon the 
ligamentous fibres which connect 
the scaphoid with the two cuneiform 
and the internal metatarsal, than 
upon those uniting the cuboid with the os calcis and external metatarsal 
bone. Hence, although exostosis does sometimes show itself in other 
parts of the tarsal bones, it here, as in the fore leg, is almost always 
confined to what is called the "spavin place," namely, the contiguous 
surfaces of the scaphoid, cuneiform, and internal metatarsal bones. In 
very bad cases the articular cartilage becomes involved, and there is not 
only an external casing of new bone, but the internal sui'faces absolutely 
coalesce or anchylose. 

The symptoms of spavin are a hard substance showing itself beyond 
the proper level of the hock joint, at the spot which is pointed out iu 




Fig. 3. — A>'teeo-intekkal vikw op Exostosis 
CONSTITUTING Spavin. 

1. Os scaplioides. 

2 Os ouneiforme parvnm. 

3. Morbid growtli of bone, constitutingtbe disease 

known as bone spavin. 

4. Large metatarsal or camion bone. 



460 THE HORSE. 

fig. 5, 3. There may or may not be lameness, but if bone is throw^n out the 
disease is established. In recent cases whenever the horse is worked he 
will after rest limp in his action, but the lameness soon goes off, and does 
not show itself again until the i^art has been suffered to become stiff by a 
rest of an hour or two. The lameness is very remarkable, and difl'ers 
greatly from that shown in any other disease. The leg is drawn up with 
a quick catch, and yet there is a dragging of the limb, indicating not only 
pain in the joint, but a want of action in it. In the early stages the 
latter is not clearly developed, but afterwards it is so well marked that a 
spavin maV be pronounced to exist without an examination of the joint. 
Where lameness is not established, great care should be exercised in pro- 
nouncing on the existence of spavin, for some hocks are naturally formed 
with prominent heads of the internal metatarsal bones, and the inexpe- 
rienced eye and hand are very apt to mistake these for exostosis. In such 
cases, by comparing the two hocks it will generally be seen that they are 
both exactly alike, while in spavin, although both joints may be the seat 
of mischief, yet they will seldom manifest the disease to the same extent. 
The treatment should be directed to the abatement of the inflammation 
which gives rise to the pain, and also to promote absorption of the new 
groAvth. Veterinary surgeons are very apt to assert that the disease 
cannot be cured, and that a spavined horse will always remain the subject 
of it, and therefore unsound. But practically it is known that many a 
hock which has been the seat of undoubted spavin loses all external 
enlargement, and no lameness is showii in it, although tried most severely 
through a series of years. Still on dissection after death, the ligaments will 
not show their natural white and glistening structure, and tlie tarsal bones 
will be to a certain extent united by anchylosis. In very bad cases there 
will be also caries of the articulatory surfaces, and with it inflammation 
of the synovial membranes, which may and often does exist without the 
caries. ]!^ow as these are much more formidable diseases than exostosis, and 
far more difficult either to cure or palliate, it follows that although certain 
remedies will be generally successful with genuine bone sj)avin (exostosis), 
yet they will fail when the above complication exists. The treatment 
must therefore be adapted to the exact nature and extent of the disease. 
Prior to the adoption of any plan the joint should be rested, the outer heel 
of the shoe should be lowered, tlie corn should be taken away, and the system 
cooled by appropriate treatment. After these precautious are taken, the 
next thmg is to decide upon the remedies which will bo suited to the case. 
They consist in 1. Blisters, wdiich have a tendency to cause absorption ; 
2. Firing; 3. Setons, with or without subcutaneous scarification ; 4. Division 
of the nerve. If there is simply a slight exostosis, with little lameness, and 
no evidence of the joint being implicated, the biniodide of mercury may be 
applied as described at page 456. Repeated dressings will be necessarj--, 
and the joint must have at least two months' absolute rest, the horse 
being placed in a loose box. This remedy is often successful, but it Avill 
fail utterly where the exostosis is extensive, or there is caries, or even 
severe inflammation of the synovial membrane. Arsenic, sulphuric acid 
(which is the basis of Major's British Remedy), and other caustic appli- 
cations, have been counted as infallible cures ; but while they are just as 
certain to produce a blemish as firing, the extent to which the inflam- 
mation and sloughing, caused by them, go is far moTe couipletely beyond 
our control. Arsenic has been known to destroy the joint, by producing 
a slough of the synovial membrane, and it is said that the British 
Remedy, winch, however, is often very successful, has had a similar 



EXOSTOSIS OF THE HUMERUS AND SCAPULA. 461 

uufortuBate result ; but of its being followed by serious blemishes there 
is abundant proof. Firing is the safest, and, therefore, the usual plan 
adopted for spavin, and on the tirst intimation of the disease it is often 
adopted -without any necessity for having recourse to so disfiguring a 
process. Its claef advantage is, that while it is a certain, means of 
establishing a strong counter-irritation, it has no tendency to cause any 
increase of inflammation in the structiu-es beneath the skin, and therefore 
the good it does is iinalloyed by any counterbalancing evil. It is now 
the fashion to deny its use, ancl horsemasters are often tempted to try 
some substitute for it in the hope of escaping a blemish ; but too often 
they are compelled to submit to it at last, and probably after the disease 
has been aggravated by some " unfailing" remedy. If there is a strong 
desire expressed to avoid a blemish, the veterinary surgeon is perfectly 
warranted in doing all in his power to effect a cure without the use of the 
irons ; but the mere fasliion of the day should not induce him to decry a 
plan which has for so many years been proved to be successful. In human 
surgery the same course has been adopted, and for the last thirty or forty 
years the actual cautery has been voted "barlarous" in this country. 
Now, however, a counter current is setting in, and it is the general 
opinion of the first hospital surgeons of the day that, in certain diseases 
of the joints, no remedy is nearly so efficacious. All sorts of attempts 
are made to render the use of the hot iron less repugnant to the senses ; 
but in the case of the horse it is only necessary to measure its comparative 
utility and the amount of pain which it gives. The former has been 
already considered, and as to the latter, if the irons are properly heated, 
I much doubt Avhether their action is not less painful than that of any 
other counter-irritant. Setons, perhaps, give less pain if skilfully inserted, 
and they are admirable remedies, having nearly the same beneficial effects 
as firing, and leaving a far slighter blemish. They should be passed beneath 
a considerable track of the skin, covering the "spavin place," and the 
tape requires to be smeared with blistering cerate to produce sufficient 
irritation. Their use by themselves is often sufficient, but when preceded 
by subcutaneous scarification they seem to act even more certainly than 
firing. Mr. Holmes, of Beverley, has obtained great celebrity for his 
treatment of spavin on this plan, and undoubtedly not Avithout founda- 
tion. Some of his cures have been very remarkable, as even old standing 
and extensive growths of bone have been reduced, and the hocks have 
remained soimd afterwards. The method of operation is similar to that 
described for sj)lints, but it requires more knowledge of the anatomy of 
the parts to avoid doing mischief by ciitting into one of the joints. There 
is always afterwards considerable eflusioji into the subcutaneous cellular 
■membrane, demanding two or three months for its removal ; but as the 
spavined horse requires that interval of rest, this is of little or no con- 
sequence. When the disease has gone so far that no method of treat- 
ment will remove it, the nerve above the hock may be divided, which will 
enable the horse to work without pain for a time, but the disease goes on 
the faster, and the benefit derived is only temporary. 

EXOSTOSIS OF THE HUMEPaiS AND SCAPULA. 

The heads op the bones adjacent to most of the joints of the body are 
more or less subject to exostosis, though not so frequently as those of 
the pastern bones and tarsus. Next to these probably comes the shoulder 
joint, the neighbourhood of which is often the seat of this disease, but 



462 



THE HORSE. 



seldom to the extent shown in the case from which the accompanying 
engraving is taken. It represents the left scapnla and humerus of a 
horse, wliich were completely anchylosed, and of course there co-existed a 
proportionate amount of lameness during the progress of the disease, while 
after the anchylosis took place the want of action must have been com- 
plete. An examination by the hand of the point of the shoulder woiild 
readily detect so large a growth of bone as this ; but smaller ones are often 
thrown out beneath the mass of muscles surrounding the shoulder joint, 
and consequently beyond the reach of the most accomplished finger. The 




Fig. G. —Anchylosis op the Shoulder Joint from Exostosis. 
A. Scapula. C. D. Exostosis around the shoulder joint producing 

b! Humerus. anchylosis. 

treatment should be on the same principle as for spavin, omitting the 
subcutaneous scarification, which is not here practicable on account of the 
nature of the joint. Blisters, and especially with the biniodide of mercury, 
will be the most likely to succeed, but in most cases the cure will be only 
partial. 

FISTULA OF THE WITHEES. 

When a saddle has been allowed to press upon the spinous processes 
of the dorsal vertebrae, it produces inflammation, which, if neglected, leads 



POLL EVIL. 463 

to the formation of an abscess. But the situation of the part is such that 
the matter cannot escape, even if the skin over the points of the bones is 
perforated, and it has a tendency, by the force of gravity, to burrow down 
among the muscles which connect the shoulder-blade with the trunk. 
Tlie consequence is, that there is extensive inflammation, and often lame- 
ness of the shoulder, which could readily have been prevented by using 
proper care before the mischief was done, or removed by the adoption of 
suitable treatment afterwards before the disease is confirmed. 

The synvptoms in the early stage (that is, before a fistula is established) 
are merely an enlargement of the ends of the spinous processes, accom- 
panied by heat and tenderness, but these go on until an abscess forms, 
which may be known to the touch by the fluctuating nature of the sensa- 
tion which it gives on pressure by the fingers of each hand. As soon as 
this is made out, an opening should be made as low down as possible ou 
the right side, taking care that it will allow all the matter to run out as 
fast as it forms. The reason why the right side should be chosen is, that 
most horses lie down on that side ; but if the subject of fistulous withers 
is in the habit of lying on the left side, the opening should be made there 
in preference. When an actual fistula has been established, and tlie 
matter points before or behind the shoulder blade, a sufficiently large 
opening should at once be made, taking care again that there is no pouch 
below it which will permit any accumulation. It is better to divide even 
imi^ortant muscles than to suffer this to exist. In recent cases the establish- 
ment of this dependent opening will alone suffice to effect a cure ; but 
in those of long standing the lining of the fistulous passage or passages 
has become converted into a substance almost resembling cartilage, 
and refuses to throw out healthy granulations, so as to lead to adhe- 
sion of its walls. Here a stimulus must be applied to their interior, which 
may be either mechanical, in the shape of a seton tape passed through 
from end to end and left there, or chemical, by means of injections. The 
latter are best composed of chloride of zinc (kSir W. Burnett's disinfecting 
fluid), diluted with water. One drachm of this should be mixed in a pint 
of water, and carefully injected into every part of the sinus twice or thrice 
a week, 

POLL EVIL. 

Poll evil is exactly similar in its nature to fistulous ■\\dthers, being 
produced by a blow on the prominent ridge, which is situated on the top 
of the poll. The blow is generally produced in the stable, by the horse 
suddenly lifting his head and striking it against a low beam or the lintel 
of the door. Or it may be caused by frequently straining against the 
halter rein, and thus producing irritation and inflammation of the part. 
As the ligamentum colli is attached above, and anterior to, the inflamed 
part, when matter forms it is confined and gives intense pain ; besides 
which, it is a long time before it opens a passage by natural means. The 
symptoms are a painful swelling on the poll, of a soft nature, accompanied 
by the sense of fluctuation on examination, just like that described as ac- 
companying fistulous withers. The treatment must be precisely similar to 
that described in the last section ; but as the matter when formed lies very 
close to the spinal cord, some caution must be exercised in adopting stimu- 
lating injections, which are ajot to produce severe inflammation, lilcely to 
extend to these important structures. So also in opening it, the knife 
should not be carried deeply into the situation of the sj)inal marrow, which 
here lies exposed, and is easily divided (as in the operation loiOAvn by the 



464 



THE HORSE. 



name of pithing), but it should be used in a slanting manner, again select- 
ing the right side in preference to the left. A seton is here the safest 
plan for promoting granulation and adhesion, and as- the fistulous track is 
seldom very long, the tape will work its way gradually out, by which time 
the cure is effected. 

CAEIES OF THE JAW. 

The upper jaw, from its exposed situation, and the lower from the 
same cause, and also from the abuse of the bit, are hable to mechanical 
injury, which ends in caries (ulceration), or sometimes in necrosis (morti- 
fication), of the part. Caries of the lower jaw, between the tushes and 
grinders, is extremely common, owing to the barbarous punislament which 
is inflicted by the use of long levers to curb bits, together with tight curb 
chains. The bony plate forming the roof of the mouth is also often 
injured by the pressure of the port when a tight noseband is employed to 
keep the mouth shut. Either may be known by the existence of a sore 
of a peculiar character ; there is a depression indicating a loss of substance, 
and in this lies a mass of unhealthy granulation (proud flesh), ivhich is not 
attached to the surrounding surface, being only fixed to the bottom of tlie 
cavity, or perhaps partially on one side. A watery and ofiensive discharge 
goes on constantly, but this is lost in the saliva, and very often the only 
circumstance that draws attention to the disease is the constant bleeding 
from the mouth, on the slightest contact of the bit. When this occurs, the 
mouth being full of pinh froth, it should be carefully examined, and the 
state of things here described will generally be found to exist. The t7-eat- 
ment should consist in the adoption of a bit pressing upon another part of 
the mouth, changing the curb for a snafile. The wound should be kept 
open by the use of caustic (lunar) daily, which should be pushed deeply 
into it for a couple of seconds, and will destroy the unhealthy granula- 
tions. By continuing these measures, taking care not to do more with 
the caustic than necessary to keep down the fungous growth, a cure can 
always be effected in course of time, without the aid of the trepliine or 
chisel to cut away the diseased bone. 




Fig. 7. — OsTEO Sarcoma of tbe Lower Jaw. 



OSTEO SAECOMA. 

The jaws are occasionally attacked by a malignant growth from their 
r.ellular structure of a substance partaking of the nature both of cartilage 
and bone. It increases sometimes to an enormous size, and forms a large 



FRACTURES. 4G5 

irregular tiinioiir, "which interferes terrihly with their functions, often 
growing so as to prevent the closure of the teeth. This disease is repre- 
sented in fig. 7, as far as the osseous tissue is concerned ; but the soft 
growths, which occupied the central parts of the tumour, have been 
removed by maceration. The symptoms are entirely local, and when a 
large, unwieldy, and irregularly hard swelling on either of the jaws is 
met with, it may safely be set down as belonging to this class of disease. 
Ko treatment is of any avail except excision, which can rarely be carried 
through without rendering the horse unserviceable for his ordinary duties. 

PEACTUEES. 

Bones are not unfrequently broken in the horse ; but as the accident 
generally occurs either during the violent exertion of the muscles of the 
limb, or from great external force, it follows that in most cases the 
injury to the soft parts is so great as to forbid the hope of a perfect 
reparation. When, for instance, a canna or pastern bone gives way 
during the shock sustained in coming down on hard ground from a leap, 
either at the moment of the fracture or before the horse can be stopped, 
the upper end pierces the skin, and also tears or bruises the tendons which 
alone connect it to the part below. In surgical language, the fracture is 
a compound one ; and from the great tendency to contraction of the 
muscles, the difficulty of bringing the disunited ends into apposition (or 
setting them) is immense. Moreover, the horse is very unmanageable 
when an attempt is made to confine him, and the means which are 
adopted to keep the fracture set must therefore be very complete as com- 
pared with those which mil serve for the restoration of the human being 
who has sustained a similar accident. Hence, unless the animal is wanted 
for stud purposes alone, or unless* the fracture is a simple one, with Little 
displacement, it will seldom be worth the attempt to procure the union of 
a broken bone in the horse. Many cases arQ on record in which after a 
fracture of a canna or pastern bone a complete cure has been effected, 
but they must be considered as excep>tional, and not as aflfording us much 
encouragement. 

The symptoms of simple fracture are a greater or less degree of 
deformity of the limb, swelling, pain on motion, and a peculiar grating or 
jarring which is felt rather than heard, and which has received the name 
of " crepitus." The last symptom can only be made out when the broken 
ends of the bone can be brought together; but when this is impossible, 
the alteration of form is in itself sufficient to lead to a detection of the 
nature of the accident. In fractures of the head and spine there is no 
crepitus felt, and the effect upon the brain and spinal cord of pressure 
will be often the sole means of coming to a correct diagnosis. Fractures 
of the pelvis are very difficult to inake out, unless the ala of the ilium is 
broken oS', which is a common accident, for here the unnatural flatness of 
the hip, showing itself without any great difficulty of moving the hind 
leg of that side, plainly marks that there is no dislocation, and that the 
case can only be one of fracture. It is always the result of a blow, 
either when the horse is cast in a stall or in passing through a narrow 
door-way, or from a similar cause; and there will therefore be some 
swelling of the soft parts which will interfere with the examination 
at the time, but as nothing can be done to restore the broken portion 
to its place, and as there is no doubt about the diagnosis from dislo- 
cation, this is of little consequence. Fractures of the ribs cannot bo 

H H 



46G THE HORSE. 

readily detected; but as tliey almost always follow a kick on the part, 
and as they do not reqiiii'e any treatment unless their broken ends 
press upon the important viscera of the thorax or abdomen; it will 
be well to wait for the symptoms which are caused by this mechanical 
irritation before resorting to bandages, &c. When a fracture occurs 
in any of the bones of the extremities, which are concealed by a large 
mass of muscle, the total inability to use the limb, and the loose way 
in which it is connected to the body, so as to allow it to be moved in 
p,ny direction, indicate the general nature of the case without difficulty, 
though a careful examination must be made by a skilful surgeon before 
the exact particulars relating to it cim be ascertained. 

The treatment wiU depend upon the bone which is broken, and whether 
the fracture is simple or compound. In most cases of the latter descrip- 
tion none "will avail, and the horse had better be destroyed ; but if the 
owner is averse to this, it will be on the whole the best surgery, though 
apparently not very scientific, to encase the parts with adhesive plasters 
and tow, and then treat it as a simple fracture. 

If the bones of the skull are fractured, unless there are symptoms 
of pressure on the brain, it is advisable to leave all to nature, simply 
keeping the patient quiet and low, and if in a high state of plethora, 
bleeding and physicldng. 

A BROKEN lower JAW is by no means uncommon as the result of a 
kick. The best treatment is to set the fracture, and then mould some 
gutta percha to it, which may be confined behind by strips round the 
forehead and poU, and before by a padded strap passed through the mouth 
between the nippers and tushes, and beneath the tongue. The horse 
must be fed upon mashes and steamed food. 

In fractures op the spine and pelvis nothing can be done beyond 
rest and lowering, if necessary, by bleeding and physic. 

Broken ribs, when they cause inflammation of the lungs or liver by 
their sharp ends pressing upon these organs, may be treated by buckling 
two or three ordinary rollers abreast of one another tightly round the 
chest, so as to prevent the natural dilatation of the thorax, which takes 
place in inspiration, and Avhicli keeps up the irritation by constantly moving 
the ends of the ribs. The general means necessary to adopt to relieve the 
internal mischief will depend upon its extent. 

"When either the scapula, humerus, or femur is broken, all that 
can be done is to slmg the horse, and by bandages endeavour to brmg the 
limb into as natural a j)Osition as possible, and keep it there. There must 
of necessity be great displacement of the ends of the bones, and these 
cannot by any means be brought into apposition ; but the sides in contact 
with one another, as they over-ride, will unite in course of time, and 
tliis is aU that can be achieved by the utmost efforts of the veterinary 
surgeon. 

Fractures of the lower part of the tibia, of the radius, of the canna 
bones and the pasterns, if simple, must be treated by adjusting the ends 
(which is the chief difficulty, and will often require strong extension to ba 
employed), and then adapting to the sides of the bones splints of wood or 
gutta percha. If, by the aid of assistants, the parts can be brought into 
a good position, these may be carefully adjusted to maintain it, and may 
be kept in place by tapes or straps fastened moderately tightly around 
them. It is useless, however, to attempt a minute description of the 
means to be employed, which can hardly be understood without a demon- 
stration. Many horses have recovered a fair use of the- Ihnb by the appli- 



DESEASES OF MUSCLE, ETC. 467 

cation of splints, without slinging, as they will take care to avoid resting 
on that foot in consequence of the pain it gives ; but under the care of 
an accomplished veterinary surgeon slings will afford the best chance of 
recovery. 



CHAPTEE XXVI. 

INJURY AND DISEASES OF THE JOINTS, MUSCLES, AND TENDONSi. 

DISEASES OP MUSCLE, TENDON, AND LIGAMENT— OP CARTILAGE AND SYNOVIAL MEM- 
BRANE INFLAMED TENDINOUS SHEATHS ^INFLAMED BUES^ MUCOSA — STRAINS 

THOSE OF THE BACK AND LOINS — OP THE SHOULDER OP THE KNEE OF THE 

FETLOCK — OF THE COFFIN JOINT— OP THE SUSPEI\SORY LIGAMENTS OF THE BACK- 
SINEWS— BREAKING DOWN STRAINS OP THE HIP J0IN9', SfflFLE, AND HOCK — CURB 

DISLOCATION — WOUNDS OF JOINTS. 

DISEASES OF MUSCLE, TENDON", AND LIGAMENT. 

!MuscLB is subject to simple atrophy, with or without fatty degenera- 
tion. The disease shows itself by a wasting away of the part, accom- 
panied by a flabby feel to the touch. It should be treated by friction, 
gentle but regular work, and steel given internally, one drachm of the 
sulphate of iron powdered being mixed with the corn twice a day. 

Eheumatio INFLAMMATION of a muscle or muscles is one of the most 
common of all the diseases to which the horse is subject. Most frequently 
it attacks the muscles of the shoulder, or of the loins, sometimes both 
those parts being involved at the same time. When acute it receives the 
name of a chill, and is generally brought on by exposing the horse to a 
draught of air after work, or by immersing him in cold water up to his 
belly, with a view either to refresh him, or when the groom is lazy, to 
save him the trouble of cleaning. The symptoms are lameness or inability 
to use the part, the horse, when forced to do so, giving expressions of severe 
pain. K the shoulder is affected, the foot is not put to the ground, and 
when the leg is moved backwards and forwards by the hand, great pain is 
evidently experienced. In severe cases there is fever with accelerated 
pulse (70 to 80), accompanied often by profuse sweating, and heaving at 
the flanks, the legs remaining warm. After a short time the part swells, 
and is excessively tender. — The treatment should be by a copious bleeding, 
if the horse is of a moderately strong constitution ; indeed, in severe cases 
it should be carried on till the pulse is greatly reduced, and repeated the 
next day, if it returns to its original hardness and fulness. The 
bowels should be acted on as soon as it is safe to do so, and if the dung is 
very hard, backraking and clysters should be used, to accelerate the 
action of the medicine. The best aperient is castor oO, of which a pint 
may be given with an ounce of sweet spirits of nitre. When this has 
acted, if the kidneys ar^ not doing their duty, a quarter of an ounce of 
nitre and a drachiu of camphor may be made into a ball and given twice 
a day. 

Chronic rheumatism of the muscles is similar in its nature to the acute 
form, but, as its name impKes, it is more lasting, and of less severity. It 
often flies from one part to another, attacking the ligaments and tendons, 
as well as the muscular fibres. It is seldom much under control, and 

hh2 



468 THE HORSE. 

attention should be paid rather to improve tlie general health than to 
subdue the local affection. 

Small tumoues, of about the size of a pea, often form upon the tendons, 
especially the " back sinews " of the fore legs. They may or may not 
occasion lameness, but they are always to be regarded with suspicion. As 
long as they remain indolent, they are better left alone ; but when they 
produce inflammation and pain, the best remedy is the biniodide of 
mercury ointment, described at page 456. 

DISEASES OF CARTILAGE AM) SYNOVIAL MEMBEAl^ 

Cartilage is subject chiefly to ulceration. When this occurs, its cells 
become enlarged and crowded with corpuscles, which burst and discharge 
their contents ; the intercellular structure at the same time spKts into 
bands, which, together with the corpuscles, form a libro-nucleated mem- 
brane on the face of the cartilage. In old horses, the ulcerated cartilage 
covering the tibial surface of the astragalus is sometimes converted into a 
soft fibrous substance, which ultimately assumes the appearance of hard 
and dense bone, commonly known as " porcellaneous or ivory deposit." 
It is accompanied by no symptoms of inflammation ; the sole evidence of 
disease, during Hfe, being a stiffness of the joint, and a peculiar grating or 
crackling noise during all attempts at movement. When caries of the 
head of a bone has caused a loss of substance, the cartilage dies, and is 
gradually broken down by decomposition ; but this cannot be said to be 
a disease of the cartilage itself. With the exception of navicular disease 
(which will be included under the diseases of the foot), ulceration of 
cartilage is not very common in the horse. 

Acute inflammation of the synovial membrane is seldom met with ; 
but a chronic state, inducmg an excessive secretion of synovia, is extremely 
common. The most usual situation is at the hock, where the swelling 
has received the name of bag-spavin and thoroughpin ; but they also 
occur at the fetlock and knee joints ; in the former case being sometimes 
confounded with windgalls, which are inflamed bursse mucosiB. (See 
Windgalls.) 

Bog-spavin is very apt to attack young horses, when they are over- 
worked, before being fully seasoned ; but it may occur at all ages. It 
shows itself at the inner side of the joint, because here the ligaments are 
wider apart, and there is more room for distension. Its seat is the capsule 
between the tibia and astragalus, which is here unprotected by any strong 
fibrous covering, and readily yields to the gradual pressure of the secretion 
from its internal surface. (See fig. 22, G- H, page 362.) 

Thoroughpin may be either an increased secretion of the synovial 
capsule, between the astragalus and os calcis, or between the scaphoid 
and cuneiform bones, or of the bursa mucosa lying between the tendo 
Achillis and the tendo perforatus. In the first of these cases, it often 
coexists with bog-spavin, and the synovia may be made to fluctuate from 
one bag to the other, the only line of demai-cation being the astragalo- 
calcanean ligament. (See fig. 22, G, page 362.) 

Both hog-spavin and thoroughpin may exist, or either separately, without 
occasioning lameness ; but where they are just established, there is gene- 
rally some small degree of active inflammation, wliich causes a slight 
lameness on first going out of the stable, but soon disappearmg. 

The treatment should be by pressure, kept up for a long time, by means 
of a carefully-adjusted truss, alternated with cold affusion, and the use 



INFLAMED TENDINOUS SHEATHS. 469 

afterwards of tincture of arnica, diluted with water, as a wash. Sub- 
cutaneous scarification has succeeded in some few cases in causing the 
secretion to cease; but it has so often produced extensive inflammation of 
the joint, that the operation is by no means to be recommended. Blister- 
ing with biniodide of mercury has also occasionally answered ; but no 
plan is so successful, on the whole, as pressure, alternatmg with cold 
affusion. 

Delicate young foals are subject to a rheumatic inflammation of their 
synovial membranes, specially displayed in the knees and hocks, and 
apparently caused by exposure to cold. It seldom goes on to produce dis- 
organization of the cartilages, but the capsular hgaments are distended 
with thin yellow synovia, causing considerable stiffness. The cellular 
tissue around the joints also becomes oedematous, and the legs fill all the 
way down to the feet. It is commonly known among breeders as the 
"joint evil," and though in itself it is not dangerous, yet it marks the 
existence of constitutional weakness which is likely to occasion some more 
fatal malady. The treatment should consist in attending to the general 
health by strengthening the mare, which is best done by giving her 
a drachm of the sulphate of iron in her corn twice a day. The joints of 
the foal should be rubbed Avith equal parts of soap liniment and spirit of 
turpentine, and it should be assisted to stand for the purpose of sucking 
at regular short intervals if it is unable to help itself. In aggravated cases, 
however, the foal is not likely to recover its general strength, and it may 
be better to destroy it, but so long as it can stand and feeds well hopes 
may be entertained of the joints recovering. 

INFLAMED TEN"DINOUS SHEATHS. 

Evert practical horseman is aware that the sheaths in which the 
back sinews and other tendons are lodged are liable to inflammation and 
thickening, without the tendon itself being involved. By passing the 
hand down the leg, an irregular network may be felt surrounding the 
tendons, which move up and down without disturbing it ; and the sur- 
rounding cellular membrane is also thickened, and become hard and 
unyielding. There may be considerable heat about the part, but often it 
is quite cool ; and the disease may continue for months without any great 
lameness, and with nothing to draw attention to it (excepting a slight 
stiffness on leaving the stable) but the sensation communicated to the 
hand. At length, an unusually severe day's work sets up active inflam- 
mation, the leg rapidly fills, and there is so much lameness as to cause the 
horse to be thrown by. — The treatment, in the early stage, should be the 
use of bandages, constantly kept wet with arnica and water, and nothing 
but "walking exercise. After the thickening is fully established, no remedy 
short of blistering, or a charge, will be of the slightest avail, with a rest of 
two or three months. 

INFLAMED BUES^ MUCOSA 

These synovial bags are liable to inflammation, either from hard 
work, as in windgalls and thoroughpin, or from blows, as in capped hock 
and elbow. The latter are said by some veterinarians to be serous ab- 
c^sses ; but there is no doubt that in all horses a subcutaneous bursa 
exists on the cap of the elbow and hock ; and these become inflamed and 
filled with a very thin synovia, when they are bruised. They never 



470 THE HORSE. 

extend beyond a certain size, and have no tendency to burst; nor are they 
inclined to a liealtby termination of their own accord, but go on in the 
same condition from year to year. 

WiNDGALLS, OR PUFFS, are the most usual forms of these enlargements, 
and may be observed in the legs (hind as well as fore) of nearly every 
hard- worked horse, after a time. Great care in the management of the 
legs by bandaging will sometimes keep them off, and some horses have 
naturally no tendency to form them ; but in most cases, on examining the 
legs, just above the fetlock joints, of horses at work, a little oval bag may 
be felt on each side, between the back-sinew and the bone. If recent, it 
is soft and puffy ; but if the work is hard, and the windgall is of long 
standmg, it Avill be as tense as a drum. The synovial bag has no com- 
munication with the fetlock joint; but there is another sac in front of the 
joint, and beneath the tendons of the extensors, which is often enlarged, 
though not so much so as the seat of the true windgall, and which is 
generally, though not' always, continuous with the synovial capsule of the 
joint. — The treattnent consists in pressure by means of bandages, and the 
application of cold lotions, if the legs are hot and inflamed. Blistering and 
rest will remove them entirely ; but no sooner is the horse put to work 
again, than they return as badly as ever. There is no radical cure but 
subcutaneous puncture and scarification, and this wdl produce too much 
adhesion to be advantageously applied. 

The form of thoroughpin in which the bursa mucosa between the 
tendo Acliillis and the tendo perforatus is inflamed and filled with synovia, 
has been alluded to at page 468, and its treatment is there described. 

Capped hock is always the result of a bruise of the superficial bursa, 
which is situated on the point of the hock, immediately beneath the skin. 
It indicates either that the possessor has kicked in the stable or in har- 
ness ; but it is more frequently caused in the former way than in the 
latter. The swelling is sometimes slight, being then just sufficient to 
show the point slightly enlarged, and to give a soft, puffy sensation to the 
fingers, where there ought to be nothing but bone felt beneath the skin. 
The bursa always rolls freely on the bone, and when large, it can be 
laid hold of and shaken like a bladder of water. — The treatment should be 
directed to abate any slight inflammation that may exist, if the case is 
established ; but in recent ones, it is doubly necessary to apply cold 
lotions, which, however, there is some difficulty in doing, owing to the 
prominent nature of the part. A piece of stout calico or fine canvas may, 
however, be shaped into a cap, carefully fitting the point of the hock ; and 
this being tied by several pieces of tape in front of the leg, will allow not 
only of the application of cold lotions, but of pressure also. By this plan^ 
continued for some weeks, considerable enlargements have been removed, 
but they are very apt to return on the slightest bruise. Setons through 
the bursa, and injections into its cavity of stimulating applications, havd 
often been tried; but they generally do more harm than good, and nothing 
can be relied on but the conjoint use of pressure and cold applications. 
The best lotion is the following : — 

Take of Tincture of Aruica 3 ozs. 

Muriate of Ammonia 2 ,, 

Methylated Spirit of Wine 4 „ 

Water 3 pints. Mix. 

Capped elbow is precisely similar in its nature to capjjed hock, and 
must be treated in the same way. It is also known by the name oi 
capulet. 



STRAINS. 471 



OF STEAIIs^S. 

The fibres op muscles, ligaments, and tendons, and the fascia 
covering them, are all liable to be overstretched, and more or less 
mechanically injured. This is called a strain, the symptoms of wliich are 
similar to the inflammation of the part occurring ideopathically. They 
are heat, swelling, and pain on pressure or movement, shown by flinching 
in the one case, and lameness in the other. In some cases there is con- 
siderable efiusion of blood or serum, the former occurring chiefly in the 
muscles, and the latter among the torn fibres of the tendons or liga- 
ments. — The symptoms and treatment will depend i;pon the part injured, 
which will be found described under the following heads ; but in most 
cases an embrocation composed of equal parts of laudanum, olive oil, spirit 
of turpentine, and hartshorn will be beneficial if applied after the first 
active inflammation has subsided. 

STEAIJSr OF THE BACK AND LOIKS. 

When a young horse has been hunted or ridden with hounds over 
any kind of fence, he is very apt to over-exert himself in his awkward 
attempts to clear the obstacle, and next day he wiU often show a stifl'ness 
of the loms and back, which is seated in the large muscles connecting the 
jDclvis with the thorax. He is said to have " ricked his back," in the 
language of the stable, and if the mischief is confined to the muscles 
alone, he may generally be permanently cured, though he will be more 
liable to a return than an anuual which has never suffered from any acci- 
dent of the kind. If, however, the spinal cord is injured, either from 
fracture of the vertebra, or from efl'usion of blood or serum pressing upon 
it, the case is different, and a perfect cure is seldom obtained. It is, how- 
ever, very difiicult to form a correct diagnosis between the one case and 
the other, and the treatment may generally be conducted with the hope 
that the more important organ is uninjured. When there is complete 
palsy of the hind extremities, so that the horse can neither feel nor use 
them in the shghtest degree, the case is hopeless. (See Diseases of the 
Xervous System.) For the management of the strain of the loins, a full 
bleeding should be adopted, as it generally happens that the horse is 
plethoric and full of corn. Then apply a double fold of thick flannel or 
serge, dipped in warm Avater, to the whole surface of the loins, cover this 
over with a layer of indiarubber sheeting, and let it remain on, taking 
care to renew the water if it has become dry. It generally produces a 
copious sweatmg from the part, followed by a slight irritation of the skin, 
both of which afford relief. In three or four days the flannel may be 
removed, and the embrocation alluded to above rubbed in two or three 
times a day, which will generally relieve the muscles so much that at 
the end of a week or ten days the horse is able to move quietly about 
in a loose box, and the cure may be left to time, aided by a charge on the 
back. 

STEAIN OF THE SHOULDEE. 

Shoulder strain was formerly very often chosen as the seat of 
lameness in the fore extremity, solely because the case is so obscure thao 
it is beyond the knoAvledge of the unskilful examiner. ^Nevertheless, 
it is by no means so uncommon as is supposed by some writers, and 



472 THE HORSE. 

perhaps it may be asserted tliat it is now more frequently passed 
over when it really exists, than the reverse. It generally is seated in 
the serratus magnus, or pectoralis transversus muscles, but it may also 
occur in the triceps, or, indeed, in almost any of the muscles around the 
shoulder joint. The symptoms are very peculiar, and cannot well be 
mistaken by a careful observer who has once seen a case of shoulder 
lameness, in all other kinds (except the knee), the limb is freely moved 
whUe in the air, and no pain is expressed until the foot is about to touch 
the ground ; but here the lameness is greatest while the loiee is being 
protruded, and the limb is swung forward sideways, in a circular 
manner, which gives an expression of great imbecility. It also occa- 
sions great pain when the foot is lifted and drawn forward by the hand, 
just as in rheumatism of the part (already described at page 467). When 
the serratus magnus has been strained by a fall from a drop leap, or the 
pectoralis transversus by a slip, causing the legs to be widely separated, 
there is often great obscurity in the case ; but the history of the acci- 
dent will generally assist in forming a correct diagnosis. The treat- 
ment in the early stage will consist in bleeding from the plate vein, to the 
extent of five or six quarts of blood, followed by fomentations with hot 
water, if there is much heat and swelling, and giving a dose of physic as 
soon as the bowels will bear it. When the heat has disappeared, or at 
once, if there is none, apply the embrocation described at page 471 ; and 
if this does not produce relief, add to it one cparter of its bulk of tincture 
of cantharides. 

STEAINS OF THE KNEE. 

The knee, unlike its analogue in the human subject (the wrist), is 
seldom strained in the horse, in consequence of the strong ligaments wlaich 
bind the bones of the carpus together. Still it sometimes happens that 
the internal lateral ligaments are overstretched, or, in calf-kneed horses, 
the posterior common ligaments, or that connecting the scaphoid with the 
pisiform bone, or probably all these Avill suffer from over extension. The 
accident may be recognised by the heat and swelling of the part affected, 
as well as by the pain given on using the joint. The anterior ligaments 
are seldom strained, but are liable to injiuy from blows received in various 
ways. The treatment should be conducted on the same principles as those 
of strains in the shoulder. Cold applications will seldom do anything 
but harm in the early stage ; but after hot fomentations have relieved the 
active mischief, by encouraging the effusion of serum into the surrounding 
cellular membrane, the former may be used Avith advantage. When the 
heat and other signs of active inflammation have disappeared, the bin- 
iodide of mercury ointment may be rubbed in, avoiding the back of the 
joint. (See page 456.) 

STEAIE" OF THE FETLOCK. 

This accident shows itself at once, in consequence of the superficial 
nature of the joint, by swelling, heat, soreness to the touch, and lameness. 
It may be very slight or very severe, but in the latter case it is generally 
complicated by strain of the back sinews, or suspensory ligament. The 
treatment will be precisely on the same plan as for strain of the knee. 
When the anterior ligaments of the fetlock joint are strained and inflamed, 
as so often happens with racehorses, the condition is known as "shiu 
sore," 



i 



STRAINS. 473 

STEAIl^ OF THE COFEIN JOINT. 

Dissection proves tliat this joint is sometimes the seat of strain ; but 
it is almost impossible to ascertain its existence with certainty diiring life. 
The diagnosis is, however, not of much consequence, as the treatment will 
be the same, whether the coffin joint, or the navicular joint is the seat 
of the mischief In any case, if severe, bleeding from the toe should be 
had recourse to, followed by cold applications around the coronet, by 
means of a strip of flannel or felt, tied loosely round the pastern, and kept 
constantly wet. When the heat has subsided, the coronet should be 
blistered. 

STEAIN OF THE SUSPENSOEY LIGAIVIENTS. 

The suspensory ligament not being elastic like the back sinews (which, 
though not in themselves extensible, are the prolongations of muscles 
which have that property), is very liable to strains, especially in the hunter, 
and to a less degree in the racehorse. On reference to pages 352-3, the 
inferior connexions of this part will be seen to be the two sesamoid bones, 
by a bifurcation of its substance, and as these bones support the pastern 
joints by the inferior sesamoideal ligaments, when the suspensory liga- 
ment is strained the whole apparatus is rendered useless, because the 
pain occasioned by the extension of the upper part prevents the horse from 
putting his weight upon the foot. The accident is readily made out, for 
there is local swelling and tenderness, and in the well-bred horse, which 
is alone likely to meet with a strain of this kind, the leg is rarely suffi- 
ciently gummy to prevent the finger from making out the condition of the 
ligaments and tendons. There is no giving way of the joints as in 
" break down," but on the contrary the leg is flexed, and if the case is a 
bad one, the toe only is allowed to touch the ground. In ordinary cases, 
however, there is merely slight swelling of the suspensory ligament in a 
limited spot usually near its bifurcation, or sometimes in one division 
only close above the sesamoid bone to which it is attached. The horse 
can stand readily on that leg, but on being trotted he limps a good deal. 
Sometimes, however, there is a swelling of the feet without lameness, but 
in this case the enlargement is generally due to an effusion of serum into 
the cellular covering of the ligament, and not to an actual strain of its 
fibres. — The treatment will depend greatly upon the extent of the mischief; 
if there is no great injury done, and the enlargement is chiefly from efi'usion 
of serum, rest and cold applications by means of bandages or otherwise 
Avill in the course of two or three months effect a cure. Generally, how- 
ever, the case will last six or eight months before the ligament recovers its 
tone, and in a valuable horse no attempt should be made to work him 
before that time. Where the swelling is small, as it generally is, bandages 
have no power over it, as the projection of the flexor tendons keeps the 
pressure off" the injured part. Here, dipping the leg in a bucket of water 
every hour will be of far more service than a bandage, and the sudden 
shock of the cold water will be doubly efficacious. After all heat has dis- 
appeared the biniodide of mercury may be used as a blister two or three 
times, and then the horse may either be turned out, or put into a loose 
box for three or four months, after which walking exercise will complete 
the cure. 

STEAIN" OF THE BACK SINEWS. 

In this accident the position of the leg is the same as in strain of the 
suspensory ligament, and there is no giving way of the joints. The flexor 



474 THE HORSE. 

tendons are enlarged, hot, and tender, and there is great lameness, the 
horse having the power to flex the joints below the knee, but resolutely 
objecting to extend them, by bearmg what little weight is unavoidable 
upon his toe. The case is often confounded with a " break down," but 
it may readily be distinguished by the fixct that in the latter the joints 
give way on putting the weight upon them, whilst in mere strains they 
do not, and the tendency is to the opposite extreme. Frequently after a 
bad strain of the flexor tendons, the fetlock is " over shot," or beyond the 
upright, in consequence of the continued flexion of the joint, to prevent 
pressure upon the injured fibres, and in the management this result should 
be carefully guarded against. The injury is generally confined to the 
sheath of the tendons, which in most cases gradually puts on an inflam- 
matory condition for some time before actual lameness is observed. In 
bad cases, however, the ligamentous fibres wliich are given off by the 
posterior carpal Kgament to the flexor tendons are ruptured, greatly increas- 
ing tlie amount of inflammation and subsequent loss of strength. In any 
case the tendon feels spongy, and slightly enlarged, and there is more or less 
soreness on pressure and on being trotted, but in the latter case exercise 
removes the tenderness, and very often temporarily causes an absorption 
of the effused fluid, which is again deposited during rest. This state of 
tilings goes on for a time, the groom doing all in his power to alleviate it 
by wet bandages, &c., but at last a severe race or gallop brings on an 
extra amount of inflammation, with or without actual strain of the fibres 
of the tendon, and then there can be no doubt about the propriety of rest 
and severe treatment. It often happens that both legs are slightly affected, 
but one being more tender than the other, the horse attempts to save it 
by changing legs, the consequence of which is that the comparative!}^ 
sound tendons are strained, and he returns to his stable with both legs 
in a bad state, but with one of them requiring immediate attention. 
— The treatment should be by local bleedmg (from the arm, thigh, or toe), 
followed at fijst by warm fomentations, and in a few days by cold lotions. 
A liigh-heeled shoe (called a patten) should be put on the foot, so as to 
allow the horse to rest part of the weight upon the heel without dis- 
tressing the tendon, and this will have a tendency to prevent him from 
over shooting at the fetlock joint, which he will otherwise be very apt to 
do, from constantly balancing his leg on the toe. After three or four days 
the hot fomentations will have done what is wanted, and a cold lotion 
may be applied by means of a loose linen bandage. The best is composed 
as follows : — 

Take of Muriate of Ammonia 2 oz. 

Vinegar \ pint. 

Methylated Spirit of Wine . . . . | pint. 

Water 2 quarts. Mix. 

With this the bandage should be kept constantly wet, the application 
being continued for a fortnight at least, during which time the patient 
must be kejit cool, by lowering his food, and giving hhn a dose of physic. 
At the end of three weeks or a month from the accident, the leg 
must be either blistered or fired, the choice depending ujDon the extent 
of injury, and the desire to avoid a blemish if such a feeling exists. 
The former is the more efficacious plan no doubt, but blistering will 
frequently suffice in mild cases. If, however, the tendons at the end of a 
month continue greatly enlarged, a cure can hardly be exj^ected without 
the use of the "irons." 



STRAINS. 475 



BEEAXmG DOWK 

Great confusion exists among trainers as to the exact nature of this 
accident, which is considered by the veterinary surgeon to consist in an 
actual rupture of the suspensory hgament either above or belo^v the sesa- 
moid bones, which, in fact, merely separate this apparatus of suspension 
into two portions, just as the patella intervenes between the rectus femoris 
and the tibia. Whichever part of the suspensory apparatus is gone 
(whether the superior or inferior sesamoidal ligament is immaterial), the 
fetlock and pastern joints lose their whole inelastic support; and the 
flexor tendons, together with their ligamentous fibres which they 
receive from the carpus, giving way, as they must do, to allow of the 
accident taking place, the toe is turned up, and the fetlock joint bears 
upon the ground. This is a complete " break down ;" but there are 
many cases in which the destruction of the ligamentous fibres is not 
oomplete, and the joint, though much lowered, does not actually touch 
the ground. These are still called breaks down, and must be regarded 
as such, and as quite distinct from strains of the flexor tendons. The 
accident generally occiirs in a tired horse, when the flexor muscles do 
not continue to support the ligaments, from which circumstance it so 
often happens in the last few strides of a race. The sf/mptoms are a 
partial or entire giving Avay of the fetlock joint downwards, so that 
the back of it either touches the ground or nearly so, when the weight 
is thrown upon it. Usually, however, after the horse is pulled up, he 
hops on three legs, and refuses altogether to put that which is broken 
down to the ground. In a very few minutes the leg "fills" at the 
seat of the accident, and becomes hot and very tender to the touch. 
There can, therefore, be no doubt as to the nature of the mischief, and 
the confusion to which allusion has been made is one of names rather 
than of facts. Treatment can only be directed to a partial recovery from 
this accident, for a horse broken down in the sense in which the term is 
here used can only be used for stud purposes or at slow farm work. A 
patten shoe should at once be put on after bleeding at the toe to a copious 
extent, and then fomentations followed by cold lotions should be applied, 
as directed m the last section. As there must necessarily be a deformity 
of the. leg, there can be no objection on that score to firing, and when 
the severe inflammation following the accident has subsided this operation 
should be thoroughly performed, so as to aff'ord relief not only by the 
coimter irritation which is set up, and which lasts only for a time, but by 
the rigid and unyielding case which it leaves behind for a series of years. 

STEAINS OF THE HIP JOINT, STIFLE, AND HOCK 

The hip joint, or round bone, is liable to be strained by the hind feet 
slipping and being stretched apart, or by blows against the side of the 
stall, Avhen cast, which are not sufficient to dislocate the femur, but strain 
its ligaments severely. The consequence is an inflammation of the joint, 
which is evidenced by a dropping of one hip in going, the weight being 
thrown more upon the sound side than upon the other. This is especially 
remarkable on first starting, the lameness soon going off" in work, but 
returning after rest. The case, however, is a rare one, and its description 
need not, therefore, occupy much of our space. When it does happen, it 
is very apt to lead to a Avasting of the deep muscles of the haunch, which 



476 THE HORSE. 

uotliiiig tut compulsory work "will restore to a healthy condition. The 
only treatment necessary in the early stage of strain of the hip joint is 
rest and cooling diet, &c. ; but, after six Aveeks or two months, a gradual 
return to work is indispensahle to effect a cure. 

Strains of the stifle, independently of blows, are rare ; but the latter 
often are inflicted upon this joint in hunting, leaving little evidence 
externally, so that it is almost always doubtful whether the injury is the 
result of a blow or strain. The symjitoms are a swelling and tenderness of 
the joint, which can be ascertained by a careful examination ; and on 
trotting the horse, there is manifested a difficulty or stiffness in drawing 
forward the hind leg under the belly. The treatment must be by bleeding 
and physicking in the early stage, together with hot fomentations to the 
part, continued .every hour until the heat subsides. After a few days, if 
the joint is still painful, a large blister should be applied, or, what is still 
better, a seton should be inserted in the skin adjacent. 

The hock itself is liable to strain, independently of the peculiar 
accident known as " curb." When it occurs, there is some heat of the 
part, with more or less lameness, and neither spavin, thorough pin, nor 
curb to account for them. The injury is seldom severe, and may bo 
reheved by fomentations for a day or two, followed by cold lotions, as 
prescribed at page 474, for strain of the back sinews. 

CUEB. 

By a reference to page 363, it ynll be seen that the lower part of the 
posterior surface of the os calcis is firmly united to the cuboid and 
external metatarsal bone by two strong ligamentous bands, called the 
calcaneo -cuboid and calcaneo-metatarsal ligaments. The centre of these 
ligaments is about seven or eight mches below the point of the hock, and 
when a soft but elastic swelling suddenly makes its appearance there, it 
may with certainty be asserted that a " curb " has been thrown out. The 
accident occurs somewhat suddenly ; but the swelling and inflammation 
do not always show themselves until after a night's rest, when the part is 
generally enlarged, hot, and tender. The precise extent of the strain is 
of little consequence ; for whatever its nature, the treatment should be 
sufficiently active to reduce the ligaments to their healthy condition. 
Some horses have naturally the head of the external small metatarsal 
bone unusually large, and the liock so formed that there is an angle 
between the large metatarsal bone and the tarsus, lea"\dng a prominence, 
which, hoAvever, is hard and bony, and not soft and elastic, as is the case 
vdth curb. Such hocks are generally incHned to thi'ow out curbs ; but 
there are many exceptions, and some of the most suspicious-looking joints 
have been knoA\'n to stand sound for years. Curbs are seldom throAvn out 
by very old horses, and usually occur between the commencement of 
brealdng-ui and the seventh or eighth year, though they are not unfrc- 
quently met Avith in the younger colt, being occasioned by his gambols 
over hilly ground. The treatment should at first be studiously confined 
to a reduction of the inflammation ; any attempt to procure absorption till 
this is effected being injurious in the extreme. If there is much heat in 
the part, blood may be taken from the thigh A^ein, the corn should be 
remoA'^ed, and a dose of physic given as soon as practicable. The curb 
shordd then be kept AA^et (by means of a bandage lightly applied) with the 
lotion recommended at page 470 for capped hocks, and this should be con- 
tinued until the inflammation is entirely gone. During this treatment, in 



DISLOCATION. 477 

ibad cases, a patten shoe sliould be kept on, so as to keep the hock as 
straiglit as possible, and thus take the strain off the hgaments which are 
affected. After the part has become cool, it may be reduced in size, by 
causing absorption to be set up ; which is best effected by the application 
of mercury and iodine (both of Avhich possess that power), in such a shape 
as to cause a' blister of the skin. The biniodide of mercury has this double 
advantage, and there is no application known to surgery which will act 
equally well in effecting the absorption of a curb. It should be applied in 
the mode recommended at page 456, and again rubbed on at an interval of 
about a week, for three or four times in succession, when it will generally 
be found that the absorption of the unnatural swelling is effected ; but 
the ligaments remain as weak as before, and nothrng but exercise (not too 
severe, or it will inflame them agaiir) will strengthen them sufficiently to 
prevent a return. Friction with the hand, aided by a slightly stimulating 
oil (such as neat's-foot and turpentine mixed, or neat's-foot and oil of 
origanum, or, in fact, any stimulating essential oil), will tend to strengthen 
the ligaments, by exciting their vessels to throw out additional fibres ; 
and in course of time a curb may be considered to be sufficiently restored 
to render it tolerably safe to use the horse again in the same way which 
originally produced it. 

DISLOCATIOK 

By dislocation is meant the forcible removal of the end of a bone 
from the articulating surface which it naturally occupies. In the horse, 
from the strength of his ligaments, the accident is not common ; those 
that do occur being chiefly in the hip joint, and in that between the 
patella and the end of the femur. 

Dislocation op the hip joint is known by the rigidity of the hind 
leg, which cannot be moved in any direction, and is carried by the horse 
when he is compelled to attempt to alter his position. There is a flatness 
of the haunch below the hip, but the crest of the ilium is still there, and 
by this the accident may be diagnosed from fracture of that part. No 
treatment is of the slightest avail, as the part cannot be reduced, and the 
horse is useless except for stud purposes. The accident is not very 
common. 

Dislocation of the patella sometimes becomes habitual, occurring 
repeatedly in the same horse, apparently fi-om a spasmodic contraction of 
the external vastus muscle, which draws the patella outwards, and out of 
the trochlea formed for it in the lower head of the femur. When the 
cramp goes off, the patella drops into its place again as soon as the horse 
moves, and no treatment is required. Occasionally, however, the disloca- 
tion is more complete, and nothing but manual dexterity will replace the 
bone in its proper situation. Great pain and uneasiness are expressed, 
and the operator must encircle the haunch with his arms and lay hold of 
the patella with both hands, while an assistant drags forward the toe, and 
thus relaxes the muscles which are inserted in it. By forcibly driving 
the patella into its place it may be lifted over the ridge which it has 
passed, and a snap announces the reduction. 

WOUl^DS OF JOINTS. 

The knee is the joint most frequently suffering from wound, being 
liable to be cut by a fall upon it, if the ground is rough ; and if the acci- 
dent takes place when the horse is going at a rapid pace, the skin, liga- 



478 THE HORSE. 

ments, and tendons may be worn through by friction against the plain 
surface of a smooth turnpike road. Whether tlie joint itself is injured, or 
only the skin, the accident is called a " broken knee/' and for convenience 
sake it will be well to consider both linder the present head. 

AVhen a broken knee consists merely in an abrasion of the skin, the 
attention of the groom is solely directed to the restoration -of the hah", 
wliich will grow again as well as ever, if the bulbs or roots are not 
injured. These are situated in the internal layer of the true skin, and 
therefore, whenever there is a smooth red surface displayed, without any 
difference in the texture of its parts, a confident hope may be expressed, 
tliat there will be no blemish. If the skin is penetrated, either the 
glistening sui'face of the tendons or hgaments is apparent, or there is a 
soft layer of cellular membrane, generally containing a fatty cell or two in 
the middle of the wound of the skin. Even here, by proper treatment, 
the injury may be repaired so fully, that the space uncovered by hair 
cannot be recognised by the ordinary observer, and not by any one without 
bendmg the knee and looking very carefully at it. The best treatment is 
to foment the knee well with warm water, so as to remove every particle 
of grit or dii't ; go on with this every hour during the fijst day, and a-t 
night apply a bran poultice to the knee, which should be left on till the 
next morning. Then cleanse the wound, and apply a little spermaceti 
ointment, or lard without salt, and A\dth this keep the wound pliant imtil 
it heals, which if slight it will in a few days. If the skin is pierced there 
will generally be a growth above it of red flabby granulations, which should 
be carefully kept down to its own level (not beneath it), by the daily use 
of blue stone, or if necessary of nitrate of silver. As soon as the wound 
is perfectlj'^ healed, if the horse can be spared, the vf]io\ii fi-ont of the knee 
and skin should be dressed with James' blister, which -will bring ofi" the 
hair of the adjacent parts, and also encourage the growth of that injured 
by the fall. In about three weeks or a month from its application, the 
leg will pass muster, for there will be no diiference in the colour of the 
old and new hair as there would have been "without the blister, and the 
new Avill also have come on more quickly and perfectly than it otherwise 
would. 

When the joint itself is opened the case is much more serious, and 
there is a risk not only of a serious blemish, which can seldom be avoided, 
but of a permanent stiffness of the leg, the mischief sometimes being suffi- 
cient to lead to constitutional fever, and the local inflammation going on 
to the destruction of the joint by anchylosis. Tlie treatment should be 
directed to cleanse and then close the joint, the former object being car- 
ried out by a careful ablution with warm water, continued until there is 
no doubt of all the dht and gi'it having been removed. Then, if there is 
only a very small openhig in the capsular ligament, it may be closed by a 
careful and light touch of a pointed iron heated to a red heat. Generally, 
however, it is better to apply some dry carded cotton to the wound, and a 
bandage over this, leaving all on for four or five days, when it may be 
removed and reapplied. The horse should be bled largely and physicked, 
taking care to prevent all chance of his lying down by racking him up. 
He wiU seldom attempt to do this, on account of the pain occasioned in 
bending the knee, but some animals a\t.11 disregard this when tired, and 
will go down somehow. "Wlien the cotton is reapplied, if there are 
granulations above the level of the skin, they must be kept down as recom- 
mended in the last paragraph, and the subsequent treatment by blister 
may be exactly the same, By these means a very extensive wound of the- 



GENERAL REMARKS. 479 

knee may be often speedily cured, and the blemish will be comparatively 
trifling. 

The knee is sometimes punctured by a thorn in hunting, causing great 
pain and lameness. If it can be felt externally, it is well to cut down 
upon it and remove it ; but groping in the dark with the knife among 
important tendons in front of the knee is not on any account to be 
attempted. The knee should be well fomented, five or six times a day, 
until the swelling, if there is any, subsides, and, in process of time, the 
thorn will either show its base, or it will gradually free itseK from its 
attachments and lie beneath the skin, from which position it may be safely 
extracted with the knife. 



CHAPTEE XXVII. 

DISEASES OP THE THORACIC ORGANS AND THEIR APPENDAGES. • 

GENERAL REMARKS — CATARRH — INFLUENZA — BRONCHITIS — CHRONIC COUGH — LARYN- 
GITIS — ROARING, WHISTLING, ETC. PNEUMONIA AND CONGESTION — PLEURISY PLEU- 
RODYNIA — PHTHISIS —BROKEN WIND — THICK WIND — SPASM OF THE DIAPHRAGM 

DISEASES OF THE HEART — OF THE BLOOD VESSELS IN THE CHEST AND NOSE. 

GENEEAL EEMAEKS. 

The IMPORTANCE OP SOUNDNESS in the resinratory apparatus is so 
fully recognised, that in common p^^rlance it is put before the organs of 
locomotion, a popular expression being " sound, wind and limb." It is 
true that good wind is useless Avithout legs ; but the diseases of the latter 
are known to be more under control than those of the chest, and hence it 
is, perhaps, that the wmd is so carefully scrutinised by all purchasers of 
horses. There is, also, much greater difficulty in ascertaining the condi- 
tion of the lungs and their appendages, and the ordinary observer can 
only judge of them by an absolute trial ; wdiile the state of the legs may 
be seen and felt, and that of the feet can be tolerably well ascertained by 
a very short run upon hard ground. So, also, with the acute diseases of 
these parts ; while the legs and feet manifest the slightest inflammation 
going on in them by swelling and heat, the air-passages may be under- 
going slow but sure destruction, without giving out any sign that can be 
detected by any one but the practised veterinarian. In most of the 
diseases of the chest there is disturbance of the breathing, even durii:ig a 
state of rest ; but in some of them, as in roaring, for instance, no such evi- 
dence is afi'orded, and the disease can only be detected by an examination 
during, or immediately after, a severe gallop. 

CATAEEH, OE COLD. 

Catarrh may be considered under two points of view ; either as an 
inflammation of the mucous membrane of the nasal cavities, accompanied 
by slight general fever ; or as an ephemeral fever of tliree or four days' 
duration, comi^licated with this condition of the nose. The latter is 
perhaps, the more scientific definition, but for common purposes it is 
more convenient to consider it as mainly consisting in the most prominent 
symptom. TTiere is invariably some degree of feverishness, sometinics 



480 THE HORSE. 

very considerable, at others so slight as to be easily passed over. Usually 
the pulse is accelerated to about forty or fifty, the appetite is impaired, 
and there is often sore throat, with more or less cough. On examining 
the interior of the nostrils, they are more red than natural; at first dry 
and SAVollen, then bedewed with a watery discharge which soon becomes 
yellow, thick, and, in bad cases, purulent. The eyes are generally in- 
volved, their conjunctival coat being injected with blood, and often some 
slight Aveeping takes place, but there is always an expression of sleepi- 
ness or dulness, partly owing to the local condition of the organ, and 
partly to the general impairment of the health. The disease is caused 
in most instances by a chill, either in the stable or out, but sometimes, 
even in the mildest form, it appears to be epidemic. Tlie treatment wUl 
greatly depend upon the severity of the seizure ; usually, a bran-mash 
containing from six drachms to one ounce of powdered nitre in it, at night, 
for two or three consecutive periods, wUl suffice, together with the abstrac- 
tion of corn, and, if the boAvels are confined, a mild dose of physic should 
be given. In more severe cases, when tliere is cough and considerable 
feverishness, a ball composed of the following ingredients may be given 
every night : — 

Take of Nitrate of Potass 2 drachms. 

Tartai'ised Antimony 1 drachm. 

Powdered Digitalis i drachm. 

Camphor I4 drachm. 

Linseed meal and boiling water enough to make into a ball. 

If the throat is sore, an embrocation of equal parts of oO, turpentine, 
tincture of cantharides, and hartshorn, may be rubbed in night and 
morning. 

Should the disease extend to the bronchial tubes, or substance of the 
lungs, the treatment for bronchitis or pneumonia must be adopted. 

The stable should be kept cool, taking care to make up for the 
difi'erence in temperature by putting on an extra rug; water should be 
allowed ad libitum, and no corn should be given. 

Sometimes the discharge becomes chronic, and it is then knoAvn by the 
name ozena. 

INFLUENZA, OE DISTEMPEE. 

This may be consideeed to be an epidemic catarrh, but the symptoms 
are generally more severe and leave greater prostration of strength behind 
them. They also reqiiire more carefid treatment, which must be specially 
adapted to the attack, for remedies which will arrest the disease in one 
year "vvUI totally fail the next time that the epidemic prevails. The fever 
of late years has had a tendency to put on the typhoid type, and bleeding, 
which formerly was often beneficial, is now completely forbidden. The 
symptoms are at first similar to those already described as pertaining to 
common catarrh, but after a few days the accompanying fever is more 
severe than usual, and does not abate at the customary period. The appetite 
is altogether lost, and the appearance of the patient is characteristic of 
severe disease rather than of a trifling cold. It is, however, chiefly from 
the fact that a number of horses are seized with similar symptoms, either 
at the same time or rapidly following one another, that the disease is 
recognised. It usually prevails in the spring of the year, or in a wet and 
unhealthy autumn. Sometimes almost every case runs on to pneumonia, 
at others the bronchial mucous membrane alone is attacked ; but in all 
there is extreme debility in proportion to the apparent nature of the 



BRONCHITIS. 481 

disease. The ordinary appearances exliibited in recent epidemics have 
been as follows : — The first thing observed is a general slight shiver- 
ing, accompanied by a staring coat. The pulse is weak, and slightly 
accelerated, but not to any great extent ; the mouth feels hot ; the eyes 
and the nostrils are red ; the belly is tucked up ; there is no appetite ; 
cough, to a varying extent, begins to show itself; and there is generally 
a heaving of the flanks. The legs and feet are not cold as in pneu- 
monia, but beyond this they afford no positive signs. The cellular 
membrane around the eyes, and of the legs, generally swells about the 
second day, and often the head and limbs become quite shapeless from 
this cause. In the early stage the bowels are often relaxed, but after- 
wards they are as frequently confined. Sore throat is a ver}' common 
cojnplication, but it is not by any means 'an invariable attendant on 
influenza. It is, however, somewhat difficult to ascertain its existence, as 
in any case there is no appetite for food. The treatment should be 
conducted on the principle of husbanding the strength, and, ruiless 
urgent sjonptoms of inflammation show themselves, the less that is 
done the better. If the trachea or larynx is involved oidy slightly, 
counter irritation, by means of a liquid blister, must be tried, without 
resorting to strong internal medicines ; but if serious mischief ensues, 
the case must, to a certain extent, be treated as it woidd be when 
coming on without the complication of influenza, always taking care to 
avoid bleeding, and merely actmg on the bowels by gentle aperients, and 
on the skin and kidneys by the mildest diaphoretic and diuretic. The 
following is the ordinary plan of treatment adopted : — 

Take of Spirit of Nitric Ether 1 ounce. 

Laudanum 4 drachms. 

Nitrate of Potass 3 drachms. 

Water 1 pint. 

Mix, and give as a drench night and morning. 

By constantly off'ering to the horse thin gruel (taking care that it does 
not become sour), and no plain water, sufficient nourishment may be 
given, as his thirst will induce him to di'ink. 

Durmg the stage of couA^alescence the greatest care must be taken. At 
first, as soon as the cough has somewhat subsided, a mild stomachic ball 
will be desirable, such as 

Take of Extract of Gentian ....;.... 6 drachms. 

Powdered Ginger 2 drachms. Mix. 

Afterwards, if the case goes on favourably, and the appetite returns, the 
restoration may be left to nature, giving the horse by degrees his usual 
allowance of corn, and adding to his morning and evening feed one 
drachm of sulphate of iron in fine powder. It must not be attempted to 
give this until the appetite is pretty keen, or the horse will be disgusted, 
and Avill probably refuse his corn altogether. 

Should typhoid symptoms be clearly established, the case must be 
treated according to the directions hereafter laid down for typhus fever, 

EEONCHITIS. 

Bronchitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining tlio 
bronchi, and almost invariably extending to these parts through the 
trachea, from the larynx and nasal passages, which are primarily affected 
as in ordinary cold. The membrane in the early stage becomes filled with 

I I 



•4S2 THE HORSE. 

blood, and as a consequence the diameter of the tubes is diminished, 
attended by some difficulty and increased rapidity of breathing. After a 
time a frothy mucus is poured out from it, and this still further interferes 
with respiration, and necessitates a constant cough to get rid of it. These 
symptoms are always present, but they will vary greatly in intensity, and 
in the rapidity with which they progress, from which circumstances 
bronchitis is usually said to be acute or chronic, as the case may be. In 
the acute form there are also several variations, and veterinary Avriters are 
in the habit of again subdividing it into acute and sub-acute, but the two 
leading divisions are sufficient for all practical purposes. It begins with 
the usual premonitory appearances of a severe cold, accompanied by a 
staring coat, and entire loss of appetite. The breathing is somewhat 
quicker than natural, and the pulse is raised to sixty or seventy. The 
legs remain of the usual temperature, and there is a hard dry cough, the 
lining membrane of the nostrils being intensely red, and in severe cases 
dry and swollen. On auscultation there is a dry rattling sound, very 
different from the crepitation of pneumonia, and as soon as mucus is 
secreted, succeeded by gurgling, and soap bubble sounds easily dis- 
tinguished when once heard. If the attack goes on favourably, the cough 
becomes loose, and there is a free discharge of mucus, both from the 
lungs, as evidenced from the nature of the cough, and from the nostrils, as 
shown by the runnmg from them. On the other hand the prognosis is 
unfavourable when the breathing is very laborious, with the legs extended, 
and the cough constant and ineffectual in affording relief Should no 
relief be afforded, death takes j^lace a week or ten days after the onset of 
the disease, from suffocation. The treatment should depend greatly upon 
the urgency of the inflammation, which only an experienced eye can judge 
of. If slight, nitre and tartar emetic internally, and a blister (to one or 
both sides, according to the extent of bronchi involved), will suffice, but 
in very severe cases blood must be taken at tlie onset, or it will be impos- 
sible to control the inflammation. Bleeding should be avoided if it is 
judged prudent to do so, for of late years the type of diseases has changed 
so much in the horse, that he is found to bear loss of blood badly. ISTever- 
theless, it is not wise to lay down the rule that it is never desirable. 
The bowels must be acted on by the ordinary physic ball, resorting to 
raking and clysters, if the time cannot be afforded for the usual laxative 
preparation. For the special control of th^ morbid state of the membrane 
the following ball Avill be found advantageous : — 

Take of Digitalis J drachm. 

Calomel 4 drachm. 

Tartar Emetic 60 to 80 gi'ains. 

Nitre 2 drachms. 

Mix with treacle, and give twice a day. 

Should the disease continue after the blister is healed, a large seton may 
be put in one or both sides with advantage. 

Chronic bronchitis seldom exists except as a sequel to the acute 
form, and after adopting the balls recommended for that state, it may be 
treated by attention to the general health, a seton in the side, and the 
exhibition of an expectorant bail twice a day, composed of the following 
materials : — 

Take of Gum Ammoniacum \ ounce. 

Powdered Squill 1 drachm. 

Castile Soap 2 drachma. 

Mix and make into a ball. 



CHRONIC COUGH, LARYNGITIS, ETC. 483 



chro:n^ic cough. 

By this term is understood a cough that comes on without any fev(ir 
or evidences of the horse having taken cohi It differs in this respect 
from chronic bronchitis, which generally supervenes upon the acute form, 
and is always attended in the early stage by feverishness. It appears pro- 
bable that chronic cough is dependent upon an xuinatural stimulus to tlie 
mucous membrane, for it almost always makes its appearance when much 
corn is given without due preparation, and ceases on a return to green food. 
It is, therefore, very commonly termed a stomach cough. The si/nipfoms are 
all summed up in the presence of a dry cough, which is seldom manifested 
while in the stable, but comes on whenever the breathing is hastened by 
any pace beyond a walk. Two or three coughs are then given, and the 
horse perhaps is able to go on with his Avork, but after resting for a few 
)ninutes, and again starting, it comes on again, and annoys the rider or 
ciriver by its tantalizing promise of disappearance followed by disap- 
pointment. Very often this kind of cough is caused by the irritation 
of worms, but any kind of disorder of the digestive organs appears to 
have the power of producing it. The usual treatment for chronic bronchitis 
seems here to be quite powerless, and the only plan of proceeding likely 
to be attended with success, is to look for the cause of the irritation, and 
remove it. Sometimes this will be found in a hot stable, the horse having 
I^reviously been accustomed to a cool one. Here the alteration of the 
temperature by ten or fifteen degi'ees will in a few days effect a cure, and 
nothing else is required. Again, it may be that the corn has been over- 
done, in which case a gentle dose of physic, followed by a diminished 
allowance of corn, and a bran-mash twice a week, will be successful. If 
the stonach is much disordered, green food will be the best stimulus to a 
healthy condition, or in its absence a few warm cordial balls may be tried. 
The existence of worms should be ascertained in doubtful cases, and if 
they are present, the proper remedies must be given for their removal. 
Linseed oil and spirit of turpentine, which are both excellent worm reme- 
dies, are highly recommended in chronic cough, and whether or not their 
good effect is due to their antagonism to worms, they may be regarded as 
specially useful. 

A very successful combination is the foUovv^ing mixture :— 

Take of Spirit of Turpentine 2 ounces. 

Mucilage of Acacia 6 ouuces. 

Gum AmLuouiacum 5 ounce. 

Laudanum .• . . 4 ounces. 

Water 2 quarts. 

Mix, and give half-a-pint as a drench every uight : the bottle must be well shaken 
before pouring out the dose. 

LARYNGITIS, ROARING, AYHISTLING, &c. 

One of the most common diseases among well-bred horses of the 
present day is the existence of some mechanical impediment to the pas- 
sage of the air into the lungs, causing the animal to " make a noise." The 
exact nature of the sound has little or no practical bearing on the cause 
that produces it ; that is to say, it cannot be jjredicated that roaring is 
produced by laryngitis ; nor that whistling is the result of a palsy of 
some particular muscle, but undoubtedly it may safely be asserted that all 
lesions of the larynx, by which the shape and area of its opening (rima 

ii2 



4S4 THE HORSE. 

glotticlis) are altered and diniinislied, are awre to have a prejuuicia? 
eifect upon the wind, and either to produce roaring, whistling, wheezing, 
or truhipeting, but which would result it might be difficult to say, 
although the precise condition of the larynx were known, which it cannot 
be dming life. Until recently veterinary surgeons were puzzled by often 
finding on examination of a roarer's larynx alter death no visible organic 
change in the opening, and many were led to imagine that this part could 
not be the seat of the disease. On a careful dissection, however, it is 
found that a muscle or muscles whose office it is to dilate the larynx is 
wasted and flabby (crico-arytenoideus lateralis and thyro-arytenoideus). 
The other muscles are perhaps equally atropliied, but as their office is ta 
close the opening, their defects are not equally injurious, and at all events- 
are not shown by producing an unnatural noise. The cause of this 
wasting is to be looked for in pressure upon the nerve which supplies 
these muscles, and which passes through an opening in the posterior ala of 
the thyroid cartilage, so that whatever causes a displacement of that part 
will mechanically affect the nerve. For these several reasons it will be 
necessary to examine first of all into the several kinds of inflammation, 
&c., to wliich the larynx is subject, and then to investigate as far as we- 
may, the nature, mode of detection, and treatment of the several condi- 
tions known to horsemen by the names of roaring, whistling, (%c., which 
are only symptoms of one or other of the diseases to which allusion will 
presently be made. 

By acute laryngitis is meant a more than ordinary inflammation of 
the larynx, and not that slightly morbid condition in which the mucous 
membrane of that organ is always involved in "the passage of a cold into 
the chest." In the latter state the ear detects no unusual sound, and 
indeed there is plenty of room for the air to pass. But in true laryngitis,. 
on placing the ear near the throat, a harsh rasping sound is heard, which 
is sufficient at once to show the nature and urgency of the symptoms. 
The mucous membrane is swollen, and tinged with blood ; the rima 
glottidis is almost closed, and the air in passing through it produces the 
sound above described, whicli, however, is sometimes replaced by a 
stridulous or hissing one. In conjunction with this well-marked 
83anptom there is always a hoarse cough of a peculiar character, and 
some considerable fever, with frequent respiration, and a hard, wiry 
pulse of seventy to eighty. The treatment must be of the most active- 
kind, for not only is life threatened, but even if a fatal result does not 
take place, there is great danger of permanent organic mischief to the- 
delicate apparatus of the larynx, generally from the effusion of lymph 
into the submucous cellular membrane. A full bleeding should at once 
be practised, and repeated at the end of twelve hours if there is no I'elief 
afforded and the pulse still continues hard. The hair should be cut off 
the throat, and the tincture of cantharides brushed on in a pure state until 
a blister arises, when the part may be constantly well fomented, to encou- 
rage the discharge. Large doses of tartar emetic, calomel, and digitalis, 
must also be given, but their amount and frequency should be left to an 
experienced veterinarian, the preliminary bleeding and blistering being 
done in his absence to save time. It is a case in which medicine must be- 
pushed as far as can be done with safety, and this cannot well be left to 
any one who is not well acquainted with its effects, and with the powers 
of the animal economy. Gruel is the only food allowed daring the acute 
stage, and there is seldom time to have recourse to aperient physic until 
the urgent symptoms are abated, Avhen an ordinary dose may be given. 



CHRONIC LARYNGITIS. 4S5 

During convalescence the greatest care must be taken to prevent a relapse, 
by avoiding all excitement either by stimulating food or fast exercise. 

Chronic laryngitis may occur as the result of the acute form above 
described, or it may come on gradually, without any violent inflammation 
preceding it. In either case the siiviptoms are similar in their nature to 
those met with in the acute form, but less in degree. The noise made is 
not nearly so harsh, and can often hardly be heard on the most careful 
•examination. The peculiar harsh, grating cough is, however, always pre- 
sent, aud by it the nature of the case may generally be easily made out. 
The disease often accompanies strangles, although in nine cases out of ten 
it is overlooked by the careless attendant. Very commonly, however, it 
makes its ravages in so insidious a manner that no suspicion is felt of its 
presence, imtil the horse begins to make a noise, though he must in all 
probability have shown by the cough pecidiar to the complaint, that it has 
been working its way for some weeks at least. Such cases chiefly occur 
in the training stable, and are due, according to my belief, to the enormous 
•quantity of oats which it is now the fashion to give to colts from the 
earliest period of their lives, increased to seven and eight feeds a day 
■during the second year. Continued spirit-drinking has precisely the 
same efl'ect upon the human being, and the harsh stridulous cough of the 
confirmed drunkard marks the existence of ulceration of the larynx, in 
the only way which he will allow it to be displayed, for he is not, like 
the horse, made to exert his poAvers of running, whether his wind is 
good or bad. There is, of course, a considerable difference between the 
two diseases, but there is sufiicient analogy between them to explain why 
the stimulus of over-corning should aff'ect the larynx in preference to any 
other part. It woidd be difficult to show the connexion between the two 
in any other way, beyond the simple fact that roaring has become general 
in an exact proportion to the prevalence of the j^resent fashion of feeding. 
The advocates of the plan Avill say that though the two have come in 
together, yet it is merely a coincidence, and not a consequence, the one of 
the other ; but if it can be shown that in man a similar cause produces a 
similar efl'ect, the argument is strengthened to such a degree as to be 
almost unanswerable. But whatever may be the cause there can be no 
doubt that the treatment is most troublesome, and often baffles the skill of 
the most accomplished vetermarian. Blistermg is not so useful as 
counter irritation by a seton, which must be inserted in the loose skiu 
beneath the jaw, as close as possible to the larynx. This alone will do 
much towards the cure, but no pains must be spared to assist its action 
by a cooling regimen, consisting of bran mashes, and if in the spring or 
summer, green food, or in the winter, carrots. Corn must be entirely for- 
bidden, and the kidneys should be encouraged to act freely by two or 
■three drachms of nitre given in the mash twice a day. When the case is 
very intractable, the nitrate of silver may be applied to the part itself by 
means of a sponge fastened to a piece of flexible cane or whalebone. 
The moutlr should then be kept open with the ordinary balling iron, and 
the sponge rapidly passed to the situation of the top of the larynx, and 
held there for a second, and then -withdrawn. I have succeeded in curing 
tAvo obstinate cases of chronic laryngitis by this plan, but some little risk 
is incurred, as in one of them imminent symptoms of sufibcation presented 
themselves, but soon went off. I should iiot, therefore, recommend the 
application excepting in cases where all other means have failed, and in 
which there is reason to believe that the patient is likely to become a 
j)ermanent roarer oi whistler. The nitrate of silver has great power in 



4R8 THE HORSE. 

producing resolution of inflammation in mucous surfaces, and in tliis 
disease little or nothing can be eff'ected by general measures. The solu- 
tion should be from ten to fifteen grains in the ounce of distilled 
watsr. 

EoARiNG is the bugbear of the purchaser at the hammer, and not 
without good reason. The most experienced veterinarian or dealer will 
often fail to ascert^ain its existence, in spite of all the artifices he may 
call into play. Not the slightest sound is heard during a state of qiu.es- 
cence, or even when the horse is trotted or galloped for the short distance 
which " the ride " will afford. The blow on the side given with due 
artistic effect elicits no grunt, and yet the animal is a confirmed roarer, 
and not worth a shilling perhaps for the purpose to which he is intended 
to be devoted. On the other hand, many a sound horse is condemned as 
a roarer for giving out the obnoxious grunt ; and though there is no doubf 
that this sign may be relied on in a great many cases, yet it cannot be accepted 
as either negatively or positively a certain proof. The only real trial is the 
noiseless gallop on turf or plough, when the ear can detect the slightest 
sound, and can distinguish its exact nature, and the precise spot from 
which it proceeds. Many a horse will, when he is excited, make a harsh 
noise in his breathing, accompanied by a kind of " gluek," proceeding 
from a spasmodic Happing of the velum palati ; but on galloping him all 
this goes off, and he niaj probably exhibit excellent wind. Such cases 
I have many times known, and they would be condemned as vinsound by 
those who have had little experience, or are content with a careless and 
inefficient trial. Stallions are particular!}^ prone to make this kind of 
noise, and it is extremely difficult to ascertain their soundness in this 
respect by any means which can be safely resorted to. The causes of 
roaring are of three kinds : 1st, Inflammation, which has left a thickening 
or ulceration of the mucous membrane, or a fungous growth from it ; 
2d, Paralysis of the muscles ; and 3d, An alteration of the shape of the 
cartilages of the larynx, produced by tight reining. 

I71 roaring 2>Toduced by an tdcerated or thickened condition of the mucmis 
membrane, or by a fungous growth, the sound elicited is always the same 
in proportion to the rapidity of respiration. None of the ordinary expe- 
dients by which the breath is introduced in a modified stream (such as a 
full meal, or pressure on the nostrils or windpipe), will be of much avail, 
and the horse roars sturdily whenever his pace is sufficiently accelerated. 
If a horse so aff'ected can be made to grunt by the blow on the side, the 
sound will always indicate the disease, for it will be harsh and rough, and 
not the natural grunt of the animal. It is usually supposed that no 
treat7)ient can be of the slightest avail here ; but I believe that sometimes 
the continued application of nitrate of silver, as recommended at page 485, 
would be followed by a certain amount of amelioration, the extent of 
which it is impossible to guess at without a trial. In any case, when the 
animal is rendered almost worthless by disease, it is fair to try experiments 
which are neither expensive nor cruel ; and from the effect of the remedy 
in those cases in which it has been used, I am led to expect that it may 
prove beneficial in those of longer standing. Setons, blisters, and embro- 
cations are all useless, as has been proved in numberless cases ; and beyond 
the palliation which can be afforded by employing the horse only at such 
a pace as his state wdl allow, nothing else can be suggested. In some 
cases the roarer will be able to do ordinary harness work, which, however, 
in hot weather, Avill try him severely ; in others he may be so slightly 
affected as to be fit to hunt in a country where, from its nature, the pace 



ROARING. 487 

is not very severe ; but by confirmed roarers the slow work of the cart is 
all that can be performed without cruelty. 

Where paralysis of the musdts that open the rima glottidis is the seat of 
the roaring, no plan has yet been suggested which is of the sHghtest avail. 
In the first place, it is extremely difficult, and indeed almost impossible, 
to diagnose the affection, and I know of no means by Avhich paralysis can 
be ascertained to exist during life. Hence, although it is barely possible 
that by the use of strychnine the nerve might be stimulated into a resto- 
ration of its functions, yet as the case cannot be ascertained, it is scarcely 
wise to give this powerful drug in the hope that it may by chance hit the 
right nail on the head. This paralytic condition seems chiefly to attack 
Ccu;riage-horses, and j^robably arises from the pressure made by the over- 
curved larynx upon the laryngeal nerve as it passes through the opening 
in the thyroid cartilage. Many veteriuary writers have looked to the 
recurrent branch of the par vagum to explain the loss of power, but 
I believe it is rather to the laryngeal nerve that the mischief is due. It 
must be remembered that carriage-horses are not only reined up for houi*s 
while doing their daily work out of doors, but they are also often placed 
in the same position, or even a more constrained one, by the coachman in 
the stable, in order to improve their necks. One horse of his pair 
perhaps has naturally a head better set on than the otliei', and he wishes 
to make nature bend to his wishes by compelling the other to do that 
which the shape of his jaw forbids without a sacrifice. The mouthing 
tackle is put on in the stable with this view, and the poor horse is 
" kept on the bit " for three or four hours early in the morning, during 
which time liis larynx is pressed between his narrow jaws into a most 
unnatural shape. The consequence is either that the nerve is pressed 
upon, and the muscles to which it is supplied are paralysed, as in the 
condition which we are now considering, oi- the cartilages are permanently 
disfigured, which is the subject of the next paragraph. When the paralysis 
is estabKshed, I believe no means but the internal use of strychnine are at 
all likely to be beneficial. 

An alteration in the shape of the cartilages, so as to permanently change 
their form, is, I believe, the least common of all the causes of roaring. 
Pressure for a very long time will be required to effect this, and far moi'e 
than suffices to paralyse the nerve. Cases, however, are recorded, and the 
parts have been preserved, so that there can be no doubt of their occasional 
occurrence. No treatment can be of the slightest service. 

Although 7'oaring, in all its varieties, may be said to be generally 
iiicurable, yet it may be greatly palliated by general attention to the state 
of the lungs and stomach, by proper food, and by the use, while the horse 
is at work, of a special contrivance, of a most ingenious nature, published 
by Mr. Eeeve, of Camberwell, in the Veterinarian for 1858, i)ut said to 
have been in use for many years among the London omnibus and cab 
men. At all events, Mr. Eeeve deserves the credit of having laid the 
matter before the profession, and of explaining the true principle upon 
which it acts. He says, in his paper on the subject : " I thought it pos- 
sible to so modify the atmospheric supply to the lungs, that, during 
exercise, the volume of air, when it arrived at the glottis, should not 
exceed that which passed through its opening when the horse was tran- 
quil, and which (from the fact of the sound being absent) does not at that 
time produce roaring. A strap was accordingl}'^ made to pass aromid the 
nose of the horse, jtist over the region of the false nostrils, and buckle 
beneath the lower jaw. To the inner surface of this strap, and imme- 



488 THE HORSE. 

diately over the false nostril on each side, was fixed a body resemhling in 
shape the half of a hen's egg, cut longitudinally. When applied, these 
bodies pressed upon the triangular spaces formed by the apex of the nasal 
bones and upper jaAV, thus closing the false nostrils, and partly diminish- 
ing the channel of the true ones. The result was highly gratifying ; for 
the patient, which previously could not travel without stopping every 
minute to take breath, now travelled, to all appearance, without incon- 
venience or noise. At first, the strap seemed slightly to annoy the horse; 
and whenever it became displaced, the roaring would again commence. 
A slight modification, however, overcame every difficulty : the strap, 
instead of being buckled around and under the jaw, was fastened on each 
side of the bit ; and, to prevent its descent, another was carried from its 
centre, and fastened to the front of the harness-bridle." JMr. Eeeve 
asserts that the efl'ect was all he could have wished, and that the horse on 
which he tried the plan, " which previously had been entirely useless, 
now performs his work in a heavy brougham, and gives great satisfaction. 
The roaring is stopped, and, with the usual speed, there appears no 
impediment to respiration." He concludes : " I have paid j)articular 
attention to this case, and am inclined to think, that when by the com- 
pression we have neutralized the action of the false nostrils, the object is 
effected without the necessity of further narrowing the nasal passage." 

Few people would care to drive a roarer, if they could help it, even 
with the aid of the nasal compress ; but if necessity compels such a pro- 
ceeding, it is well to know ho\v the poor animal may be used Avith least 
annoyance to himself and his master. 

HiGHBLOWiNG is a perfectly healthy and natural habit, and cannot be 
confounded with roaring by any experienced horseman. It is solely con- 
fined to the nostrils ; and the noise is not produced in the slightest 
degree during inspiration, but solely during the expulsion of the air, 
which is more forcible and rapid than usual, and accompanied by a 
vibratory movement of the nostrils, which is the seat of the noise. Eoar- 
ing, on the contrary, continues during inspiration as well as expiration ; 
and by this simple test the two may readily be distinguished. Most high- 
blowers have particularly good wind, of which the celebrated Eclipse is au 
example ; for there is no doubt tliat he was addicted to the habit. 

Whistling (and piping, which is very similar to it) are produced by 
the same causes as roaring, in an exaggerated condition. Thus, a roarer 
often becomes a whistler as the rima glottidis is more and more closed by 
disease ; on the other hand, the whistler is never converted into a roarer. 
The noise made is seldom a decidedly slu'ill whistle, but it has more 
lesemblance to that sound than to roaring, and tlie name may well be 
retained as descriptive of it. Whistlers are always in such a state of con- 
firmed disease, that treatment is out -of the question — indeed, they can 
only be put to the very slowest kind of work. 

Wheezing is indicative of a contracted condition of the bronchial 
tubes, which is sometimes of a spasmodic nature, and at others is only 
brought on during occasional attacks after exposure to cold. Tlie treatment 
should be that recommended for chronic bronchitis, which is the nature of 
the disease producing these symptoms. 

Trumpeting is not very well defined by veterinary writers, and I 
confess that I have never heard any horse make a noise which could ba 
compared to the trumpet, or to the note of the elephant so called. 

The question relating to the hereditary nature of roaring is one 
which demands the most careful examination before a reliable answer can 



A 



PNEUMONIA. 489 

be given to it. It would be necessary to select at random a number of 
roaring sires and dams, and compare tlieir stock with that of an equal pro- 
portiou of sound animals, which would be a Herculean task, bej'ond the 
power of any private individual. I^otliing short of this could possibly 
settle the dispute ; but, as far as opinion goes, it may be assumed that 
there are strong authorities against the hereditary nature of the diseases 
which produce roaring. That it is often the result of ordinary inflam- 
mation, which in itself can scarcely be considered hcreditarj^, is plain 
enough ; and that it is also produced by mismanagement in tight-reining 
is also admitted, which latter kind can scarcely be supposed to be handed 
down from sire to son ; but that it is safer, when practicable, to avoid 
parents with any disease whatever, is patent to all. 

p:n'eumonia and coi^gestion of the lungs. 

The theoretical definition of pneumonia is that it consists of inflam- 
mation of the parenchyma of the lungs, independently both of the mucous 
lining to the air passages, and of the serous covering of the whole mass. 
On tiu'ning to page 423, it will be seen that the mucous membrane ceases 
abruptly at the terminations of the bronchial subdivisions, and conse- 
quently that the air cells are not Imed with a continuation from it. Hence 
there is an extensive cellulo-iibrous area, which may be the subject of 
inflammation, without implicating the mucous surface. Until within the 
last fifteen or twenty years, it was commonly supposed that the air cells 
were all lined by mucous membrane, and that the parenchyma was con- 
fined to an almost infinitesimally thin structure, filling up its interstices ; 
but the microscope has revealed the true structure of the lungs, and has 
shown that there is a well-founded distinction between bronchitis and 
pneumonia, upon the ground of anatomy, as well as observation. Still, it 
camiot be denied that the one seldom exists to any great extent, or for 
any long period, without involving the adjacent tissue ; and broncho- 
pneumonia as well as pleuro-pneumonia are as common as the pure 
disease. 

Pneumonia, or peripneumony, must be examined, Avith a view, first, to 
its intensity, whether acute or sub-acute ; and secondly, as to its efl'ects, 
which may be of little consequence, or they may be so serious as to com- 
pletely destroy the subsequent usefidness of the patient. It is not, there- 
fore, alone necessary to provide against death by the treatment adopted, 
but due care must also be taken that the tissue of the lungs is not dis- 
organised by a deposition of lymph, or of matter, so as to lead, in the one 
case, to a consolidation of the air cells, and, in the other, to the formation 
of a large abscess, and consequent destruction of substance. The former 
is a very common sequel of pneumonia; and probably there are few attacks 
of it without being followed by a greater or less degree of hepatization, by 
which term the deposit of lymph is known from its causing the lungs to 
assume the texture of liver (y-n-ap). In very severe cases, gangrene of the 
lungs is induced ; but as death almost always speedily follows this con- 
dition, it is not necessary to consider it, excepting as bearing upon the 
fatal result. 

The cause of pneumonia may be over-exertion, as in the hunting-field, 
especially in an unprepared horse ; or it may come on as a primary disease 
after exposure to cold ; or it may follow upon bronchitis when neglected 
and allowed to run on without check. In the two first cases it appears to 
be produced by the great congestion of blood which takes place in tho 



490 THE HORSE. 

tine network of vessels of whicli the lungs are in great part composed. 
The blood in the one case is collected by the increased necessity for its 
aeration with a failing circulation, as in over-exhaustion, or in the other 
it is forced inwards upon the vital organs by the chill which the skin has 
received. The capillaries are then roused to act beyond their strength, 
and an inflammatory condition is established as a reparatory effort of 
nature, which may possibly stop short as soon as the object is accom- 
plished, but more frequently goes on beyond this, and an attack of 
pneumonia sets in with roore or less intensity according to circumstances. 
For these reasons, when the lungs are evidently congested no pains should 
be spared to relieve them by causing the skin to act, before the aid of 
nature is invoked, since it can never be certain that she will stop short 
at the proper point. 

Congestion of the lungs is too often neglected and allowed to go on 
to inflammation. Veterinary surgeons, indeed, are seldom called in before 
this stage has run its course and inflammation is established. It is true 
that every hunting man endeavours to ascertain all the particulars relating 
to it, because he is constantly in fear of having to treat it, and he would 
gladly benefit by the advice and experience of those more competent to 
treat it than liimself. But the great mass of horsemasters are wholly 
ignorant of its action, and I shall therefore endeavour to lay down 
instructions whicli may be beneficial to those who are so unlucky as to 
have a horse with congested lungs, either caused by over-exertion or by a 
chill, or by a combination of the two, as most frequently happens. 

When a fat " dealer's horse," that is, one made up for sale and not for 
use, is ridden in a sharp burst across country'', his lungs are most unfor- 
tunately tried, for he is not only loaded with blood containing an excess 
of stimulating materials (or in a state of plethora as it is called), but his 
heart and- blood vessels are not prepared by previous exercise to carry on 
the circulation when unusual demands upon them are made. The con- 
sequence is that, as soon as he has gone half a dozen miles, he not only 
tires, but, if pressed, his gallant spirit carries him on until the blood 
collects and stagnates in his lungs, from a defect in the circulating 
apparatus, and he becomes absolutely choked from a want of that decar- 
bonisation which is necessary to his very existence. Air is taken freely 
into his lungs, but the circulation almost ceases in them, and in spite of 
his hurried breathing, as shown by his panting sides, he is almost as com- 
pletely suffocated as if a cord was tied round his neck. On examinmg 
his eyes and nostrils they are seen to be turgid and 2nirple, the vessels 
being filled with carbonised blood, while the heart beats rapidly but 
feebly, and the countenance is expressive of anxiety and distress. In 
this state many a horseman finds his steed every winter, and a pretty 
dilemma he is in. The question of treatment is a serious one even to the 
most experienced in such matters, but one thing is quite clear, that the 
more urgent the case the more danger there is in having recourse to the 
lancet. Eleeding to the extent of a few pounds will sometimes relieve 
a trifling case of exhaustion, but in a really severe one it will take away 
the only chance which remains. The best plan. is to give the animal 
plenty of air, turn liis head to the wind, and if any land of fermented 
liquor can be obtained, give him a little at once. Neat spirits are apt to 
cause increased distress from spasm of the larynx, but it is even better to 
risk this than to let the exhaustion continue. If, therefore, the liorse is 
incapable of walking to the nearest farm-house or inn, the better plan is 
to leave him with a light covermg on him of some kind and at onco 



PNEUMONIA. 4Dl 

proceed to procure a quart of ale or wine, or spu-its and -water, whichever 
can be obtained the most easily. One or other of these, slightly warmed 
iuid spiced if possible, should be poured down his throat, which can 
readily be done, as he has no power to resist, and then in a few minutes 
lie may generally be induced to move quietly on towards the nearest 
stable. Here he must remain all night if the attack is a bad one, or if 
he recovers soon he may be walked quietly home-. When he reaches his 
stable he may be treated according to the directions given at page 246, 
and in the evening or the next morning early, if the pulse rises and is 
hard and jerking, he may be bled with advantage, but rarely should this 
be done for some hours after the first attack. Congestion is essentially 
ju'oduced by debility, and although an abstraction of blood relieves the 
vessels of a part of theh' load, it increases their weakness iu a still greater 
degree, and they are less able to do their work, diminished though it may 
be, than they were before. Hundreds of over-worked horses have been 
killed by the abuse of the lancet in the hunting-field, but the principle 
on which their treatment should be conducted is better understood now 
than formerly. 

When congestion shows itself as the result of a chill, the following 
symptoms are displayed :— First and foremost there is rapid and laborious 
breathing, the horse standing with his legs wide apart, his head thrust 
straight forward, and his flanks heaving. The skin is generally dry, but 
if there is any sweat it is a cold one. The legs are icy cold, and also the 
cars. The whites of the eyes and lining of the nostrils are of a purplish 
hue, but not very deep in colour. The pulse is slightly accelerated (from 
forty to fifty), but not hard and incompressible ; and lastly, the attack is 
of recent duration. Tiiese signs, however, are not to be fully relied on 
as marking congestion rather than inflammation, without having recourse 
to an examination of the lungs by means of the ear. Placing it against 
the side of the chest, in inflammation there would be certain marked 
sounds, presently to be described, whilst in the state we are now con- 
sidering they are wholly absent, and all that is heard is the usual respi- 
ratory murmur slightly increased in intensity. Ifc is of the utmost 
importance to make out exactly the nature of the case, for the treatment 
should be very different in congestion and inflammation. If in the former 
condition the blood can only be drawn into the skin, relief is at once 
afforded and all danger is at an end ; but in the latter, though some 
slight advantage would be gained, the progress of the disease would not 
be materially checked. To produce this determination of blood to the 
skin without loss of time, is sometimes very difficult ; but by the appli- 
cation of hot water and blankets it may generally be accomplished. Two 
men, supplied with a tub of very hot water and plenty of clothing, should 
be rapid in their movements, and proceed as follows : — Have an assistant 
ready to strip the patient when ordered, then, dipping a blanket in the 
Avater, it is taken out and partidly wrung, leaving as much water in its 
meshes as it can hold without dropping ; as soon as it is cool enough for 
the human hand to bear its pressure it shordd be gently,' but quickly, laid 
upon the horse's back, and the rug, which has just come off", while still 
warm, placed over it, with two or three more over all, the number 
depending upon the temperature of the air. Another smaller rug may 
in the same way be wetted and applied to the neck, covering it with two 
or three hoods, but takijig care to avoid pressure upon the windpipe. 
The legs also should be wrapped in flannel bandages, made as hot as 
possible before the fire, but dry. In the course of half an hour, of the 



492 • THE HORSE. 

skin of the parts uncovered does not become ■warm, and show evidences 
of sweating coming on, another rug must be dijjped in the same way, and 
substituted quickly for the first. Usually, hov/ever, the desired effect is 
produced withiu twenty minutes, and then great care and some httle tact 
are required to manage the operation. If the sweating is allowed to go 
on beyond a certain point exhaustion is produced, attended by almost as 
much danger as inflammation ; while on the other hand, in altenipting to 
moderate the action of the skin, risk is incurred of a chill, and thus 
upsetting all the benefit which might otherwise have been derived. But 
by throwing open the doors to the external air, which may freely be 
admitted as soon as the skin acts, and by reducing the number of 
additional rugs, the amount of sweat given oif may be kept within due 
bounds, and in the course of two or three hours the previously wetted 
rug or blanket may be removed, and a day, warm one substituted for it, 
but the assistants must be quick and handy in effecting the change. 
Many a case of infiammation of the lungs, kidneys, or bow^els might be 
stopped in limine by the adoption of this plan ; but the misfortune is 
that it requires all the skill and tact of the veterinary surgeon, first of all 
to diagnose the case, and afterwards to manage its treatment. Still, if a 
master wUl undertake the superintendence of the operation himself, and 
is accustomed to disease, there is little risk of failure. 

The symptoms op acute pneumonia are a quick and distressed respira- 
tion, averaging about sixt}'' insiDirations in the minute. Pulse quick (from 
seventy to eighty-five ; hard, often small, but always compressible. Nostrils 
distended, and the lining membrane red (except in the last stage, when 
suffocation is imminent). Cough short, and evidently giving pain, which 
occasions it to be checked as much as possible. Legs and ears generally 
cold, often icy. Feet wide apart ; evidently wdth an instinctive desire to 
dilate the chest as much as possible. On putting the ear to the chest, if 
the attack is very recent, there will be merely a greatly increased respira- 
tory murmur ; but when fully developed there may be heard a crej)itant 
rattling, which is compared to the crackling of a dried bladder ; but I 
confess that I could never make out the similarity betw^een the two 
sounds. In the later stages, this is succeeded by an absence of all sound, . 
owing to the consolidation of the lungs, or by mucous rattles depending 
upon the secretion of mucus. On tapping the exterior of the chest with 
the ends cf the fingers (percussion), the sound given out is dull in pro- 
portion to the extent of miscliief, the effect of pneumonia being to convert 
the spongy texture of the lungs into a solid substance like liver. The 
treatment will greatly depend upon the stage of the disease, the age and 
■constitution of the horse, and the nature of the prevailing epidemic, if 
there is one. In modern days bleeding is very badly borne, either by 
man or horse, nevertheless few cases of genuine pneumonia will be saved 
without it. Sufficient blood must be taken to make a decided impression 
on the circulation, without which the inflammation will not b3 mastered. 
The quantity necessary for this cannot be fixed, because the ett'ect will 
vary so materially, that the abstraction of three or four quarts of blood 
in one case will do more than double or treble that quantity in another, 
A large orifice must be made in the vein, and it must not be closed until 
the lining membrane of the nose or the wdiite of the eye is seen to have 
become considerably paler. It may possibly even then be necessary to 
repeat the operation six hours afterwards, or next day, according to the 
symptoms. The rule should be followed of taking enough but not a drop 
too much, for blood removed from the cu'culation takes a long time to 



PLEURISY. 49$ 

replace. "With, regard to medicine, tartar emetic is the only drug wliicb 
seems to have much influence over pneumonia, and it must be given 
every six hours in drachm doses, -with from half a drachm to a drachm of 
powdered digitalis, or white hellebore, to keep down the pulse, and two 
or three drachms of nitre, to increase the action of the kidneys. Unless- 
the bowels are confined no aperient should be given, and if necessary only 
the mildest dose should be used. The diet should consist of bran mashes^ 
gruel, and a little hay, or green food if the season of the year allows. A 
cool airy stable and warm clothing are indispensable in this disease. 
When the first violence of the attack has subsided, a large blister on the 
side of the chest will afford great relief, and when it ceases to act, if the- 
disease is not entirely cured a second may be put on the other side. 

Sub-acute pneumonia differs in no respect from the aciite form^ 
excepting in degree, and the symptoms and treatment Avill vary only in 
proportion. 

The terminations of pneumonia may be death, or resolution (by 
which is to be understood a disappearance of the symptoms without 
leaving any mischief behind), or hepatization, or abscess. The last-named 
sequel may be very serious in extent, but if an opening is made by nature 
for the discharge of its contents into the bronchial tubes the horse may 
recover, and his wind may be sufficiently good for any purposes but the- 
racecourse or the hunting-field. Hepatization is always attended with 
thick wind, but in other respects the health may be good, and the horse- 
may be suited to ordinary work. In process of time some of the lymph 
is absorbed, and a considerable improvement takes place, but it never 
entirely disappears, and a horse which has once suffered from pneumonia 
attended by hepatization remains permanently unsound. 



PLEUEISY. 

This disease is characterised by a very peculiar respiration, the expira- 
tions being much longer than the inspirations, owing to the pain which is 
given by the action of the muscles necessary for the latter, while the 
former, if the chest is allowed quietly to fall, is almost painless. JSTever- 
theless, the breathing is quicker on the whole than natural, being from- 
forty to fifty per minute. The pirlse is quick, small, and incompressible. 
Nostrils and eyes of a natural colour, and the former are not dilated. The 
countenance is anxious, and the legs are rather drawn together than ex- 
tended, as in bronchitis and pneumonia, and they are not colder than 
usual. There is a short hurried cough, Avith great restlessness, and the 
sides are always painful on pressure ; but this symptom by itself is not to- 
be relied on, as it is present in pleurodynia, Avhich will be presently 
described. « 

The treatment should consist of copious bleeding, followed by a mild 
purgative, and the same ball as recommended for pneumonia, with the 
addition of half a drachm of calomeL Blisters are not desirable to be 
applied to the sides of the thorax, as there is so little space between the- 
two surfaces of the pleura and the skin that they are apt to do harm by 
immediately irritating the former, rather than to act beneficially by counter- 
irritation of the skin. A large rowel may, however, he placed in the 
breast with advantage. 

HvDROTnoRAX, Or water in the cavity of the chest, is one of the sequels 
of chronic pleurisy, the serum* tloj-OAvn out being the means by which a 



494 THE HORSE. 

scrons membrane relieves itself. It can be detected by the entire absence 
of respiratory murmur, and by the dulness on percussion. ISTo treatment 
is of any avail but tapping, Avhich may be readily and safely performed (if 
the diagnosis is correct) by passing a trocar between the eight and nintli 
ribs, near their cartilages. If, however, an error has been committed, the 
lung is wounded, and death will most probably ensue. 

PLEURODYNIA. 

Between this disease and the last there is some similarity in tlic 
symptoms ; but in their nature, and in the treatment required, they are 
widely separated. It is, therefore, necessary that they should not be con- 
founded, for in the one case blood-letting and other active measures may 
be unnecessarily adopted, and in the other a fatal result -will most pro- 
bably occur for want of them. In pleuritis there is a quick pulse, witJi 
general constitutional disturbance, which will serve to distinguish it from 
pleurodynia, besides which, it is rarely that we meet with the former 
"\nthout some other affection of the lungs co-existing. When, therefore, 
a horse is evidently suffering from acute pain in the walls of the thorax, 
unaccompanied by cough, hurried breathing, quick pulse, or fever, it may 
safely be diagnosed that the nature of the attack is a rheumatism of the 
intercostal muscles (pleurodynia), and not pleurisy. In treating it, bleed- 
ing and tartar emetic must be carefully avoided, and hot mustard and 
vinegar rubbed into the sides will be the most likely remedy to afford 
relief. 

PHTHISIS. 

When a horse has long been subject to a chronic cough, and, 
without losiug appetite, wastes away rapidly, it may be assumed that he 
is a victim to phthisis, and especially if he is narrow-chested and has 
long shown signs of short wind. On examining the chest by the ear, it 
will be found to give out sounds of various kinds, depending upon the 
exact state of the lungs; but in most cases there will be great dulness on 
percussion, owing to the deposit of tubercles, in which the disease consists. 
In a confirmed case no treatment Avill avail, and the poor animal had 
better be destroyed. When the attack is slight, the progress of the 
disease may be stayed by counteracting inflammation in the ordinary way, 
avoiding loss of blood when possible. Haemorrhage, from the breaking 
down of the substance of the lung, by which a large blood-vessel is 
opened, is a common result of phthisis, and will be alluded to under the 
head of the diseases of the vessels of the lungs, at the end of this chapter. 

eeokex«wi:n"d. 

A broken-winded horse can be detected at once by any horseman 
possessed of experience, from the peculiar and forcible double expiration. 
Inspiration is performed as usual, then comes a rapid but not violent act 
of expiration, followed by a forcible repetition of the same, in which all 
the muscles of respiration, auxiliary and ordinary, are called into play. 
This is, of course, most marked when the horse has been gallopped, but 
even when he is at rest the double expiration is manifest at almost any 
ordinary distance from the observer. The disease almost (if not quite) 
invariably consists in emphysema, or entrance of the air into unnatural 



THICK WIND. 495 

cells, which is retained there, as the urine is in the bladder, from the 
valvular nature of the openings, and cannot be entirely expelled, nor in 
the slightest degree, without calling into play all the muscles of the chest. 
The presence of unchanged air is a constant source of irritation to tlio 
lungs, and although sufficient may be expired easily enough to carry on 
their functions whUe the body is at rest, yet instinctively there is a desire 
1o get rid of the surplus, and hence the two acts of respiration. Im- 
mediately after this second act the muscles relax, and the flank falls in, 
and this it is which catches the eye in so remarkable a manner. On 
examination after death, the lungs are found to remain enlarged, and do 
not collapse as in the healthy condition. They are distended with air ; 
and this is especially the case when the emphysema is of the kind called 
interlobidar, in which the air has escaped into the cellular membrane. In 
the most common kind, however, the cells are broken clown, several being 
united together, while the enlargement pressing upon the tube which has 
opened into them diminislies its capacity, and prevents the ready escape 
of air. This is the vesicular emphysema of pathologists. The former is 
generally suddenly produced by a severe gallop after a full meal, while 
the latter is a slow growth and often occurs at grass, as a consequence of 
neglected chronic cough, the constant muscular efl'orts appearing gradually 
to dilate the cells. 

The treatment can only be palliative, as there is no recognised cure for 
the disease, though M. Hew, of Chaumont, has lately published a report 
of ten cases in which treatment by arsenic given with green food or 
straw, and in some cases bleeding, was perfectly successful. The arsenic 
was given to the extent of fifteen grains daily, and at the end of a fort- 
night the symptoms of broken wind were completely removed ; but as 
the horses were not subsequently watched it is imjiossible to say whether 
the cure was permanent. It is known, however, that one of them relapsed 
after three months, but speedily yielded to a repetition of the treatment. 
It may certainly be worth while to try the experiment of the effect of 
arsenic where a broken-winded horse is valuable in other respects. The 
medicine is not expensive, and the length of time necessary for the 
treatment is not very great. Broken-Avinded horses should be carefully 
dieted, and even then confined to slow work. The food should be in 
small compass, consisting chiefly of wheat-straw chaff, with a proper 
quantity of oats, and beans may be added if the animal is not very 
young. The water should never be given Avithin an hour of going out 
of the stable, but it is better to leave a constant supply, Avhen too much 
Avill never be taken. Carrots are peculiarly suited to this disease, and a 
diet of bran mixed Avith carrots, sliced, has sometimes been known to 
relieve a broken-Avinded horse most materially. 



THICK WIND. 

Thick wind is the horseman's term for any defective respiration, unac- 
companied by a noise, or by the signs of emphysema just alluded to. It 
usually folloAvs pneumonia, but it may arise from chronic bronchitis, occa- 
sioning a thickening of the mucous membrane lining the bronchial tubes, 
and thus lessening their diameter, or it may accompany phthisis Avhen the 
deposit of tubercles is extensive. No treatment Avill be of any service 
except such as will aid the play of the lungs mechanically, by avoiding 
overloading the stomach, as mentioned in the last section. 



496 THE HORSE. 

SPASM OF THE DIAPHEAGM. 

Some horses, when at all distressed by the severity of their gallops, 
communicate to the rider a most unpleasant sensation, as if some internal 
part was giving a sudden blow or flap. This is not only a sensation, but 
a reality, for the diaphragm being naturall}'^ weak, or overstrained at some 
pre\'ious period, acts spasmodically in drawing in the air. If the horse 
thus affected is ridden onwards afterwards, he will be placed in danger of 
suffocation and death, either from rupture of the diaplu'agm, or from its 
cessation to act, or from its permanently contracting and refusing to give 
way during expiration. There is no cure for the weakness which tends 
to produce the spasm, and all that can be clone is to avoid using the horse 
aftected with it at any very fast pace, and over a distance of ground. 
Urgent spnjitoms may be relieved by a cordial-drench, such as the 
following : — 

Take of Lauclanum 6 draclims. 

Ether Ih ounce. 

Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia 3 drachms. 

Tincture of Ginger 3 drachms. 

Ale 1 pint. Mix. 

Or ijf there is any difficulty in giving a drench, a ball may be made up 
and given — 

Take of Car1)onate of Ammonia 1 drachm. 

Camphor 4 drachm. 

Powdered Ginger 1 drachm. 

Linseed meal and boiling water sufficient to make into a ball. 

Either of the above may be repeated at the end of three hours, if relief 
is not afforded. Increased strength may be given to the diaphragm by 
regular slow work, and the daily mixture of a drachm of powdered 
sulphate of iron with the feed of corn. 

DISEASES OF THE HEART. 

The horse is subject to inflammation of the substance of the heart 
(carditis) of a rheumatic nature, and of the fibro-serous covering (pericar- 
ditis), but the symptoms are so obscure that no one but the professional 
veterinarian will be likely to make them out. Dropsy of the heart is a 
common disease in worn-out horses, and hypertrophy, as well as fatty 
degeneration, are often met with among well-conditioned animals. 

DISEASES OF THE ELOOD VESSELS OF THE CHEST 
. AND JS^OSE. 

The horse is vert subject to HiEMORRHAGE from the nose, coming 
on during violent exertion, and many a race has been lost from this cause. 
Fat over-fed horses are the most likely to suffer from hfemorrhage ; but most 
people are aware of the risk incurred in over-riding or driving them, and 
for this reason they are not so often subject to this accident (for such it 
is rather than a disease) as they otherAvise would be. It is unnecessary tOj 
describe its symi^toms, as the gush of blood renders it but too apparent, 
and the only point necessary to inquire into is, whether the limgs or tho^ 
nasal cavities are the seat of the rupture of the vessel. In the formerl 
case the blood comes from both nostrils, and is frothy; while in the latterj 
it generally proceeds from one only, and is perfectly fluid. The trealmeni 



DISEASES OF THE MOUTH. 497 

should consist in cooling tlie horse down by a dose of physic and a some- 
what lower diet ; but if the bleeduig is very persistent, and returns again 
and again, a saturated solution of alum in water may be syringed up the 
nostril daily, or, if this fails, an infusion of matico may be tried, which is 
far more likely to succeed. It is made by pouring half a pint of boiling 
water on a drachm of . matico-leaves, and letting it stand till cool, when it 
should be strained, and is fit for use. 

HAEMORRHAGE FROM TKE LDNGS is a far more serious affair, and its 
control requires active remedies if they are to be of any ser^^ce. It may 
urise from the existence of an abscess in the lung of a phthisical nature, 
which implicates some considerable vessel ; or it may be caused by the 
Imrsting of an aneurism, which is a dilatation of a large arterj^, and 
generally occurs near the heart. The treatment can seldom do more than 
prolong the life of the patient for a short time, and it is scarcely worth 
while to enter upon it. ±jleeding from the jugular vein will arrest the 
internal haemorrhage, and must often be resorted to in the first instance, 
and there are internal medicines which will assist it, such as digitalis 
and matico ; but, as before remarked, this only postpones the fatal 
termination. 



CHAPTEE XXVIII. 

DISEASES OF THE ABDOMINAL VISCERA AXD THEIR APPENDAGES. 

CENERAL EEMARKS — DISEASES OF TUE MOUTH AND THROAT — GASTRITIS — STOMACH 
STAGGERS — DYSPEPSIA — BOTS— INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS — COLIC — DIARUH(EA 

AND DYSENTERY— STRANGULATION AND RUPTURE — CALCULI IN THE BOWELS— WORMS 

DISEASE OF THE LIVER — OF THE KIDNEYS — OF THE BLADDER — OF THE ORGANS OP 
GENERATION. 

GENEEAL EEMAEKS. 

Though not often producing what- in horse-dealing is considered 
unsoundness, yet diseases of the abdominal viscera constantly lead to 
"death, and frequently to such a debilitated state of the body, that the 
sufferer is rendered useless. Eortunately for the purchaser, they almost 
always give external evidence of their presence, for there is not only 
emaciation, but also a staring coat and a flabby state of the muscles, which 
is quite the reverse of the why feel communicated to the hand in those 
instances where the horse is " poor " from over- work in proportion to his 
food. In the latter case, time and good living only are required to restore 
the natural plumpness ; but in the former, the wasting Avill either go ou 
uutd death puts an end to the poor diseased animal, or he will remain in 
a debilitated and wasted condition, utterly unfit for hard work. 

DISEASES OE THE MOUTH AND THEOAT. 

Several parts about the mouth are liable to inflammation, which 
would be of little consequence in itself, but that it interferes with the 
feeding, and this for the time starves the horse, and renders him unfit for 
his work, causing him to " quid " or return liis food into the manger 
without swallowing it. Such aro lampas, vives or enlarged glands, baibs 

K K 



498 THE HORSE. 

or paps, gigs, bladders, and flaps, — all which are names given to ttie 
enlargements of the salivary ducts, — and carious teeth, or inflarrunation 
of their fangs. Besides these, the horse is also subject to sore throat, and 
strangles, which are accompanied by constitutional disturbance, and not 
only occasion " quidding," if there is any slight appetite, but they are 
also generally accompanied by a loss of that function. 

Sore throat. — When the throat inflames, as is evidenced by fulness 
and hardness of this part, and there is difliculty of swallowing, 
the skin covering it should unmediately be severely sweated, or the 
larynx will be involved and irreparable injuiy done. The tiiicturo of 
cantharides diluted Avith an equal part of spirit of tiu'pentine and a little 
oil, may be rubbed in with a piece of sponge, until it produces irritation 
of the skin, which in a few hours will be followed by a discharge from 
the part. Six or eight drachms of nitre may also be dissolved in the 
water which the horse drinks, with some difficulty, but still, as he is 
thirsty, he will take it. Sometimes eating gives less pain than drinking, 
and then the nitre may be given with a bran mash instead of the water. 

Strangles. — Between the third and fifth year of the -colt's life he is 
generally seized with an acute swelling of the soft parts between the 
branches of the lower jaw, accompanied by more or less sore tliroat, 
cough and feverishness. These go on increasing for some days, and then 
an abscess shows itself, and finally bursts. The salivary glands are often 
involved, but the matter forms in the cellular membrane external to them. 
The treatment should be addressed to the control of constitutional symp- 
toms by the mildest measures, such as bran mashes with nitre in them, 
abstraction of corn, hay tea, &c. At the same time the swelHng should 
be poulticed for one night, or thoroughly fomented two or three times, 
and then blistered with the tincture of cantharides. As soon as the 
matter can plainly be felt, it may be let out with the lancet ; but it is 
very doubtfid whether it is not the best plan to permit the abscess to 
break. The bowels should be gently moved, by giving a pint, or some- 
what less, according to age, of castor oil ; and afterwards, two or three 
drachms of nitre, with half a drachm of tartar emetic, may be mixed 
with the mash twice a day, on which food alone the colt should be fed, 
in addition to gruel, and a little grass or clover if these are to be had, or 
if not, a few steamed carrots. The disease has a tendency to get well 
naturally, but if it is not kept within moderate bounds it is very apt to 
lay the foundation of roaring or whistling. Any chronic swelling which 
is left behind, may be removed by rubbing in a weak ointment of binio- 
dide of mercury (one scruple or half drachm to the ounce ; see page 456). 

Lampas is an active inflammation of the ridges, or " bars," in the roof 
of the mouth, generally occurring in the young horse while he is shedding 
bis teeth, or putting up the tushes. Sometimes, however, it comes on, 
independently of this cause, from over- feeding with corn after a run at grass. 
The mucous membrane of the roof of the mouth swells so much that it 
projects below the level of the nippers, and is so tender that all hard and 
dry food is refused. The treatment is extremely simple, consisting in the 
scarification of the part with a sharp knife or lancet, after which the 
swelling generally subsides, and is gone in a day or two ; but should it 
obstinately continue, as will sometimes happen, a stick of lunar caustic 
must be gently rubbed over the part every day until a cure is completed. 
This is far better than the red hot iron, which was formerly so constantly 
used, with good effect it is true, and not accompanied by any cruelty, 
as the mucous membrane is nearly insensible, but the caustic is more 



/ 



[ 



GASTRITIS. 499 

rapid and effectual in stimulating the vessels to a healthy action, and 
on that score should be preferred. If the lampas is owing to the cutting 
of a grinder, relief will be afforded by a crucial incision across the pro- 
truding gurn. 

Barbs, paps, &c. — The swelling at the mouth of the ducts may gene- 
rally be relieved by a dose of physic and green food, but should it continue, 
a piece of lunar caustic may be held for a moment against the opening of 
the duct every second day, and after two or three applications the thicken- 
ing will certainly disappear. 

Where vives, or chronically enlarged submaxillary glands, are met 
with, the application of the ointment of biniodide of mercury, according 
to the directions given at page 456, will abnost certainly cause their reduc- 
^iion to a natural state. 

GASTEITIS. 

Gastritis (acute inflammation of the stomach) is ■extremely rare in the 
horse as an idiopathic disease ; but it sometimes occurs from eating vege- 
table poisons as food, or from the wilful introduction of arsenic into this 
organ, or, lastly, from licking off corrosive external applications, Avhich 
have been used for mange. The symptoms from poisoning will a good 
deal depend upon the article which has been taken, but in almost all cases 
tn which vegetable poisons have been swallowed, there is a strange sort 
of drowsiness, so that the horse does not lie down and go to sleep, but 
props himself against a wall or tree with his head hanging almost to the 
ground. As the drowsiness increases he often falls down in his attempt 
to rest himself more completely, and when on the ground his breathing 
is loud and hard, and his sleep is so unnaturally sound that he can 
scarcely be roused from it. At length convulsions occur and death soon 
takes place. This is the ordinary course of poisoning with yew, which is 
sometimes picked up with the grass after the clippings have dried, for in 
its fresh state the taste is too bitter for the palate, and the horse rejects 
the mouthful of grass in which it is involved. May-weed and water 
parsley will also produce nearly similar symptoms. The treatment in each 
case should be by rousing the horse mechanically, and at the same time 
giving him six or eight drachms of aromatic spirit of ammonia, in a pint 
or two of good ale, Avith a little ginger in it. This may be repeated every 
two hours, and the horse should be perpetually walked about until the 
narcotic symptoms are completely gone oflj when a sound sleep will restore 
him to his natural state. 

Arsenic, when given in large doses, with an intention to destroy life, 
produces intense pain and thirst ; — the former, evidenced by an eager gaze 
at the flanks, pawing of the ground, or rolling ; and sometimes by each 
of these in succession. The saliva is secreted in increased quantities, and 
flows from the mouth, as the throat is generally too sore to allow of its 
being swallowed. The breath soon becomes hot and fetid, and purging 
them comes on of a bloody mucus, which soon carries off the patient by 
exhaustion, if death does not take place from the immediate effects of the 
poison on the stomach and brain. Treatment is seldom of any avail, the 
most likely remedies being large bleedings, blisters to the sides of the 
chest, and plenty of thin gruel to sheathe the inflamed surface of the 
mucous membrane, which is deprived of its epithelial scales. 

Corrosive sublimate is sometimes employed as a wash in mange, or to 
destroy lice, when it may be Ucked off, and will occasion nearly the same 
symptoms as arsenic. The treatment consists in a similar use of thin starch 

KK 2 



BOO THE HORSE. 

or gruel ; or, if the poison has recently been given wilfully, of large quan- 
tities of white of egg. 

STOMACH STAGGERS.- 

The exact nature of this disease has never been clearly made out, and 
it is now so rare, that there is little chance of its being satisfactorily 
explained. The symptoms would chiefly lead one to suppose the brain to 
be implicated ; but there is so close a sympathy between that organ and 
the stomach, that we can easily account in that way for the cerebral mani- 
festations. A theory has been propounded, that it is seated in the par 
vagum, or pneumogastric nerve ; and as all the parts with which that 
nerve is connected are affected, there is some ground for the hypothesis ; 
but it is not supported by the demonstration of anatomy, simply, perhaps, 
because of the difficulty in the way of prosecuting the pathology of the 
nerves. The first onset of the disease is marked by great heaviness of 
the eyes, soon going on to drowsiness ; the head dropping into the manger, 
even while feeding is in progress. It generally makes its appearance after 
a long fast; and it is supposed by some writers to be owing to the demands 
made by the stomach on the brain, when in an exhausted condition for 
want of its usual supplies. This theory is supported by the fact that, in 
the present day, when every horsemaster knows the danger of working his 
horses without feeding them at intervals of five, or at most six hours, the 
stomach staggers are almost unknoAvn. Even when the disease shows 
itself at grass, it is almost always manifested directly after the horse is 
first turned out, when he gorges himself with the much-coveted food, 
which has long been withheld, and his brain is affected in a manner 
similar to that which follows a long fast from everj"- kind of food. In a 
short time, if the affection of the brain is not relieved, that organ becomes 
still more severely implicated, and convulsions or paralysis put an end to 
the attack. During the course of the disease, the breathing is affected, 
and there is generally an almost total cessation of the secretions of bile and 
urine, which may either be the cause or the eflfect of the condition of the 
lirain. With this state of uncertainty as to the essence of the disease, it is 
somewhat empirical to lay down any rules for its treatment; and, as I 
before remarked, it is now so rare, that they are scarcely necessary. If 
care be talcen to feed the horse properly, he will never suffer from stomach, 
staggers in the stable ; and at grass, the attack is seldom observed until he 
is beyond the reach of any remedies. Still, it may be as well to observe, 
tliat the usual plan of proceeding has been to take away blood, so as to 
rehev© the brain, and to stimulate the stomach to get rid of its load, by the 
use of warm aperients, such as the following : — 

Take of Barbadoes Aloes 4 to 6 drachms. 

Ti!icture of Ginger 3 drachms. 

Dissolve the aloes iu a piut of hot water, then add the tincture, and when nearly 
cool give as a drench. 

DYSPEPSIA. 

Every domestic animal suffers in health if he is constantly fed on the 
same articles, and man himself, perhaps, more than they do. Partridges 
are relished by him early in September, but toujours perdnx would disgust- 
the most inveterate lover of that article of food. Dogs are too often made 
to suffer fi'om being fed on the same meal, flavoured with similar flesh or 
broth, from one month to another. It is well known that cattle and sheep 



BOTS. 501 

must change tlicir pasture, or they soon lo?c condition ; and yet horses 
are expected to go on eating oats and hay for years together without in- 
jury to health ; and at the same time they are often exposed to the close 
air of a confined stable, and to an irregular amount of exercise. We can- 
not, therefore, wonder that the master is often told that some one or other 
of his horses is " a little off his feed ;" nor should we be surprised that 
the constant repetition of the panacea for this, " a dose of physic," should 
at length permanently establish the condition which at first it Avonld 
always alleviate. It is a source of wonder that the appetite continues so 
good as it does, in the majority of horses, which are kept in the stable ou 
the same kind of food, always from July to May, and often through the 
other months also. The use of a iew small bundles of vetches, lucerne, or 
clover in the spring, is supposed to be quite sufficient to restore tone to the 
stomach, and undoubtedly they are better than no change at all; but at 
other seasons of the j^ear something may be done towards the prevention 
of dyspepsia, by varying the quality of the hay, and by the use of a few- 
carrots once or twice a week. In many stables, one rick of hay is made to 
serve throughout the whole or a great part of the year, which is a very bad 
plan, as a change in this important article of food is as much required as a 
change of pasture when the animal is at grass. Vfhen attention is paid to 
tliis circumstance, the appetite will seldom fiiil in horses of a good constitu- 
tion, if they are regularly worked ; but without it, resort must occasionally 
be had to a dose of physic. It is from a neglect of this precaution that so 
many horses take to eat their litter, in preference to their hay ; for if the 
same animal was placed in a straw-yard for a month, without hay, and 
then allowed access to both, there would be little doubt that he would 
prefer the latter. Some horses are naturally so voracious, that they are 
always obliged to be supplied with less than they desire, and they seldom 
suffer from loss of appetite ; but delicate feeders require the greatest care 
in their management. When the stomach suffers in this way, it is always 
desirable to try what a complete change of food will do before resorting to 
medicine ; and, if it can be obtained, green food of some kind should be 
chosen, or if not, carrots, or even steamed potatoes. In place of hay, sound 
wheat or barley straw may be cut into chaff, and mixed with the carrots 
and corn ; and to this a little malt-dust may be added, once or twice 
a week, so as to alter the flavour. By continually changing the food in 
this way, the inost dyspeptic stomach may often be restored to its proper 
tone, without doing harm with one hand while the other is doing good, as 
is too often the case ■v^dth medicine. The use of the fashionable " horse- 
feeds " of the present day Avill serve the same purpose ; and if the slight 
changes I have mentioned do not answer, Thorley's or Henri's food may 
be tried with great probability of success. 

BOTS. 

The larvje of the oestrus equi, a species of gadfly, are often found in 
large numbers, attached by a pair of hooks with wdiich they are provided, 
to the cardiac extremity of the stomach ; they are very rarely met with in 
the true digestive portion of this organ, but sometimes in the duodenum or 
jejunum in small numbers. A group of these larvae, which are popularly 
called bots, are represented on the next page, but sometimes nearly all the 
cardiac extremity of the stomach is occupied with them, the interstices 
being occupied by little projections which are caused by those that have 
let go their hold, and have been expelled with the food. Several of these 



502 



THE HORSE. 



papillEo are shown on the engraving, which delineates also the appearance 
of the bots themselves, so that no one can fail to recognise them when he 



.■^#'' 




GROUP OF HOTS ATTAUlllSD TO TUr, STOMACH. 



sees them. This is important, for it often happens that a meddlesome- 
groom when he sees them expelled from or hanging to the verge of the 
anus, as they often do for a short time, thinks it necessary to use strong 
medicine ; whereas in the first place he does no good, for none is known 
which will kill the larva without danger to the horse, and in the second, 
if he will only have a httle patience, every hot will come away in the 
natural course of things, and until the horse is turned out to grass, 
during the season when the oestrus deposits its eggs, he wUl never have 
another in his stomach. 

The (estrus equi comes out from the pupa state in the middle and lat- 
ter part of summer, varying according to the season, and the female soon 
tiiids the proper nidus for her eggs in the hair of the nearest horse turned 
out to grass. She manages to glue them ta the sides of the hair so 
firmly that no ordinary friction will get rid of them, and her instinct 
teaches her to select those parts witliin reach of the horse's tongue, such 
as the hair of the fore legs and sides. Here they remain untU the heat of 
the sun hatches them, when, being no larger in diameter than a small 
pin, each larva is licked off and carried down the gullet to the stomach, 
to the thick epithelium of which it soon attaches itself by its hooks. Here 
it remains until the next spring, having attained the size which is repre- 
sented in the engraving during the course of the first two months of its 
life, and then it fulfils its allotted career, by letting go and being carried 
out with the dung. On reaching the outer air it soon assumes the 
chrysalis condition, and in three or four weeks bursts its covering to 
become the perfect insect. 

From this history it will be evident that no preventive measures will 
keep ofi" the attacks of the fly when the horse is at grass, and, indeed, in 
those districts where they abound, they will deposit their ova in the hair 
of the stabled horse if he is allowed to stand still for a few minutes. 
The eggs are, however, easily recognised in any horse but a chestnut, to 
Avhich colour they closely assimilate, and as they are never deposited in 
large numbers on the stabled horse they may readily be removed by the 
groom. Unlike other parasites, they seem to do little or no harm, on 
account of the insensible nature of the part of the stomach to which they 



INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. 503 

are attached, and, moreover, their presence is seldom discovered until the 
season of their migration, when interference is uncalled for. On all 
accounts, therefore, it is unnecessary to enter into the question, whether 
it is possible to expel them ; and even if by chance one comes away pre- 
maturely it will be wise to avoid interfering by attempting to cause tlie 
expulsion of those left behind. 



i:<FLA]\IMATION OF THE BOWELS. 

(Peritonitis and Enteritis.) 

A REFERENCE to page 42G will explain that there are two divisions of 
the abdominal serous sac, one of which lines the walls of the cavity, and 
the other covers the viscera Avhich lie in it. In human medicine, when 
the former is inflamed, the disease is termed 2^eritonitis, and when the 
latter is the subject of inflammatory action it is called enteritis. But 
though in theory this distinction is made, in practice it is found that the 
one seldom exists without the other being developed to a greater or less 
extent. Veterinary wi'iters have generally taken the nomenclatui'e 
adopted in human anatomy and pathology, but in regard to the inflam- 
mations of the bowels they defi^ne peritonitis as inflammation of the 
peritoneal or serous coat, and enteritis as inflammation of the muscular 
coat. ]\Iy own belief is, that during life it is impossible by any known 
symptoms to distinguish the exact locale of any inflammation of the 
bowels but that of their mucous lining, which will presently be described, 
and that wherever the actual serous covering of the bowels is involved 
the muscular fibres beneath it wiU be impHcated, but that the serious and 
fatal symptoms manifested in such cases are not dependent upon the 
latter, but are due entirely to the lesions of the serous coat. I have 
examined numberless fatal cases of supposed enteritis, and have uniformly 
found signs of inflammation of the serous investment, sometimes impli- 
cating the muscular fibres beneath, and often extending to the peritoneal 
lining of the walls of the abdomen, but I have never yet seen marks of 
inflammation in the muscular tissue without their serous covering being 
aftected to a much greater extent. I believe therefore that the distinction 
is erroneously founded, and that, theoretically, the same definition 
should be .made of the two diseases as is in use by human pathologists, 
though practically this is of little importance. There is no well made out 
inflammation of muscular tissue (except that of the heart) in which the 
symptoms are so urgent and so rapidly followed by a fatal issue as in the 
latter stages of the disease described by Mr. Percivall under the head 
enteritis, as follows : — " The next stage borders on deliriiim. The eye 
acquires a wUd, haggard, and unnatural stare — the pupil dilates — his 
heedless and dreadful throes render approach to him quite perilous, he is 
an object not only of compassion but of apprehension, and seems fast 
hurrying to his end — Avhen all at once, in the midst of agonising torments 
he stands quiet, as though every pain had left him and he were going to 
recover. His breathing becomes tranquillised — his pulse sunk beyond 
all perception — his body bedewed with a cold clammy sweat — he is in a 
tremor from head to foot, and about the legs and ears has even a dead- 
like feel. The mouth feels deadly chill — the lip drops pendulous, and the 
eye seems unconscious of objects. In fine, death, not recovery, is at hand. 
Mortification has seized the inflamed bowel — pain can no longer be felt 
in tliat which a few minutes ago was the seat of most exquisite suffering. 



£04 THE HORSE. 

He again becomes convulsed, and in a few more struggles less violent thair 
the former lie expires." Analogy would lead any careful patliologist to 
suppose that such symptoms as these are due to some lesi6n of a serous 
and not a muscular tissue, and, as I before remarked, I have satisfied 
myself that such is really the case. I have seen lymph, pus, and serum 
effused in some cases of enteritis, and mortification extending to a large 
surface of the peritoneal coat in others, but I have never examined a 
single case without one or the other of these morbid results. It may be- 
said that so long as the symptoms are correctly described their exact seat 
is of no consequence ; but in this instance it is probable that the ordinary 
definition of enteritis as an inflammation of the muscular coat may lead 
to a timid practice in its treatment, which would be attended with the- 
worst results. I have no fault to find with the usual descriptions of the 
two diseases, or Avith their ordinary treatment, but I protest against tho 
definition Avhich is given of them. 

Aj>! examination of the cause of inflammation of the bowels is the 
only means by which the one form can be distinguished from the other. 
If it has been brought about from exposure to cold, or from over-stimu- 
lating medicines given for colic, the probability is that the serous covering 
of the intestines themselves is chiefly involved ; while if it has followed 
castration it may generally be concluded that the peritoneal lining of the 
abdominal muscles has taken on inflammatory action by an immediate 
extension from the serous lining of the inguinal canal, which is continuous 
with it. In each case, Iioav ever, the symi^tofhs are as nearly as may be 
the same, and Avithout knowing the previous history I believe no one 
could distinguish the one disease from the other — nor should the treat- 
ment vary in any respect. 

The symptoms of peritoneal inflammation vary in intensity, and in the 
rapidity of their development, but they usually show themselves in the 
following order : — At first there is simple loss of appetite, dulness of eye, 
and a general uneasiness, which are soon followed by a slight rigor or 
shivering. The pulse becomes rapid, but small and wiry, and the horse 
becomes very restless, pawing his litter, and looking back at his sides in a. 
wistful and anxious manner. In the next stage all these signs are aggra- 
vated ; the hind legs are used to strike at but not touch the belly ; and 
the horse lies down, rolls on his back and struggles violently. The pulse 
becomes quicker and harder, but is still small. The belly *is acutely 
tender and hard to the touch, the bowels are costive, and the horse is con- 
stantly turning round, moaning, and regarding his flanks with the most- 
anxious expression of countenance. Next comes on the stage so graphi- 
cally dc^scribed by Mv. Percivall in the passage which I have quoted, the 
whole duration of the attack being from twelve to forty-eight hours in 
acute cases, and extending to three or four days in those wliich are 
denominated sub-acute. 

In the treatment of this disease, as in all those implicating serous 
membranes, blood must be taken largely, and in a full stream, the quantity 
usually required to make a suitable impression being from six to nine 
quarts. The belly should be fomented with very hot water, by two men 
holding against it a doubled blanket, dipped in that fluid, which should 
be constantly changed, to keep up the temperature. The bowels should 
be back-raked, and the following drench should be given every six hours- 
till it operates, which should be hastened by injections of warm water. 

Take of Linseed oil 1 pint. 

Laudanum ... 2 ounces. 



COLIC. 505^ 

If the first bleeding does not give relief in six or eiglit liours, it m\ist 
be repeated to the extent of three or four quarts, and at the same time some 
liquid blister may be rubbed into the skin of the abdomen, continuing 
the fomentations, at short intervals, under that part, which will hasten 
its operation. The diet should be confined to thin gruel or bran mashes, 
and no hay should be allowed until the severity of the attack has abated. 

To DISTINGUISH this discase from colic is of the highest importance, 
and for this purpose it will be necessary to describe the symptoms of 
the latter disease, so as to compare the two together. 

COLIC. 

In this disease there is spasm of the muscular coat of the intestines,, 
generally confined to the caecum, and colon. Various names have been 
given to its ditierent forms, such as the fret, the gripes, spasmodic colic, 
flatulent colic, &c., but they all display the above feature, and are only 
modifications of it, depending upon the cause which has produced it. In 
spasmodic colic, the bowels are not unnaturally distended, but in flatulent 
colic their distension by gas brings on the spasm, the muscular fibres 
being stretched to so great an extent as to cause them to contract irre- 
gularly and with a morbid action. Sometimes, when the bowels are very 
costive, irritation is established as an effort of nature to procure the dis- 
lodgment of the impacted fsecal matters, and thus a third cause of the- 
disease is discovered. The exact nature and cause are always to be ascer- 
tained from the history of the case, and its symptoms, and as the treat- 
ment will especially be conducted with a \'iew to a removal of the cause, 
they are of the highest importance. The symptoms in all cases of colic, 
by which it may be distinguished from the last described disease, are as 
folloAvs. In both acute pain is manifested by stamping, looking at the 
flanks, and rolling ; but in enteritis the pain is constant, while in colic 
there are intervals of rest, when the horse seems quite easy, and often 
begins to feed. In both the poor animal strikes at his belly ; but in the 
former he takes great care not to touch the skin, while in the latter (colic) 
he will often bring the blood by his desperate efforts to get rid of his 
annoyance. In enteritis the belly is hot and exquisitely tender to the 
touch, but in colic it is not unnatm'ally Avarm, and gradual pressure with a 
broad surface, such as the -whole hand, ahvays is readily borne, and gene- 
rally affords relief. The pulse also is little affected in colic ; and lastly, the 
attack is very much more sudden than in peritoneal inflammation. 

Such abe the general signs by which a case of colic may be distin- 
guished from inflammation of the bowels, but beyond this it is necessary 
to investigate whether it is pure spasmodic colic, or produced by flatulence, 
or by an obstruction in the bowels. 

In spasmodic colic all the above symptoms are displayed, without any 
great distension of the abdomen ; and if the history of the case is gone 
into, it will be found that after coming in heated the horse has been 
allowed to drink cold water, or has been exposed in an exhausted state 
to a draught of air. 

In flatulent colic the abdomen is enormously distended ; the attack 
is not so sudden, and the pain is not so intense, being rather to be con- 
sidered, in the average of cases, as a high degree of uneasiness, occasion- 
ally amounting to a sharp pang, than giving the idea of agony. In 
aggravated attacks, the distension is so enormous as to leave no doubt 
of the nature of the exciting cause. Here also the spasms are often 



506 THE HORSE. 

broiiglit on by drinking cold water while the horse is in a heated and 
exhausted state. 

Where there is a stoppage in the bowels to cause the spasm, on 
questionmg the groom, it will be found that the dung for some days has 
been hard and in small lumps, with occasional patches of mucus upon 
it. In other respects there is little to distinguish tliis variety from 
the last. 

TJbe treatment must in all cases be conducted on a totally different plan 
to that necessary when inflammation is present. Bleeding will be of no 
avail, at all events in the early stages, and before the disease has gone on, 
as it sometimes will, into an inflammatory condition. On the other hand, 
stimiilating drugs, which would be fatal in enteritis, will here generally 
succeed in causing a return of healthy muscular action. The disease is 
indeed similar in its essential features to cramp in the muscles of the 
human leg or arm, the only difference being that it does not as speedily 
disappear, because it is impossible to get at the muscular coat of the 
intestines, and apply the stimulus of friction. 

As SOON AS A CASE IS CLEARLY MADE OUT TO BE OF A SPASMODIC NATURE, 

one or other of the following drenches should be given, the choice being 
made in proportion to the intensity of the symptoms; — 

1. Sulphuric Ether 1 ounce. 

Laudanum 2 ounces. 

Compound decoition of Aloes 5 ounces. 

Mix and give every half hour until relief is afforded. 

2. Spirit cf Turpentine 4 oimces. 

Linseed Oil 12 ounces. 

Laudanum li ounce. 

Mix and give every hour till the pain ceases. 

3. Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia 11 ounce. 

Laudanum 2 ounces. 

Tincture of Ginger 1^ ounce. 

Hot Ale I quart. 

Mis and give every hour. 

Hot water should also be applied to the abdomen, as described under the 
head of Enteritis, and if an enema pump is at hand, large quantities 
of water, at a temperature of 100° Fahrenheit, should be injected per amim, 
until in fact the bowel will hold no more without a dangerous amount 
of force. 

In FLATULENT COLIC the same remedies may be employed, but the tur- 
pentine mixture is here especially beneficial. The use of warm water injec- 
tions wiU often bring away large volumes of wind, which at once affords 
relief, and the attack is cured. Sometimes, however, the distension goes 
on increasing, and the only chance of recovery consists in a puncture of 
the CEecum, fis it lies high in the right flank, where, according to French 
veterinary writers, it may often be opened when greatly distended, without 
dividing the serous covering. The operation, however, should only be 
performed by an experienced hand, as it is one of great danger, and a 
knowledge of the anatomy of the parts concerned is required to select the 
most available situation. 

The TREATMENT OF IMPACTION must be completely a posteriori, for all 
anterior proceedings with aperient medicines will only aggravate the 
spasms. Injection of gallons of warm water, or of gruel containing a 
quart of castor oil and half a pint of spirit of turpentine, will sometimes 
succeed in producing a passage, and at the same time the spasm may be 
relieved by the exhibition at the mouth of one ounce of laudanum and 



DIARRIICEA. 507 

the same quantity of suli:)liuric ether. If there is any tenderness of the 
ahdomen, or the pulse has a tendency to quicken, it will be better to 
resort to bleeding, -which alone will sometimes cause the peristaltic action 
to be restored in a healthy manner. The case, however, rei.]uires great 
patience and judgment, and as no great good can often be ehected, it is 
liiglily necessjiry to avoid doing harm, which can hardly be avoided if the 
remedies employed are not at once successful. 

When the urgent symptoms of colic in any of its forms are relieved, 
great care must be exercised that a relapse does not take place from the 
use of improper food. The water should be carefully chilled, and a warm 
bran mash should be given, containing in it half a feed of bruised oats. 
Nothing but these at moderate intervals, in the shape of food or drink, 
should be allowed for a day or two, and then the horse may gradually 
return to his customary treatment, avoiding, of course, everything which 
may appear to have contributed to the develoj)ment of colic. 

DIAEEHOEA AIs^D DYSENTEEY. 

A distinction is attempted to be made between these two diseases, — ■ 
the former name being confined to an inflammation of the mucous mem- 
brane of the small intestines, while the latter is said to reside in the 
large. It is very difficult, however, if not impossible, to distinguish the 
one from the other by the symptoms during life, and in ordinary practice 
they may be considered as one disease, the treatment depending in great 
measure on the exciting cause. This in most cases is to be found in the- 
use of too violent " physic," or in not resting the horse after it has begun 
to act until some hours after it has completely " set." Sometimes it 
depends upon the cells of the colon having long been loaded with faeces, 
which causes, at length, their mucous lining to inflame, the consequent 
secretion having a tendency to loosen them and procure their dismissal, 
either by solution or by the forcible contraction of the muscular coat. 
This last disease is known by the name of " molten grease " to old- 
fashioned farriers, the clear mucus which envelopes the lumps of fajces 
being supposed to be derived from the internal fat that is generally plen- 
tifully developed in the highly fed horses that are especially subject to 
the attack. For practical purposes, therefore, we may consider the dif- 
ferent forms under the head of superpurgation, diarrhoea, and dysentery, 
meaning by the last name that condition which is brouglit about by and 
attended with a discharge of lumps of hard faecal matter enveloped in 
mucus. 

Superpuegation is sometimes so severe as to place a delicate horse in 
great danger. When the action of the bowels has gone on for three or 
four days consecutively, and there is no disposition to " set," the eyes 
become staring and glassy, the pulse is feeble, and the heart flutters in 
the most distressing maimer ; the mouth has a jjeculiarly offensive smell, 
the tongue being pale and covered with a Avhite fur having a brown 
centre. The abdomen is generally tucked tightly up, but in the later stages 
large volumes of gas are evolved, and it becomes tumid. 

The treatment should consist in the exhibition of rice, boiled till quite 
soft, and if not taken voluntarily, it should be given as a drench, mixed 
into a thin liquid form with warm water. If the case is severe, one or 
two ounces of laudanum may be added to a quart of rice milk, and given 
every Ihne the bowels act with violence. Or a thin gruel may be made 
with wheat meal, and the laudanum be mixed with that instead of the 



508 THE HORSE. 

rice. A perseverance in these remedies will almost invariably procluca 
the desired effect, if they have not been deferred until the horse is very 
much exhausted, when a pint of port wine may be substituted for the 
laudanum ^\dth advantage. 

In Diarrhcea resulting from cold, or over-exertion, the treatment 
should be exactly like that prescribed for superpurgation, but it will 
sometimes be necessary to give cbalk in addition to the remedies there 
alluded to. The rice or flour-milk may be administered as food, and the 
following drench given by itself every time there is a discharge of liquid 
faeces : — 

Take of Powderod Opium . 1 drachm. 

Tincture of Catechu J ounce. 

Chalk Mixture 1 pint. 

Mix and give as a drench. 

During the action of these remedies the body must be kept warm by 
proper clothing, and the legs should be encased in flannel bandages, pre- 
viously made hot at the fire, and renewed as they become cold. 

In dysentery (or molten grease) it is often necessary to take a little 
blood away, if there is evidence of great inflammation in the amount of 
mucus surrounding the fa3ces, and when aperient medicine does not at 
once put a stop to the cause of irritation by bringing the lumps away 
from the cells of the colon. Back-raking, and injections of two ounces of 
laudanum and a pint of castor oil with gruel, should be adopted in the first 
instance, but they -^^dll seldom be fully efficient without the aid of linseed 
oil given by the mouth. A pint of this, with half a pint of good castor 
oil, will generally produce a copious discharge of lumps, and then the 
irritation ceases without requiring smj further interference. 

Whenever there is diarrhoea or dysentery present to any extent, rice- 
water should be the sole drink. 

STEANGULATIO^ AND EUPTUEE. 

Mechanical violence is done to the stomach and bowels in various ways^ 
but in every case the symptoms will be those of severe inflammation of tlie 
serous coat, speedily folloAved by death, if not relieved when relief is 
possible. Sometimes the stomach is ruptured from over-distension — at 
others the small intestines have been known to share tlie same fate, but 
the majority of cases are due to strangulation of a particular portion of 
the bowels, by being tied or pressed upon by some surrounding band. 
This may happen either from a loop of bowel being forced through an 
opening in the mesentery or mesocolon, or from a band of organised 
lymph, the result of previous inflammation — or from one portion of the 
bowels forcing itself into another, like the inverted finger of a glove, and 
the included portion being firmly contracted upon by the exterior bowel, 
so as to produce dangerous pressure (intussusception), or, lastly, from a 
portion or knuckle of intestine forcing its way through an opening in the 
walls of the abdomen, and then called hernia or rupture, which being 
pressed upon by the edges of the opening becomes strangulated, and if 
not relieved inflames,, and then mortifies. None of these cases are 
amenable to treatment (and indeed they cannot often be discovered with 
certainty during life, the symptoms resembling those of enteritis), except 
strangulated hernia, which should be reduced either by the pressure of 
the hands, or by the aid of an operation with the knife — which will be 
described under the chapter which treats of the several operations. 



CALCULI m THE BOWELS. 509 

"Whenever inflammation of the bowels is attended with obstinate con- 
stipation, the walls of the abdomen should be carefully examined, and 
especially the inguinal canal, scrotum, and navel, at which points in most 
■cases the hernia makes its appearance. A swelling at any otlier part may, 
however, contain a knuckle of intestine, which has found its way through 
the abdominal parietes in consequence of a natural opening existing there, 
or of one having been made by some accidental puncture witli a spike of 
wood or iron. The swelling is generally round, or nearly so, and gives a 
drum-like sound on being tapped with the fingers. It feels hard to the 
touch in consequence of the contents being constricted, but it gives no 
sensation of solidity, and may be generally detected by these signs, 
None but an educated hand can, however, be relied on to distinguish a 
ventral hernia from any other tumour. When it occurs at the scrotum 
or navel the case is clear enough, 

CALCULI IN THE BOWELS. 

A STOPPAGE IN THE BOWELS Sometimes obstinatel}^ persists, in spite of 
all kinds of remedies, and, death taking place, it is found on examination 
that a large calculus has blocked up the area of the canal. Sometimes 
one of these calculi is found in the stomach, but this is extremely rare. 
On making a section they are found to consist of concentric layers of 
bran, chaff, and other hard particles of the food, mixed generally with 
some small proportion of earthy matter, and arranged around some foreign 
body, such as a piece of stone from the corn, or the head of a nail. 
Treatment is out of the question, as it is impossible to discover the 
calculus during life, and even if it could be ascertained to exist, no remedy 
is known for it. Those who are curious about the composition of 
these calculi, will be pleased with the following letter by Mr. Buckland, 
surgeon to the 1st Life Guards, in reply to an inquiry made in TIte Field 
as to the composition of a calculus found in a horse belonging to a 
correspondent : — 

" Mr. C. Pemberton Carter having, in his interesting letter, requested 
me to throw some light upon this subject, I have great pleasure in giving 
what little information I am able to aftbrd, with apologies for delay, as 
Aldershot camp is by no means a favourable spot for scientific investi- 
gations or literary pursuits. ■ As regards the actual composition of calculi 
such as he has sent, we learn from the catalogVie of the museum of the 
Eoyal College of Surgeons that they are composed for the most part of 
the phosphate of magnesia and ammonia, with small e[uantities of phos- 
phate of lime. They also contain an animal and extractive matter, to 
■which the brown colour of the calculus is owing. They also contain 
muriates of soda, and various alkaline salts derived from the intestinal 
juices. The animal matter resembles that of all other concretions, and 
separates in concentric laminae when the calculus is dissolved in an acid. 
In more impure varieties, grains of sand, portions of hay, straw, (fee, are 
frequently found imbedded in the calculus, and there is one specimen in 
the museum which contains an entire layer of vegetable hairs. Mr, 
Carter remarks that ' his impression is that the calculus is made up of 
bran' (chemically speaking). He is not far Avrong, for we read in the 
College catalogue, ' Most authorities agree that these calculi are formed 
from phosphate of magnesia, contained in wheat, oats, hay, &c., and this 
opinion derives confirmation from the circumstance that they occur most 



510 THE HORSE. • 

frequently in millers and hreweri horses, whicli are fed upon grains^ bran, 
and substances known to contain a much larger proportion of magnesian 
salts than other vegetable matters.' Mr. Carter has detected minute por- 
tions of wheat, oats, and hay in the calculus, which therefore may be said 
to consist of two substances, viz. the vegetable and the mineral. So 
much, then, for the composition of the calculus ; now for its mechanical 
structure. Most decidedly it may be compared to an onion, layer being 
packed over layer, so as in section to present a ringed appearance. We 
may also liken it to other objects. It has lately sti-uck me to examine 
the structure of a common cricket-ball, which combines hardness, light- 
ness, and elasticity in such an admirable way. Upon making a section, 
I found the cricket-ball to be composed of layers, one over the other, 
round a central nucleus. The layers are composed of leather, alternated 
with a vegetable fibre, the nucleus being a bit of cork. The calculus in 
the horse is formed in a similar way. The nucleus in Mr. Carter's 
specimen is a bit of flint ; in a capital instance I have in my own collec- 
tion, of a common shot, about ISTo. 5 size, which has been crushed by tho 
horse's teeth, and subsequently swallowed ; in another instance, of a chair 
nail of brass ; in another of a single oat-seed ; in another of a minute 
bit of cinder, and so on, as it seems to be absolutely necessary that these 
calculi should have a commencement — a starting point. Where is the 
school-boy who can make a gigantic snowball without begmning with 
a small \\\m-^ of snow or a stone, as a nucleus upon which lie builds all 
the rest ? 

" Mr. Carter seems to wonder at the weight of the specimen, 5 lbs. ; 
this is by no means a large size ; in the museum of the lioyal College of 
Surgeons we have a very fine collection of calculi, the largest, taken from 
the intestines of a horse, weighs no less than 17 lbs., and is about the 
size and shape of an ordinary skittle-ball. In the case where this is 
contained he will see many other specimens, cut in sections to show the 
nuclei ; he will observe that calculi also form in the intestines of the 
camel and of the elephant, and even in the wUd horse, for there is a good 
specimen from the intestines of a Japanese wild horse. Stones, not true 
calculi, are sometimes found in animals, which have been actually swal- 
lowed by them, and have not been chemically formed in this walking 
laboratory. There is a case containing several pebbles — thirty in number 
— found in the stomach of a cow at Earton-under-ISreedwood, Eurton-on- 
Trent. These stones belong to the geological formation of the neighbour- 
hood ; it is curious to see how they have been acted on by the action of 
the stomach, for they are highly glazed and polished. I have seen speci- 
mens of gravel peblDles which I took from the gizzard of an ostrich, which 
are as highly polished as an agate marble. The bird swallowed the stones 
to assist its digestion ; the cow out of a morbid appetite. I know of a 
somewhat similar instance that lately happened : A young lady was talcen 
ill, and died of very strange symptoms ; it was subsequently ascertained 
that the stomach was quite filled with human hair, which had moulded 
itself into the shape of the interior of that organ. The poor girl had 
naturally very long and beautiful hair, and she had an unfortunate habit 
of catching the loose hairs with her lips and swallowing them ; in time 
they felted together, became a solid mass, and kdled her — a warning to 
other young ladies which should not be neglected. In the lower animals 
we frequently find rolled balls of hair from the creatures licking them- 
selves. I have seen one at Bristol from a lioness ; it is formed of hairs 
licked with her rough tongue from her cubs. Curious concretions are 

f 



WORiAIS. 511 

found,. iir goats, &c., called 'bezoar' stones; they were formerly supposed 
to have medicinal virtues : of this at another time. 

"F. T. BUCKLAND." 

WORMS. 

Intestinal worms in the horse are chiefly of two species, both belonging 
to the genus ascaris. Bots, as inhabiting the stomach, have already been 
described with that organ ; and, moreover, they should never be con- 
founded with what are called properly and scientifically, " worms." Of 
these, the larger species resembles the common earthworm in all respects 
but colour, which is a pinkish white. It inhabits the small intestines, 
though it is sometimes, but very rarely, found in the stomach. The 
symptoms are a rough, staring, 'hollow coat — a craving appetite — more or 
less emaciation — the passage of mucus with the faeces, and very often a 
small portion of this remains outside the anus, and dries there. That 
part generally itches, and in the attempt to rub it the tad is denuded 
of hair ; but this may arise from vermin in it, oT from mere ii-ritation 
of the anus from other causes. When these several symptoms are com- 
bined, it may with some degree of certainty be supposed that there are 
worms in the intestines, but before proceeding to dislodge them, it is 
always the wisest plan to obtain proof positive of their existence, by 
giving an ortlinary dose of physic, when, on watching the evacuations, 
one or more worms may geaerally be discovered if they are present. 
When the case is clearly made out the plan of treatment is as follows : — 

Take of Tartar Emetic 1 draclim. 

Powdered Ginger § drachm. 

Linseed IVIeal sufficient to make into a ball with boiling water. 

One should be given every morning for a week, then a dose of physic ; 
linseed oil being the most proper. Let the stomach rest a week ; give 
another course of balls and dose of physic, after which let the horse have 
a drachm of sulphate of iron (powdered) twice a day with his feed of 
corn. 

There is no medicine which is so effectual for removing worms in the 
horse as tartar emetic, and none which is so entirely innocuous to the 
stomach. Calomel and spirit of turpentine were formerly in use as 
vermifuges, but they are both dangerous drugs : the former, if given for 
any length of time, causing great derangement of the stomach and liver ; 
and the latter often prodiicing considerable inflammation after a single 
dose, if sufficiently large to cause the expulsion of the worms. Linseed 
oil given in half-jDint doses every morning is also an excellent vermifuge, 
but not equal to the tartar emetic. If this quantity does not relax the 
bowels, it may be increased until they are rendered slightly more loose 
than usual, but avoiding anything like purgation. 

The smaller svecies of intestinal worm chiefly inhabits the rpctum, but is 
occasionally found in the colon and coecum. It produces great irritation 
and uneasiness, but has not the same prejudicial effect on the health as 
the larger parasite. It is about one to two inches in length, and some- 
what smaller in diameter than a crow-quill. These worms are commonly 
distinguished as ascarides; but both this species and the round worm 
belong to the genus ascaris. The term thread worm is more correctly 
applied, as they are not unlike sections of stout thread or cotton. The 
only symptom by which their presence can be made out is the rubbing 
of the tail, when, if on examination no vermin or eruption be found in 



512 THE HORSE. 

■the dock, it may be presumed that worms exist in the rectum. The 
remedy for these worms is by the iujectiou every morning for a week of a 
pint of Unseed oil, containing two drachms of spirit of turpentine. This 
will either kill or bring away the worms, with the exception of a few 
which are driven by it higher up into the colon, but by.waiting a week 
or ten days (during wliich time they will have re-entered the rectum) and 
tlien repeating the process, they may generally be entirely expelled. 
The sulphate of iron must be given here, as before described. 

DISEASES OF THE LIVER. 

The liver op the horse is less liable to disease than that of any other 
domestic animal, and the symptoms of its occurrence are so obscure that 
it is seldom until a post mortem examination that a discovery is made of 
its existence. This unerring guide, however, informs ns that the liver 
is sometimes unnaturally enlarged and hard, at others softened, and in 
others again the subject of cancerous deposits. It is also attacked by 
inflammation, of which the sym2)toms are feverishness ; rapid pulse, not 
hard and generally fuller than nsual ; appetite bad ; restlessness, and the 
patient often looking round to his right side with an anxious expression, 
not indicative of severe pain. SHght tenderness of the right side ; but 
this not easily made out satisfactorily. Bowels generally confined, but 
there is sometimes diarrhoea. Very frequently the whites of the eyes 
show a tinge of yellow, but anything like jaundice is unknown. The 
'treatment must consist in the use of calomel and oj)ium, with mild purging, 
iihus : — 

Take of Calomel, 

Powdered Opium, of each one drachm. 

Liuseed Meal and boiling water enough to make into a ball, which should be 
given night and morning. Every other day a pint of linseed oil should 
be administered. 

The diet should if possible be confined to green food, which will do more 
good than medicine ; indeed, in fine weather, a run at grass during the 
day should be preferred to all other remedies, taking care to shelter the 
liorse at night in an airy loose-box. 

DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS. 

These organs are particularly prone to disease, and are subject to 
inflammation ; to diabetes, or profuse stahng ; to ha^maturia, or a dis- 
charge of blood, and to torpidity, or inaction. 

Inflammation of the kidneys {nephritis) is generally produced by an 
exposure of the loins to wet and cold, as in carriage-horses standing 
about in the rain during the winter season. Sometimes it follows violent 
muscular exertion, and is then said to be caused by a strain in the back, 
but in these cases there is probably an exposure to cold in a state of 
exhaustion, or by the rupture of a branch of the renal artery or 
vein, as the inflammation of one organ can scarcely be produced by 
the strain of another. The symptoms are a constant desire to void the 
nrine, which is of a very dark colour — often almost black. Great pain, as 
evidenced by the expression of countenance and by groans, as well as by 
frequent wistful looks at the loins. On pressing these parts there is some 
tenderness, but not excessive, as in rheumatism. The pulse is quick, 
-hard, and full. The attitude of the hind quarters is pecuHar, the horso 



DIABETES. 613 

standing in a straddling position with iiis back arched, and refusing to 
move without absokite compulsion. It is sometimes difficult to distin- 
guish nephritis from inflammation of the neck of the bladder, but by 
attending to the state of the urine, which is dark browai or black in the 
former case, and nearly of a natural colour in the latter, the one may be 
diagnosed from the other. To make matters still more clear, the oiled 
hand may be passed into the rectum, when in nephritis the bladder will 
be found contracted and empty (the urine being so pungent as to irritate 
that organ), Avhile in inflammation or spasm of its neck, it Aviil be 
distended, often to a large size. The treatment to be adopted must be 
active, as the disease runs a very rapid course, and speedily ends in death 
if neglected. A large quantity of blood must at once be taken. The 
skin must be acted on energetically, so as to draw the blood to its surface, 
and if a Turkish bath (see page 268) is at hand, it will be highly bene- 
ficial If not, the application of hot water, as recommended at page 491, 
may be tried, and in many cases it has acted Kke a charm. Failing the 
means for carrying out either of these remedies, the loins should be 
rubbed with an embrocation consisting of olive oil, liquor ammonias and 
laudanum in equal parts, but cantharides and turpentine must be carefully 
avoided, as likely to be absorbed, when they would add fuel to the fire. 
A fresh shee2:)skin should be warmed with hot (not boiling) water, and 
applied over the back, and the liniment should be rubbed in profusely 
every hour, restoring the skin to its place immediately afterwards. Mus- 
tard is sometimes used instead of ammonia, and as it is always at hand, it 
may form a good substitute, but it is not nearly so powerful an irritant to 
the skin as the latter, especially when evaporation is prevented by the 
sheepskin, or by a piece of any waterproof article. A mild aperient may 
be given, linseed oil being the best form, but if the bowels continue obsti- 
nate, and it is necessary to repeat it, eight or ten drops of croton oil may 
be added to a pint of the oil, great care being taken to assist its action by 
raking and injection, the latter being also useful as a fomentation to the 
kidneys. The diet should consist of scalded linseed and bran mashes, no 
water being allowed AA^thout containing sufficient linseed tea to make it 
slightly glutinous, but not so much so as to nauseate the patient. If the 
symptoms are not greatly abated in six or eight hours, the bleeding must 
be repeated, for upon this remedy the chief dependence must be placed. 
A mild and soothing drench, composed of half an ounce of carbonate of 
soda, dissolved in six ounces of linseed tea, may be given every six hours, 
but little reliance can be placed upon it. The inflammation either abates 
after the bleeding, or the horse dies in a very few hours. 

Diabetes of late years has bc^n much more freqiient than was formerly 
the case, and especially among race-horses and hunters, probably owing to 
the enormous quantities of corn which they are allowed in the present 
day. But whatever may be the cause, the symptoms are clear enough, the 
horse constantly staling and passing large quantities of urine each time. 
The treatment should be conducted on the principle that the cause 
should if possible be ascertained and removed. Mowburnt hay will 
often bring on diabetes, and new oats have a similar tendency in 
delicate horses. In any case it is wise to make a total change in the food 
as far as it can possibly be done. Green meat Avill often check it at once, 
and a bran mash containing a few carrots has a similar chance of doing 
good. With these alterations in the quality of the food attention should 
also be paid to the quantity of the corn, which should bo reduced if more 
than a peck a day has been given, and beans should be substituted for a 

L L 



£14 THE HOUSE. 

})art of Ll^.e oats. Half a drachm of the sulphate of iron (powdered) should 
Le mixed with each feed (that is, four tunes a day), and the horse should 
i^e well clothed and his legs -warmly bandaged in a coul and airy (hut not 
cold and draughty) loose box. By attention to these directions the attack 
luay generally be subdued in a few days, but there is always a great 
tendency to its retiu-n. Should it persist in spite of the adoption of the 
measures abeady recommended, the following ball may be tried : — 

Take of Gallic Acid 5 drachm. 

Opiam 1 drachm. 

Treacle aud Liusccd Meu,l enouj^h to make iuto a ball, which should be given 

twice a day. 

II^MATUREA, like diabetes, is easily recognised by the presence of blood 
in greater or less quantities passed with the ui-ine.. It is not, however, of 
the bright red colour natural to pure blood, but it is more or less dingy, 
and sometimes of a smoky brown colour, as occurs in inflanunation. 
Lloody urine, however, may often be passed without any sign of that 
condition, and therefore unaccompanied by pain, or any other urgent 
symptom. The causes are exceedingly various. Sometimes a parasitic 
worm [Strongijlus gigcis) has been discovered, after death fi-om haimaturea, 
in the kidney, and was apparently the cause of the mischief. At others, 
this organ lias been found disorganised by cancer or melanosis — and again 
a sharp calculus has been known to bring on considerable bleeding, and 
this last cause is by no means infrequent. The symptoms are the existence 
of bloody urine unaccompanied by pain or irritation, marking the absence 
of nephritis. As to treatment little can be done in severe cases, and mild 
ones only require rest, a dose of physic, and perhaps the abstraction of 
three or four quarts of blood. Green food should be given, and the diet 
should be attended to as for diabetes. If the urine is scanty, yet evi- 
dently there is no inilammation, two or three drachms of nitre may be 
given with the mash at night, but this remedy should be employed with 
j|,reat caution. 

Inaction op the kidneys is so common in every stable that the groom 
seldom thinks it necessary even to inform his master of its occurrence. 
An ounce of nitre is mixed and given with a bran mash as a matter of course, 
and sometimes nu)re violent diuretics are resorted to, such as powdered 
resin and turpentine. Very often the kidneys are only inactive because 
the horse has not been regularly watered, and in those stables where an 
unlimited supply is allowed this condition is comparatively rare. There 
lo no harm in resorting to nitre occasionally, but if it is often found 
necessary to employ this drug, the health is sure to suffer, and an altera- 
tion in the diet should be tried in preference. At all events, if it is 
f;iven, the horse should be allowed to drink as much and as often as he 
likes, without which the stimulus to the kidneys will be doubly preju- 
dicial, fi'om being in too concentrated a form. 

DISEASES OF THE BLADDER. 

The bladder is subject to inflammation of its coats or neck — to spasm 
> — and to the formation of calculi. 

Inflammation op the bladder (cystitis) is not very common excepting 
w\\iin it is pioduced by irritants of a mechanical or chemical nature. 
i-iius, when the kidneys secrete a highly irritating urine, the bladder 
antlers in its passiPge, and we have the two organs inilamed at the same 
time. Agam, when cantharides have been given with a view to stimulate 



DISEASES Ob' THE BLADDER, 515 

exhausted nature, or when they are absorbed from the surface of the skin, 
as sometimes happens in blistering, the bladder is liable to become in- 
flamed. The symptoms are — a quick pidse — pain in the hind quarter, 
evinced by the looks of the animal in that direction — and constant 
straining to pass the urine, which is thick and mixed with mucus, or in 
aggravated cases with purulent matter. The treatment to be adopted if 
the case is severe wiU consist in venesection, back-raking, and pui'gation 
with linseed or castor oil, avoiding aloes, which have a tendency to irritate 
the bladder. Linseed tea should be given as th-e sole drink, and scalded 
linseed mixed with a bran mash as food. The following baU may also be 
given, and repeated if necessary : — 

Take of Powdered Opium 1 drachm. 

Tartar Emetic 1^ drachm. 

To be made up iuto a ball with Linseed Meal and boiling water, and given 
every six hours. 

Eetention of urine may be due either to inflammation of the neck of 
the bladder, occasioning a spasmodic closure of that part, or there may be 
spasm unatteuiled by inflammation and solely due to the irritation of 
some offending substance, such as a calculus, or a small dose of cantharides. 
The treatvient in either case must be dhected to the spasmodic constric- 
tion, which is generally under the control of large doses of opium and 
■camphor, that is, from one drachm to two dxachms of each, repeated every 
five or six hours. If the symptoms are urgent, bleeding may also be 
resorted to, and when the bladder is felt to be greatly distended, no time 
should be lost in evacuating it by means of the catheter, which operation, 
however, should oidy be entrusted to a regular practitioner accustomed to 
its use. • 

Calculi in the bladder are formed of several earthy salts, and present 
various forms and appearances, which may be comprised under four 
■divisions. 1st. The mulberry calculus, so named from its resemblance to 
a mulberry, possessing generally a nucleus (see fig. 1). 2d. A very soft 
kind resembling fullers' earth in appearance, and being chiefly composed 
of phosphate of lime and mucus (see fig. 2). 3d. Calculi of a white or 





Fio. 1. Urinabt Calculi. Pio. 2. 

yellowish colour, rough externally and easily friable (see fig. 3). And 
4th. Those which are composed of regular layers, and which are harder 
than the second and third varieties (see fig. 4). 

The nudberry calculus, from its extremely rough surface, occasions 
move irritation than other forms, but during life it is impossible to 

L, L 3 



516 THE HORSK 

ascertain the exact chemical nature of the calculus which may be ascer- 
tained to exist. These calculi sometimes attain an immense size, weighing 
several pounds. The symptoms are a difficulty of voiding the urine, 
which generally comes away in jerks after great straining and groaning. 
The horse remains with his legs extended for some time afterwards, and 
evidently indicates that he feels as if his bladder was not relieved. Often 
there is muco-purulent matter mixed with the urine, which is rendered 
thick and glutinous thereby, but this only happens in cases of long 
standing. The treatment must be either palliative or curative. If the 





Fio. 3. Urinary Calcull Fig. 4. 

former, it should consist in the adoption of the means employed for 
subduing irritation and inflammation of the bladder which have been 
already described. The cure can only be effected by removing the stone. 
This requires the performance of a difficult and dangerous operation 
(lithotomj'), the details of which can be only useful to the professed 
veterinary surgeon, and I shall therefore omit them here. 

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 

Balanitis, or inflammation of the glans penis, ((SaXaros, glans,) is very 
common in the horse, being brought on by the decomposition of the 
natural secretions, when they have been allowed to collect for any length 
of time. At first there is merely a slight discharge of pus, but in process 
of time foul sores break out, and very often fungous growths spring from 
them, which block up the passage through the opening of the sheath, and 
cause considerable swelling and inconvenience. These are quite distinct 
from warts, which occur in this part just as they do in other situa- 
tions. The treatment requires some skill and experience, because mild 
remedies are of no use, and severe ones are not unattended with danger. 
The parts must first of all be well cleansed by syringing, or if the end of 
the penis can be laid hold of, by washing with a sponge. The following 
wash may then be applied, and it should be rej)eated every day : — 

Take of Solution of Chloride of Zinc 2 drachms. 

Watex- 1 pint. Mix. 

If the morbid growths are very extensive, nothing but amputation of 
the penis or the use of corrosive sublimate wiU remove them. Severe 
haemorrhage sometimes folloAvs both of these measures, but it seldom goes 
on to a dangerous extent. Still it is scarcely advisable for any one but a 
professional man to undertake the operation. 

In the mare the vagina is sometimes inflamed^ attended with a 



PHRENITIS. 517 

copious yellow discharge. An injection of tlie wash, meiitioned in the 
last paragraph will generally soon set the matter right. At first it should 
be used only of half the strength, gradually increasing it, luitil the full 
quantity of chloride of zinc is employed. 

Inversion of the uterus sometimes follows parturition, but it is very 
rare in the mare. The uterus should be at once replaced, using as Httle 
force as possible, and taking care before the hand is \vithdrawn that it 
reaUy is turned back again from its inverted position. 

Nymphomania occurs sometimes in mares at the time of being " in 
use," and goes on to such an extent as to render them absolutely regard- 
less of pain, for the time being, though not to malce them lose their con- 
sciousness. They will kick and squeal till they become white with sweat, 
and no restraint will prevent them from trying to continue their violent 
attempts to destroy everything behind them. These symptoms are espe- 
cially developed in the presence of other animals of the same species, 
whether mares or geldings ; but the near proximity of an entire horse 
wUl be still worse. If placed in a loose box, without any restraint what- 
ever, they generally become more calm, and when the state is developed, 
such a plan should always be adopted. It is chiefly among highly-fed 
and lightly-worked mares that the disease is manifested ; and a dose of 
physic, with starvation in a loose box, away from any other horse, will 
very soon put an end to it in almost every instance. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

PHRENITIS, OR MAD STAGGERS — EPILEPSY AND CONVULSIONS — MEGRIMS — RABIES — 
TETANUS — APOPLEXY AND PARALYSIS — STRING HALT. 

PHEENITTS, OR MAD STAGGERS. 

Phrenitis seldom occurs, except in over-fed and lightly-Avorked horses, 
nor among them is it by any means a common disease. The early symptoms 
are generally those of an ordinary cold ; there is heaviness of the eyes, 
with a redness of the conjunctiva, and want of appetite. After a day or 
two occupied by these premonitory signs, Avhich will seldom serve to put 
even the most experienced observer on his guard, the horse becomes 
suddenly deluious, attempting to bite and strdie every one who comes 
near him, regardless of the ordmary influences of love and fear. He 
plunges in his stall, attempts to get free from his halter rein, and very 
often succeeds in doing so, when he mil stop at nothing to gain still further 
liberty. If unchecked he soon dashes himself to pieces, and death puts 
an end to his struggles. The only treatment which is of the slightest use 
is bleeding till the horse absolutely falls, or till he becomes quite quiet 
and tractable, if the case is only a mild one. Immediately afterwards a 
large dose of tartar emetic (two or three cbachms) should be given, 
followed in an hour or two by a strong physic ball ; or, if the case is a 
very bad one, by a drench, contauiing half a pint of castor od and six or 
eight drops of croton oil. Clysters and back-raking will of course be 
required, to obviate the risk of hard accumulations in the bowels, but 



518 THE HORSE. 

vhere there is great violence, they cannot always be employed, and the 
case must take its chance in these respects. The diet should be confined 
to a few mouthfuls of hay or grass, with a plentiful supply of water. 

EPILEPSY AND CONYULSIONS. 

These diseases, or symptoms of disease, are not often met with in the 
adult but in the foal they sometimes occur, and are not unattended with 
dancer. The young thing will perhaps gallop after its dam round and 
round its paddock, and then all at once stop, stagger, and fall to the ground, 
where it lies, struggling with more or less violence, for a few minutes or 
longer, and then raises its head, stares about it, gets up, and is apparently 
as well as ever. It is generally in the hot days of summer that these 
attacks occur, and it appears highly probable that the direct rays of the 
Bun playing on the head have something to do with it. Death seldom 
takes place during the first attack, but sometimes after two or three repe- 
titions the convulsions go on increasing, and the foal becomes comatose 
and dies. A. mild dose of linseed oil is the only remedy which can safely 
be resorted to, and as it is supposed that worms will sometimes produce 
these couAoilsive attacks, it is on that account to be selected. Epilepsy is 
60 very rarely met with in the adult, and of its causes and treatment sO' 
little is known, that I shall not trouble my readers with any account oi 
them. 

MEGEIMS. 

This term is used to conceal our ignorance of the exact nature of 
several disordered conditions of the brain and heart. In fact, any kind 
of fit, not attended with convulsions, and only lasting a short time, is 
called by this name. The cause may be a fotty condition of the heart, 
by whicli sudden faintness and sometimes death are produced, or it may 
consist in congestion of the vessels of the brain, arising from over work 
on a hot day, or from the pressure of the collar, or from disease of the 
valves of the heart. Attacks reputed to be megrims have been traced tO' 
each of these causes, and as in every case the horse, while apparently in 
good health, stac^gers and falls, and after lying still for a few minutes 
(during which there is seldom an opportunity of examining the state of 
the cu'culation) rises as well as before, there is no chance of distinguishing 
the one from the other. The most usual si/mptoms are the following : — 
The horse is perhaps trotting along, when all at once he begins shaking 
his head as if the bridle chafed his ears, which are drawn back close ta 
the poll. The driver gets doAvn to examine these facts, and observes the 
eyelids quivering, and the nostrils affected with a trembling kind of spasm. 
Sometimes the rest will allow of the attack going off, but most frequently, 
the head is drawn to one side, the legs of that half of the body seem to 
be paralysed, and the horse making a segment of a circle goes down, lies 
a few minutes on the ground, and then rises as if nothing had happened 
beyond a sHght sweating, and disturbance of the respiration. Treatment 
can be of little avail, however, unless a correct diagnosis is made, for 
remedies which would be suited to congestion would bp pi-'^judicial to a 
diseased heart. If the attack has happened while in han;ess, the collar 
should always be carefully inspected, and if at all tight it should be 
rejDlaced by a deeper one. A diseased state of the vaU'es of the heart 
ou'dit to be discoverable by auscultation, but it requires a practised ear to 
do this, and the directions for ascertaining its presence are beyond the scope- 



i 



HYDROPHOBIA. 519 

of tins "hoolc. The only plan -which can safely be adopted, is to talce tlio 
subject of mogrims quietly home to his stable, and carefully examine into 
the condition of all his functions with a view to improve the action of 
any organ which appears to be out of order, whatever it may be. If all 
seems to be going on well — if the appetite is good, and the heart ads 
with regularity and with due force, while the brain seems clear, and the 
eye is not either dull or suffused with blood — nothing should be attemptoc], 
but the horse being subject to a second attack, as proved by manifold 
experience, should be put to work in which no great danger can hn 
apprehended from them. He is not safe in any kind of carriage, for it 
can never be known where the fall will take place ; and as a saddle-horse 
he is still more objectionable, and should therefore be put to some com- 
mercial purpose, in executing which, if he falls, the only injury he can 
effect is to property, and not to human life. 

EABIES, HYDEOPHOBIA OR MADNESS. 

One reason only can be given for describing this disease, which if? 
wholly beyond the reach of art ; but as the horse attacked by it is most 
dangerous, the sooner he is destroyed the better; and for this reason, 
every person who is likely to have any control over him, should be aware 
of the symptoms. As far as is known at present, Eabies is not idiop.i- 
thically developed in the horse, but must follow the bite of a rabid 
individual belonging to one or other of the genera canis andfelis. Tlio 
dog, being constantly about our stables, is the usual cause of the develop- 
ment of the disease, and it may supervene upon the absorption of th.o 
salivary vinis without any malicious bite, as has happened according to 
more than one carefully recorded case. The lips of the horse are liable 
to be idcerated from the action of the bit, and there is reason to believe 
that in the early stages of rabies these parts have been licked by a dog, 
the saliva has been absorbed, and the inoculation has taken place just as 
it would do from any other wound. It is difficult to prove that this is 
the true explanation of those cases where no bite has been known to have 
occurred, but as the mouth has in each instance been sho^vn to have been 
abraded, there is some reason for accepting it as such. To proceed however 
to the symptoms, Mr. Youatt, who has had great opportunities for examining 
rabies, both in the dog and horse, describes the earliest as consisting in " a 
spasmodic movement of the upper lip, particularly of the angles of the 
lip. Close following on this, or contemporaneous with it, are the depressed 
and anxious countenance, and inquiring gaze, suddenly, however, lighted 
up, and becoming fierce and menacing from some unknown cause, or at 
the approach of a stranger. From time to time different parts of the 
frame, the eyes, the jaws, particular limbs, will be convulsed. The eye 
will occasionally wander after some imaginary object, and the horse will 
snap again and again at that which has no real existence. Then will 
come the irrepressible desire to bite the attendants or the animals within 
its reach. To this will succeed the demolition of the rack, the manger, 
and the whole furniture of the stable, accompanied by the peculiar dread 
of water, which has already been described. Towards the close of the 
disease there is generally paralysis, usually confined to the loins and thu 
hinder extremities, or involving those organs which derive their nervous 
influence from this portion of the spinal cord ; hence the distressing 
tenesmus which is occasionally seen." How paralysis can produce tenes- 
mus is not very clear, but of the very general existence of this symptom 



520 THE HORSE. 

there can be no doubt. The dread of water, as well as of draughts of 
cold air, is also clearly made out to exist in this disease (as in human 
rabies), and the term hydrophobia will serve to distinguish it better than 
in the dog, where it is as clearly absent. Whenever, therefore, these 
symptoms follow upon the bite of a dog, unless the latter is unquestion- 
ably in good health, rabies may be suspected, and the bare suspicion 
ought always to lead to the use of the bullet, which is the safest way of 
killing a violent horse. There is only one disease (phrenitis) with which 
it can be confounded, and in that the absence of all consciousness and, in 
milder cases, of fear, so that no moral control whatever can be exercised, 
marks its nature, and clearly distinguishes it from rabies, the victim to 
which is conscious to the last, and though savage and violent in the 
extreme, is aware of the power of man, and to some extent under hi? 
influence. 

TETANUS— LOCK JAW. 

Tetanus, one form of which is known as lock jaw, has its seat appa 
rently in the nervous system, but like many other diseases of the same 
class, the traces it leaves behind are extremely uncertain, and are displayed 
more on the secondary organs, through which it is manifested, than on 
those which we believe to be at the root of the mischief. Thus the 
muscles, which have been long kept in a state of spasm, show the marks 
of this condition in their softened and apparently rotten condition. They 
in fact have had no interval of rest, during which nutrition could go on, 
and have lost much of the peculiaiity of structure which enables them to 
contract. The stomach often shows marks of inflammation, but as all 
sorts of violent remedies are employed, this may be due to them rather 
than to idiopathic disease. The lungs also are generally congested, but 
here, like the state of the muscles, it may be a secondary efiect of the 
long-continued exertions of the latter, which nothing but the absence of 
all important lesions of the brain and spinal cord would induce the 
j)athologist to pay the slightest attention to. 

Tetanus may be either idiopathic or symptomatic, but the former 
condition is somewhat rare. It almost always follows some operation, or 
a severe injury in which a nerve has been implicated, the most frequent 
causes being the piercing of the sole by a nail, or a prick in shoeing, or 
the operations of docking, nicking, castration, &c. 

The symptoms are a permanent rigidity of certain voluntary muscles, 
and especially of the lower jaw (whence the popular name, lock jaw). 
The mouth is kept rigidly shut, the masseter muscles feehng as hard as a 
deal board. One or both sides of the neck are rigid, in the former case 
the head being turned to one side, and in the latter stretched out as if 
carved in marble. The nostrils are dilated ; the eyes retracted, with the 
haws thrust forward over them ; the ears erect and stiff, and the comite- 
nance as if horror-struck. At first the extremities are seldom involved, 
but as the disease progresses their control is first lost, and then they 
become rigid, like the neck and head. The patient is scarcely able to 
stand, and plants his feet widely apart to prop himself up, while at last 
the tail also becomes a fixture. The pulse varies a good deal, in some 
cases being quick, small, and hard, and in others slow and laboured. 
The bowels are generally costive, and the urine scanty ; but this last 
symptom is not so well marked as the state of the bowels alluded to. 
The treatment should be of a two-fold nature, partly palliative and partly 
curative. Siace the introduction into use of chloroform we have possessed 



APOPLEXY AND PARALYSIS. 621 

a drug which invariably enables us to remove the spasm for a time, and 
if it does nothing more, it gives room for other remedies to act and relieve 
the patient from the horrible tortures which are occasioned by the spasm, 
wliile it also allows the muscular and nervous powers to ho recruited. 
Wh.en, therefore, a case of tetanus occurs in a horse of any value, an 
apparatus for applying chloroform (described under the chapter on Opera- 
tions) should be procured, and the animal at once placed under its 
influence. This done, the whole length of the spine should be blistered 
with tincture of cantharides, and an active aperient should be given, con- 
sistuig, if practicable, of a pint of castor oil, and six or eight drops of 
croton oil. This may be pimiped down the throat by the usual syringe 
and tube, if the front teeth can be separated ; but if this cannot be done, 
some solid cathartic must be selected, though there is often as much 
difficulty in forcing a ball down as in passing an elastic tube. Failing in 
either of these, two drachms of calomel, and the same quantity of tartar 
emetic should be slightly damped, and placed in the mouth as far back as 
possible, in the hope that they may be gradually swallowed ; the bowels 
should be raked, and copious injections of castor oil and turpentine, mixed 
with several quarts of gruel, should be tlirown up. If these remedies 
fail, nature must be left to her own resources, and they will sometimes be 
found equal to the task, for many cases have recovered after having been 
given up as beyond the reach of our art. Opium, henbane, digitalis, 
hellebore, and a host of other drugs have been tried, sometimes with, and 
sometimes Avithout, success, and perhaps it is worth while, after the bowels 
have been well relieved, to give a full dose of one or other of these 
powerful remedies, such as two drachms of solid opium ; but I confess 
that I thuik little reliance is to be placed on them, and I prefer the 
adoption of chloroform ever}'- six hours, continued for about two or three 
hours and gradually withdrawn, leaving the cure to the action of the 
blister and purgatives. 

APOPLEXY Al^D PAEALYSIS. 

Usually these are only different degrees of the same disease, but there 
are exceptions in which the latter is produced by some chronic affection 
of the spinal cord or brain. As a rule both depend upon pressure made 
on the brain by an overloaded state of the vessels, commonly known as 
congestion, or by extravasation of blood, in which it escapes from them. 

Apoplexy, known among writers of the old school as sleepy staggers, is 
not often met with in the present day, owing to the improvement in the 
management of our stables, and specially to their better ventDation. It 
is marked by great sleepiness, from which the horse can be with difficulty 
roused, soon going on to absolute unconsciousness, attended by a slow 
snoring respiration, and speedily followed by death. The only treatment 
likely to be successful is copious bleeding, piu'gation, and blisters to the 
head and neck. 

Paralysis is marked by a loss of power over the muscles of a joart, and 
may be confined to one limb or organ or extend to more. It is a symiitom 
of pressure on, or disorganisation of, some part of the nervous system, and 
mu.st be considered as such, and not as a disease of the affected muscles. 
Thus it requires a knowledge of anatomy to trace it to its seat, without 
which its treatment would be conducted on false principles. By far the 
most common form of paralysis is hemiplegia, or paralysis of the muscles 
of the hinder extremities and loins, generally arising from an injury to 



C22 THE HORSE. 

the spine. Sometimes tlie body of a vertebra is broken, and the parts 
being separated, their edges press upon the spinal cord and produce the 
disease. At others the vessels within the canal have received a shock, 
and the serous membrane secretes (or allows to ooze ont) a bloody fluid 
which presses upon the cord, and produces the same effect but in a more 
gradual manner. In India, a disease known there as Kuniree causes 
paralysis of the hinder extremities, and is due to inflammation of the 
membranes, which secrete a bloody serum. In this country, however^ 
paraplegia is very rare excepting as the result of accident. 

When a horse falls in hunting, and never moves his hind legs after- 
wards, but lies with his fore legs in the position to get up, groaning and 
expressing great pain and distress, it may be concluded that he has 
fractured or dislocated his spine and that the case is hopeless. Some- 
times, however, after lying for a few seconds, he slowly and with difficulty 
rises and is led to a stable, but after two or three hours lies down and 
cannot be got up again. Here there \Adll be some difficiilty in ascertaining 
whether the mischief is confined to a strain of the muscles or is situated 
within the vertebral canal. If the former is the case the pain is extreme, 
and generally there will be some quivering or slight spasm of one or more 
of the muscles of the hinder extremity, which feel naturally firm, while 
in paralysis they feel soft and are as quiet as tliey would be after death. 
Ey attention to these signs the two cases may be distinguished, but when 
the case is made out to be true paralysis the treatment is not likely (even 
If successful in preserving life) to bring about a useful restoration to 
healthy action. In valuable horses an attempt may be made by bleeding,, 
physicking and blistering to produce an absorption of the effused serum or 
blood, but the recovered animal is seldom worth the oiitlay, and too often 
as soon as he is put to any kind of work is subject to a relapse. The 
most humane and certauily the most economical plan is to put him out 
of his misery at once by a pistol ball or knife, but if it is determined to 
try what can be done towards effecting a cure, no better means can be 
adopted tlian those I have alluded to. 

STEI^G HALT. 

This is a peculiar snatching up of the hind leg, and is supposed to 
depend upon some obscure disease of the sciatic nerve. It however is 
very doubtful whether this explanation is well founded, and there is 
evidence that in some cases the hock itself has been affected. The 
extensor pedis seems to be the muscle most severely implicated, though 
not the only one which is throwTi into spasmodic action. No treatment 
is of the slightest avail. Horses with string halt are able to do any 
kind of work, but it is considered to be a form of unsoundness. 



INFLAMMATION OF THE EYE. 523 



CHAPTEE XXX. 

DISEASES AND INJURIES OP CERTAIN SPECIAL ORGANS. 

DISEASES OF THE EAR — INFLAMMATION OF THE ETE — CATARACT — AMAUROSIS — PCCS 

EYE — SURFEIT HIDEBOUND MANGE — LICE MALLENDER3 AND SALLENDER3 

WARBLES, SITFASTS, AND HARNESS GALLS — GRUBS — BITES AND STINGS OF INSECTS — 

SWELLED LEGS CHAPPED HEELS — GREASE WARTS^CORNS — SANDCRACK — FALSK 

QUARTER QUITTOR — THRUSH — CANKER — LAMINITIS— SEEDY TOE — CONTRACTION OV 

THE FOOT — NAVICULAR DISEASE — ACCIDENTS TO THE LEGS AND FEET. 

DISEASES OE THE EAR 

Deafness is sometimes met with, in the horse, but I know of no 
sjrmptoms by which its precise nature can be made out; and without 
ascertaining tlie seat of the disease, it is useless to attempt to treat it. 

Sometimes from a blow on the external ear inflammation is set up, 
and an abscess forms ; but all that is necessary is to open it, so that tin; 
matter can readily flow out as fast as it forms, without which precautioiii 
it will not readily heal. 

INFLAMMATIOI^r OF THE EYE. 

This important organ is subject to three forms of inflammation, to' 
opacity of the lens, and to paralysis of the nerve, called amaurosis. (For 
the descriptive anatomy of the eye, see pages 444, 445.) 

Simple inflammation is the most common of all the diseases to which 
the horse's eye is subject, and it precedes most of the others. It is alwayt^ 
the result of any injury of this part, or of cold; and it shows itself if 
there is a tendency to inflammation of this organ, whenever the horse i-^ 
in a state of plethora. The symptoms are an intolerance of light, so that 
the eye is kept half closed, by which it looks smaller than the other ; a 
gummy secretion glues the lids together at the angles ; the eyelids aro 
slightly swollen, showing a distended state of their veins ; and there is^ 
more or less Avatering or overflowing of tears. "When the lids are sepa- 
rated, their internal surface looks more red than natural, and the white 
of the eye is covered with a net-work of fine red vessels. After the 
second day the transparent cornea loses it clearness, and becomes muddy, 
sometimes over the whole surface, and at others in specks. If the disease 
is allowed to go on unchecked, the cornea is involved, and the lining 
membrane of the aqueous humour follows ; a secretion of pus takes place 
into the chamber, or the cornea ulcerates, and the contents of the eye 
escape. The treatment should be a copious bleeding from the jugular 
vein, followed by a ball, such as — 

Take of Coinmon Physic Ball ...2d rachms. 

Tartar Emetic 1 drachm. 

Mix and give every six hours. 

Tliis not only acts on the intestines, but it keeps up a constant nausea, and 
Eo tends to lower the action of the heart. The eye should be bathed with 
warm water frequently ; and, if the miscliief be severe, a scton should at 



524 THE HORSE. 

once be put into the skin covering the upper jaw, ahout two inches below 
the eye. On the next day, if " the white " still looks red, the bleeding must 
be repeated ; and, if the bowels are much moved, the tartar emetic may 
be continued without the aloes, while if they are obstinate, the dose of the 
latter may be increased. When the acute symptoms have somewhat 
diminished, a camel' s-hair brush may be dipped in wine of opium, and 
the eye gently touched with it daily, which will generally complete the 
cure. The diet must be low, corn being forbidden entirely, and the stable 
should be kept very cool and airy. 

PuBULEXT OPHTHALMIA is Confined to the conjunctiva, and it may be 
recognised by the profuse discharge of purulent fluid which takes place. 
The eyelids are much swollen, and the white of the eye is covered with a 
puffy red membrane, which rises up above the level of the cornea, some- 
times in fungoid excrescences. This form of inflammation is generally 
epidemic, and sometimes runs through a stable without a single exception. 
The treatment should be, at first, similar to that recommended for simiDle 
inflammation ; but when it reaches the chronic stage, a more powerful 
stimulus is required to restore the vessels to a healthy condition. A wash, 
composed as follows, must therefore be applied : — 

Take of Niti'ate of Silver 6 grs. 

Distilled Water 1 oz. 

Mix, aud drop a little iuto the eye from a quill daily. 

Iritis, or inflammation of the iris, generally known as specific ophthal- 
mia, is the most formidable of all the diseases to which the eye is subject, 
and, if not checked, rapidly disorganises it; while it also, even when 
running an unusually favourable course, is very apt to produce opacity of 
the lens or its capsule (cataract). This pest of the stable is, imdoubtedly, 
often brought on by over stimulation, first of the whole body, through the 
food, and, secondly, of the eyes themselves, through the foul emanations 
from the accumulated urine and dung. But these would produce no such 
efiect in a horse, unless he were predisposed to ophthalmia ; and we find 
that cattle and sheep are often fed to an enormous degree of obesity, in 
far closer and worse- ventilated stalls, without any prejudicial efiect upon 
their eyes. It may, then, be assumed, that these organs in a horse have 
a tendency to put on inflammation ; but though these words are true they 
explain nothing of the real cause, and only serve to conceal our ignorance 
of it. There is another question bearing upon this subject, which is of the 
highest importance. Is the stock of blind horses more liable to blindness 
than tliat of sound ones ? This has been discussed so often, that it is 
scarcely possible to throw any fresh light upon it, chiefly because it is so 
difficult to rely upon the facts adduced pro and con. Blindness is often 
the result of accident, and such cases are believed to be exceptional, and 
not at all likely to hand down the disease ; but, on the contrary, I am 
inclined to believe that many of them show a marked tendency to its 
development ; for an accident never destroys both eyes, and when one 
follows the other, it is a pretty sure sign that there is a tendency to ophthal- 
mia. On the whole, it may, I think, be assumed, that the tendency to 
specific ophthalmia is handed down from generation to generation, and, 
consequently, that the otispring of a horse who has gone blind from that 
cause is peculiarly prone to it. Its symptoms appear very rapidly, the eye 
having been quite right over night, looks contracted and almost closed 
next morning, and on inspecting it closely " the white " looks of a deep red, 
the cornea looks muddy, and the coloured part of the eye (the iris) has 



DISEASES OF THE EYE. 525 

lost its briglit colour, and often shows one or two Avliite specks upon it 
(these must not be confounded with specks on the cornea). As the disease 
advances, the intolerance of light is very great, the cornea and iris become 
gradually more muddy, and either lymph is thrown out on the latter in 
the shape of white patches, or pus is secreted and fills the chamber of the 
aqueous humour, in part or wholly. If the treatment is sufficiently 
energetic, these signs abate, the pus or lymph is absorbed, and the eye 
recovers its transparency ; but there are generally some traces left 
behind. Bleeding (either from the jugular or the angular veins of the 
face), moderate purging, and a seton, are the remedies best calculated 
to effect this object, conjoined with an airy stable and a light diet. 
Unfortunately, however, iritis is almost sure to return on the restoration 
of the usual food, and exposure to the elements ; and hence it is of the 
utmost consequence in purchasing a horse to examine his eyes for the 
marks left behind by it. If the case is hopeless, it becomes a question 
whether or not it will be wise to put an end to the inflammation by 
destroying the affected eye, for it is well known that if it goes on for any 
length of time, tlie other, soimd eye, becomes affected. The only difficulty 
consists in feeling assured that there is really no chance of recovery ; for 
when once the eye is finally condemned, the sooner it is" opened and its 
contents evacuated, the sooner will the horse return to his work, and the 
more chance has the other eye of escaping. The operation is very simple, 
and merely requires a sharp-pointed knife to be passed into the anterior 
chamber from one edge of the cornea, and driven back till it cuts into the 
lens, when it is to be brought out on the other side of the cornea, and 
the whole of the humours will escape on making pressure upon the upper 
eyelid. 

In injuries of the eye, fomentation with warm water should be carried 
on for half an hour, and then omitted for three or four hours ; after which 
it may be repeated again and again, at similar intervals. Great care should 
be taken to remove any extraneous bodies, such as particles of dust, &c. 

Cataract, or opacity of the lens, is very commonly the result of iritis, 
its capsule having been coated with a layer of white lymph, deposited by 
the inflamed vessels ; but it also sometimes makes its appearance without 
being preceded by any of the signs of inflammation. In the former case, 
the early symptoms are those of iritis ; but in the latter, the opacity often 
goes on increasing, without the owner of the horse, or his groom, having 
his attention drawn to the eyes, until he finds that he is nearly blind. 
This progress is generally marked by the development of an unusual 
timidity; the previously bold animal is alarmed at objects advancing on 
the road, and covered carts and waggons, of which he formerly took no 
notice, occasion him to shy in the most timid manner. On examining his 
eyes carefully, instead of the beautifully clear pupil, with the reflection of 
tapetum iucidum shining through it, there is seen either a mass of dull 
white, generally more opaque in the centre, or an appearance of mottled, 
semi-transparent soap, or, lastly, one or two distinct white spots, not quite 
circular, but "with irregular edges. In confirmed cataract, the white pupil 
can be seen at any distance ; but in the very early stage, only a practised 
eye can detect the opacity, whicli, however, is so manifest to him, that he 
wonders it is not visible to every one else. The reason of this difficulty 
of detecting the alteration of structure seems to be,- that mexperienced 
examiners look at the eye in such a manner that they are confused by the 
reflection on it of their own faces, hiding all beneath. If, however, they 
will turn their heads a little more on one side, this will disappear, and 



626 THE HORSE. 

they cannot fail to perceive the disease. \Vlien cataract is clearly proved 
to exist, all idea of treatment may be abandoned, as nothing but an 
operation can procure a removal of the opacity ; and that would leave the 
horse ui a more useless condition than before, since he could see nothing 
•clearlj', and would only be subject to continual alarms. In the human 
being, the operation is performed with great success, because the lens 
which is sacrificed can be replaced externally by means of convex glasses ; 
but in the horse, nothing of the kind can be done. Hence, it is useless 
to dream of effecting any improvement in this disease ; and if both eyes 
are the subject of cataract, the horse is incurably blind. But supposiug 
there is a cataract in one eye only, is the other sure to go bliud, or may a 
reasonable hope be entertained of its remaining sound % Here the history 
of the disease must be examined before any opinion can be formed. If 
the opacity followed an accident, there is no reason for concluding that the 
<jther eye will become diseased ; but if it came on idiopatliically, either 
preceded by inflammation or otherwise, there is great risk of a repetition 
in the sound eye. IS^evertheless, instances are common enough of one eye 
going blind from cataract, while the other remains sound to the end of 
life ; and those are still more frequent in wlxich the one sound eye con- 
tinues so for six or seven years. 

AMAUEOSIS. 

This is a palsy of the nervous expansion called the retina, produced by 
some disease, either functional or organic, of the optic nerve, which is 
<fenerally beyond the reach of our senses, in examining it after death. 
The symptoms are a full dilatation of the pupil, so that the iris is shrunk 
to a tliin band around it, and is so insensible to the stimulus of light, in 
conlu'med cases, that, even when the eye is exposed to the direct rays of 
the sun, it does not contract. In the early stages, this insensibdity is 
only partial ; and though there is such complete blindness that the horse 
cannot distinguish the nature of surrounding objects, yet the pupU con- 
tracts slightly, and the inexperienced examiner might pass the eye as a 
sound one. The unnaturally large pupil, however, should always create 
Buspicion ; and when, on closing the lids and re-opening them in a strong 
light, there is little or no variation in its size, the nature of the disease is 
at once made apparent. The treatment of amaurosis must depend upon 
the extent to which it has gone, and its duration. If recent, bleeding and 
a seton in close proxunity to the diseased organ will be the most likely to 
restore it. Sometimes the disease depends upon a disordered condition of 
the stomach, and then a run at grass will be the most liltely means to 
restore both the affected organs to a sound state. Generally, however, an 
amaurotic eye in the horse may be considered as a hopeless case. 

BUCK EYE. 

A BUCK EYE is, strictly, rather a congenital malformation than a disease ; 
but practically, in reference to the utility of the animal, it matters little. 
It depends upon an excess of convexity in the cornea, by which the focus 
of the eye is shortened too much, the image being thus rendered indistinct 
as it falls on the retina. JMo treatment can be of the slightest use. 

SURFEIT. 

An eruption of the skin, which shows itself m the form of numerous 
small scabs, matting the hair, and chiefly met with on the loins and 



HIDEBOUND. 527 

quarters, is kaown by this uauie. Doubtless, it Las been supposed to 
arise from au excess of food, causing indigestion ; but it often comes on 
in horses which, apparently, are quite free from that disorder. The most 
<;ommon cause appears to be, sweating the horse when he is in a gross or 
plethoric condition, and then exposing him to a chill. Colts are very 
subject to surfeit while being broken, as are horses fresh from grass during 
the summer, when they are u.sually over-fat, and require great care iu 
reducing this plethoric condition. The usual course of the eruption is for 
the scabs to dry and gradually loosen, when the hair of the part is slightly 
thinned l)y being pulled out in dressing, a fresh crop of pustules forming, 
iind, to the casual observer, keeping up the appearance of a permanent 
ijtate of the original scabs. Surfeit is not confined to gross horses, as it 
sometimes makes its appearance in those which are low in condition, 
exhibiting the same appearance to the eye ; but, on examination, the 
secretion from the sldn will be found to be thinner, and of a more 
purulent nature. The treatment must greatly depend upon the state of 
the general health. K the horse is very gross, it may be desirable to take 
ii little blood away ; but this will seldom be necessary, and never is 
desirable. Physic seems to do little immediate good ; and, indeed, it is 
very doubtful whether any treatment is of much, service, excepting such 
as will gradually bring the horse into working condition. The disease, in 
most cases, has its origin in obstruction of the sebaceous and perspiratory 
pores j and until these are restored to their proper functions, by gradually 
exercising them, little good can be done. Unfortunately, the very means 
which will accomplish this object are apt to increase the disease for a 
time ; but still this must be put up with, as a matter in which no choice 
can be made. Ilegular exercise and grooming must be fully attended to, 
using the whisp only in dressing the skin, when the eruption shows itself, 
and carefully avoidmg the brush and currycomb. By acting on the kidneys, 
more good will be done than by purging physic, which seems to be of 
little or no service in any case but when the stomach is greatly out of 
< rder. An ounce of nitre may be given with a mash twice a week, or tho 
aollowing balls may be administered : — 

Take of Nitre, 

Sulplnir, of each 3 drachms. 

Sulphuret of Autiinony 2 diacLms. 

Linseed Meal aud Water enough to form two balls. 

HlDEBOUi^D. 

Thib is essentially a disorder of the skin produced by sympathy with 
the stomach. It rai-ely occurs in any horse but one sadly out of healtU 
ti-om a deficiency either in the quantity or quality of the food. Some- 
times it comes on in the latter stages of consumption or dysentery, without 
any jirevious mismanagement ; but in the vast majority of cases the cause 
may be laid to the food. The skin of a horse in health feels supple, and 
on his siiles it may readily be gathered up by the hand into a largo fold, 
but in hidebound it is as if it were glued to the ribs, and were also toi> 
tight for the carcase which it invests. The name, indeed, is expressivo 
of this state, and the disease can scarcely be mistaken when once seen, or 
rather felt. Coincident with this condition of the skin, there is also, 
generally, either a distended state of the abdomen from flatulence, or a 
contracted and " tucked up" appearance from diarrhoea. The treatment 
tjhould be addressed tu the digestive organs, the state of which must Ld 



528 THE HORSE. 

carefully examined, and if possible rectified. A pint of linseed, scalded, 
and mixed with a bran mash every night, or scalded malt given in equal 
quantities with the corn ; or in the spring time, vetches, clover, or lucerne, 
will do more than any medicine ; bnt when there is a deficient appetite, 
or the bowels or stomach, or either of them, are evidently much weakened 
and disordered, a stomachic baU once or twice a week will do good. The 
remedies appropriate to these several conditions will be found under their 
respective heads at pages 500 and 507. 

ma:n"ge. 

Mange corresponds with the itch of the human subject in being pro- 
duced by a parasitic insect, which is an acarus, but of a different species 
to that of man, and of a much larger size, so as to be readily visible to the 
naked eye. It is generally produced by contact with horses previously 
affected with the same disease, but it appears highly probable that a poor, 
half-starved animal, allowed to accumulate all kinds of dirt on his skin, 
wUl develop the parasite, though how this is done is not clearly made out. 
The whole subject of parasites is wrapt in mystery, which modern 
researches appear likely to fathom, but hitherto little progress has been 
made except in the history of the metamorphoses of the tape-worm, from 
the analogy of which some idea may be formed of the probable modes 
of production of other parasites. When caused by contagion, as certainly 
happens in the vast majority of cases, the first symptovis noticed will be 
an excessive itching of the skin, Avhich is soon followed by a bareness of 
the hair in patches, partly caused by constant friction. The disease 
usually shows itself on the side of the neck, just at the edges of the 
mane, and on the insides of the quarters near the root of the tail. From 
these parts the eruption extends along the back and down the sides, 
seldom involving the extremities excepting in very confirmed cases. 
After a time the hair almost entirely falls off, leaving the skin at fiirst 
bare and smooth, with a few small red pimples scattered over it, each 
of Avliich contains an acarus, and these are connected by furrows, along 
which the acari have worked theu- way to their present habitation. 
In process of time the pimples increase in number and size, and 
from them a matter exudes which hardens into a scab, beneath which, 
on examination, several acari may readily be seen, moving their legs like 
mites in a cheese, to which they are closely allied. At first the mangy 
horse may keep his health, but after a time the constant irritation makes 
him feverish ; he loses flesh, and becomes a most miserable object ; but 
such cases of neglect are happily rare in the present day. The treatment 
must be addressed to the destruction of the life of the acarus, which, as 
in the human subject, is rapidly destroyed by sulphur, turpentine, arsenic, 
hellebore, and corrosive sublimate. Some of these drugs are, however, 
objectionable, from being poisonous to the horse, as well as to the parasite 
which preys upon him, and they are, therefore, not to be employed 
without great and urgent necessity, in consequence of the failure of milder 
remedies. The following recipes may be relied on as perfectly effica- 
cious, the former being sufficient in mild cases, and the latter being strong 
enough in any. 

1. Take of Common Sulphur .... 6 ozs. 

Sperm or Train Oil ... 1 pint. 

Spirit of Turpentine 3 ozs. 

Mix and rub well into the skin with a flannel, or in pieference with a painter's 

brush. 



LICE. 529 

2. Take of Compound Sulphur Ointment 8 ozh. 

Train or Sperm Oil 1 jiint. 

Spirit of Turpentine 3 ozs. 

Mix and use as above. 

One or other of the above dressings should he Avell rubbed in eA^ery thii'd 
day for at least three or four weeks in bad cases, and two in trifling ones, 
when the inflammation resulting from the acari and also from the appli- 
cation may be allowed to subside in the hope that all the parasites are 
killed, in which case the eruption disappears, but the hair does not always 
come on again as thickly as ever. All the stable fittmgs around the stall 
or box in which the horse has been standing should be thoroughly washed 
over Avith a solution of corrosive sublimate, made as folloAvs : — 

Take of Corrosive Sublimate 1 oz. 

Methylated Spirit of Wine 6 ozs. 

Water 1 gallon. 

Dissolve the sublimate in the spirit by rubbing in a mortar, then mis with the 
water, and use with a brush, stirring it up continually to prevent its settling. 

The clothing should be destroyed^ as it is scarcely possible to cleanse it 
completely from the parasites ; but if it is determined to risk a return of 
the disease, it should be thoroughly washed, and when dry, saturated with 
spirit of turpentine. 

When the health has suff'ered from the irritation of mange, a fcAV tonic 
balls may be required, but generally the removal of the cause will be 
sufficient. 

LICE. 

In formee days lice Avere not uncommon in the horse, but they are 
noAV comparatively rare. Still they are occasionally met with, and their 
presence is readily ascertained, being of a considerable size, and easily seen 
Avith the naked eye. They may be destroyed by rubbing into the roots of 
the hair Avhite precipitate, in powder, taking care to avoid sweating the 
horse or wetting his sldn for some days afterAvards. 

MALLENDEES AND SALLENDEES. 

These eruptions are both of the same nature, diff'ering only in the 
locality where they are displayed. The former shoAvs itself in the flexure 
at the back of the knee, and the latter at the bend of the hock. The 
syviptoms are shoAvn in the appearance of a foul scurf mixed with a few 
thin scabs, the skin underneath being stiff" and unyielding. They are 
generally brought on by washing the legs and leaving them undried. 
The treatment required is merely the application of the folloAving ointment, 
which should be well rubbed in every night : — 

Take of Cerate of Superacetate of Lead 2 ozs. 

Creosote 10 drops. Mix. 

If the skin continues to be very hard and stiff, a little glycerine should 
be brushed on tAvo or three times a Aveek. 

WAEBLES, SITEASTS, AND HAENESS GALLS. 

When the saddle has galled the skin beneath it, the inflammation 
resulting is called a " Avarble," and if this is neglected, so as to cause a 
troublesome sore, the term " sitfast " is applied. The eflFect produced is 

M M 



530 THE HORSE. 

similar to a harness gall, and there is not the slightest necessity for 
inventing names to distiiiguish each stage of cruelty in the rider, for if 
attention is paid to the warhle no sitfast will ever make its appearance. 
Prevention is hotter than cure, and it may almost always be effected by 
the adoption of the plan of always keej^ing the saddle on (after loosing 
the girths) for a quarter of an hour or twenty minutes. Sometimes, 
however, in spite of this precaution, the skin of the back swells, and 
when a heavy man has been riding for six or eight hours on a horse 
unaccustomed to his weight, the cuticle will perhaps peel off", brmging the 
hair with it. When the swelling is considerable it should be well 
fomented for an hour, and then bathed with a lotion composed of one 
drachm of tincture of arnica in half a pint of water. The saddle should 
never be reapplied until the skin is quite cool, and free from all inflam- 
mation, even if considerable inconvenience is thereby suffered. The samti 
treatment wiU also apply to harness galls. Oiling the inside of the collar 
will often prevent the shoulder from suffering excoriation. 

GEUBS. 

The larva of some beetle, but of what species I do not know, is 
occasionally met with in the horse, causing a small lump, about the size 
of a raisin, and usually on the back. This obstinately continues for 
months, if its nature is not understood, in spite of all ordinary applica- 
tions. At last a white larva or grub, with a black head, and very similar 
in everything but size to the maggot found in the nut, makes its appear- 
ance, and either escapes to fall to the ground and become a chrysalis, or 
else it is squeezed out by the groom, which is easily done as soon as the 
head is visible. When discovered previously, an opening may be made 
with the point of a penknife, and then the larva may be gradually 
squeezed out, avoiding too much haste in the operation, which wiU only 
retard the process. 

BITES AI^D STINGS OF INSECTS. 

Horses are liable to be stung by hornets, wasps, and bees. If there 
are only one or two stings made, no interference is necessary, but some- 
times a larger number of poisonous punctures have been effected, and 
then the best treatment is the application of spirit of turpentine and 
laudanum in equal proportions. 

The bites of the gadfly are so troublesome in their effects that it is 
sometimes desirable to prevent them if possible. This is effected by 
making a strong infusion of the green bark of the elder, and washing the 
flanks, &c. with it before going out. 

SWELLED LEGS. 

The skin of the legs and the cellular membrane beneath it are liable 
to two kinds of swelling, one of which is of an inflammatory character, 
while the other is solely due to a deposit of serum (oedema), owing to tho 
non-performance of their office by the kidneys. Both kinds are much 
more frequent in the hind legs than the fore, but especially the former. 

Inflammatory swelled leg, sometimes called weed, is generally accom- 
panied by a certain amount of feverishness, and comes on suddenly, 
ahnost always showing itself on the inside of the hind leg, which is hot 



I 



CHOPPED HEELS. 5:j1 

and extremely tender. It is not a very common disease, and merely 
requires the ordinary low treatment, by purging physic, and, if necessary, 
bleeding. Should it continue for more than two or three days after these 
are tried, an oimce of nitre may be given every night in a bran mash. 

Ordinart swelling of the legs, or (EDEMA, occurs in every degree, 
from a slight "filling," to which many horses are always subject, whether 
they work or stand in the stable, to an enlargement extending up to tho 
stifles and elbows, sometimes rendering the legs almost as round and a.-j 
hard as mill-posts. When horses are first brought in from grass their 
legs almost always fill more or less, and until they are regularlj' seasoned 
to their Avork there is seldom that clean condition of the suspensory 
ligaments and back sinews which one likes to see even before the daily 
exercise is given. The oedema appears to depend partly upon a deficient 
action of the kidneys, but chiefly on the vessels of the legs not actinj^ 
sufficiently without constant walking exercise, such as is natural to thi3 
horse when at liberty, and Avhich he takes at grass. Half an hour's 
walking will generally produce absorption completely, so that a daily 
remedy is forthcoming ; but as a rule, whenever there is this tendency ti> 
"filling" of the legs, the cellular membrane is not the only tissue iu 
fault, but the tendons and joints are also liable to inflammation. The 
treatment Avill greatly dej^end on the exact cause. K the swelling is 
only due to the change from grass to the confinement of a warm stable, 
time alone is wanted, taking care not to overwork the horse m the mean- 
time. Eandages will always assist in keeping down the swelling ; but 
they should not be used without necessity, as when once the hor.su 
becomes accustomed to them his legs can hardly be kept fine without; 
their aid. If weakness is the cause, a drachm of sulphate of iron given 
in the corn twice a day will often strengthen the systeiu, and with it tlu 
legs. Diuretics may be adopted as an occasional aid to the kidneys, but 
they should be of the mildest kind, such as nitre, or they will do moro 
harm, by weakening the body generally, than good by their stimulus tu 
the kidneys. Indeed, they are often the sole cause of the legs filling, for 
some grooms use them so continually, whether they are wanted or not, 
that the kidneys become diseased and rel'use to act, which is a sure fore- 
runner of oedema. Where swelling of the legs is confixmed, bandages 
must be regularly applied as recommended at page 252. 

CHAPPED HEELS. 

When a horse suffers from cedema of the legs, he is particularly 
prone to an eruption of a watery nature in the cleft between the heels 
and behind the lesser pastern. Those also whose legs are washed and 
not dried are still more prone to it, especially if the hair is white. Thd 
sldn cracks, and, in bad cases, is so inflamed and swollen that the leg cannot 
be bent without great pain, and often there is a bleeding from the cracks, 
caused by the action of the limb, but only to a sufficient extent to show 
that blood has escaped. The treatment must be local as well as general 
if the eruption is not entirely due to mismanagement. In any case, tha 
part should be dressed with cerate of acetate of lead, a little of whicU 
should be rubbed in every night. Next morning some glycerine should 
be brushed on an hour at least before the exercise, and renewed before 
the daily work is commenced. This Avill prevent all risk of the skiu 
cracking, while the ointment will act beneficially on the vessels of the 
part. In addition to these applications, the general health should be 

M H 2 



532 THE HORSE. 

attended to if in fault, and tonics or diuretics should be given, as the 
case may require. 

GREASE. 

The ekuption known as grease is sometimes only an aggravated form 
of chapped heels, and is often preceded by them. At others the appear- 
ance of the disease is ixshered in by constitutional symptoms, such as 
feverishness, oedema of the limbs and hidebound. The first local symptom 
is a slight swelling of the skin of the heels and adjacent parts, which 
soon cracks, and from the fissures there exudes an offensive discharge 
which looks greasy, but is really watery, being of a serous nature. It 
inflames every part that it touches, and has a tendency to cause a spread 
of the eruption in all directions, but chiefly downwards. . The legs go on 
swelling to a frightful extent, and are thereby rendered so stiff and sore 
that great lameness is produced. If this stage is neglected the whole 
surface ulcerates, and a fungous growth makes its appearance, chiefly from 
the original cracks. The discharge becomes purulent and has a most foul 
smell, and the leg can with difficulty be bent at all. Finally, the fungous 
excrescences cover the whole of the diseased skin, being of a bright red 
colour, and slightly resembling grapes in form, from which circumstances 
this stage has been called " the grapes." It is now very rare to meet 
Avith grease in any of its forms except in the cart-stable, where the hairy 
1-egs of its inmates render them peculiarly prone to its attacks, from the 
time required to dry them when wet. They are so difficult to clean 
without water that the carters may well be excused for using it, but if 
they do they ought carefully to dry the legs afterwards. The treatment 
when grease is established must be founded upon the same principle as 
in chapped heels. The skin must be kept supple, and at the same time 
stimulated to a healthy action. For the former purpose glycerine is most 
valuable, being far more efficacious than any greasy dressing, such as we 
were obliged to employ before the discovery of this substance. In all the 
stages of grease, this latter agent may be employed, and as it is readily 
soluble in water it can be washed off and renewed as often as it may be 
desired. The discharge is so foul and irritating that it ought to be 
thoroughly removed at least once in twentj'-four hours, and one of the chief 
advantages of the use of glycerine is that it so greatly assists this cleansing- 
process from its solubility in water. In addition to this emollient plan, 
some stimulus must be selected, and none answers so well (in all stages 
but the very earliest) as chloride of zinc. When, therefore, the heels are 
in that state that it is almost doubtful whether the disease is the mere 
chap or absolute grease, the treatment recommended for the former may 
be tried, but should this fail, the groom should at once proceed to cut the 
hair of the skin which is diseased as short as possible. Then let him 
take some soap and warm water and gently wash the parts with a sponge 
till the skin is perfectly clean and free from scab or scurf, taking care to 
remove every particle of soap by Avell rinsing it. ISText dry the leg, and 
tlien with a small paint-brush rub gently into the inflamed parts enough 
of the following lotion to damp them, but not to wet them thoroughly : — 

Take of Chloride of Zinc 30 grs. 

Water 1 pint. Mix. 

A quarter of an hour afterwards ajjply a little glycerine over the whole, 
ind keep the parts sufficiently supple with it. If there is much dis- 



WARTS. 533 

charge tlie cleansing may be repeated night and morning, folloAved by the 
chloride of zinc, bnt in most cases once a day will be sufficiently often. 
If the ulcerated or inflamed skin does not put on a healthy appearance in 
a few days, the lotion may be increased in strength, using forty, fifty, or 
sixty grains to the pint, as required ; but the remedy will be found to bs 
almost a specific, except for the grapy form, if properly proportioned in 
strength, Wlien the fungoid growths are very extensive, nothing but 
their removal, either by the knife or by the actual or potential cautery, 
will sulfice. The least painful plan is to slice them off to a level with 
the skin and then just touch the bleeding surface with a hot iron, which 
will have the double good effect of stopping the bleeding and inducing a 
healthy action. The glycerine may then be applied, and next day the 
leg may be treated in the same way as for ordinary grease described above. 
When the disease is of long standing, local applications may cure it for a 
time, but either it will return, or there will be some other organ attacked, 
unless the unliealthy state of the blood is attended to. It must be 
remembered that during the existence of grease this vital fluid is called 
upon to supply the materials for the secretion which is constantly going 
on. Now if on the cessation of the demand for them the blood still 
goes on obtaining its supplies from the digestive organs, it becomes over- 
loaded, a state of plethora is established, which Nature attempts to relieve 
in some one or other of her established modes by setting up disease. 
To avoid such a result arsenic may be given internally, for this medicine 
has a special power in counteracting this tendency. How it acts has 
never yet been made out, but that it does exert such a power is thoroughly 
ascertained, and if the doses are not too large it is unattended by any 
injurious effect. Indeed for a time it seems to act as a tonic. The arsenic 
should be given in solution and tvith the food, so as to procure its absorp- 
tion into the blood without weakening the stomach. A wine-glassful of 
liquor arsenicalis (1| oz.) should be poured over the corn twice a day, 
and continued for a couple of months, when it may be discontinued with 
a fair hope of its having had the desired effect. Should the skin, however, 
look inflamed, a second course of it may be given, and it will be found 
that if it is given with the corn it will not be followed by any injurious 
consequences. 

WARTS. 

Warts are, generally, only to be considered as eyesores ; for, unlesfe 
they appear on the penis, they are not injurious to health ; nor do they 
interfere with work unless they happen to appear on the shoulders 
beneath the collar in a harness horse, which is very rare indeed. They 
are, doubtless, very unsightly, and, for this reason, it is often desired to 
remove them, which may be done by first picking off the rough outer 
surface, so as to make them bleed, and then rubbing in, with a stiff brush, 
some yellow orpiment, wetted with a little water. This Avill cause con- 
siderable inflammation, and in a few days the wart will drop off, leaving 
a healthy sore, which soon heals. Sometimes the whole wart does not 
come away on the first application, in which case a second must be made. 
When the glans penis is completely covered with warts, the best plan is 
to amputate it, as it requires the greatest caution and tact to remove them 
by arsenic or any other caustic Avithout destroying, also, as much of the 
penis as is taken away by the knife. 



634 THE HORSE. 



CORNS. 



These troublesome results of bad slioeing, or subsequent neglect of tlie 
feet, make tlieii' appearance in the sole of the foot, in the angle formed 
between the crust and the bar (see fig. 1 (E), Chap. XXXII.). Where 
the foot is properly prepared for the shoe, and the smith seats the heel of 
the crust and the bar on a level surface, no corn will make its appearance 
in a healthy foot ; but if a corn has previously e^^'isted, or if the shoe is 
allowed to press upon the sole at E (see fig. 1, Chap. XXXII.), the delicate 
blood-vessels of the sensible sole are ruptured, and, instead of secreting a 
sound horn, capable of bearing the slight strain upon it which is required, 
jt fungoid growth is formed, presenting a reddish appearance, and exqui- 
sitely sensitive. This morbid substance does not at all resemble the hard 
corn of the human subject, which, is a thickened secretion of cuticle, but 
it bears some comparison with the soft corns that form so often between 
the toes, and give so much trouble in their removal. It is, in fact, a new 
growth, of a semi-fungoid character, partlj' made up of gi'anulations and 
partly of horny matter, the two being closely united. The corn may arise 
from improper pressure made on this part of the sensible sole, either du'ectly 
fi om the shoe, or indirectly by pressing a thin brittle crust inwards upon it. 
(jlenerallj^, however, it is met with, at the inner heel, from the shoe being 
overgrown by that part of the foot when kept on too long. The outer 
liails do not allow it to work in the contrary direction, and if there is a 
clip on the outer quarter this is rendered still more improbable. If, 
therefore, shoeing is properly managed, corns may always be prevented, 
and we shall see in the directions for shoeing, at Chapter XXXII., how 
this is to be managed. At present I have to consider how they are 
to be relieved or cured when they are already established. 

The ordixary mode op treating corns is simply to cut them out, 
1 'aving the bar and heel of the crust fuU, and thus taking all pressure ofi 
tiiem. This enables the horse to do his work for about ten days, but then 
t!ie shoe must be removed, and the paring-out repeated, a process which 
■\\-eakens the already weak crust by making additional nail-holes in it. 
'J he shoe at the same time is generally " sprung," that is, it is so bent or 
liled that the heel does not fully bear upon it ; but this does not last 
many hours, and is of little real utihty. The plan answers well enough 
for the purposes of fraudulent sellers, as the horse runs sound for about 
ton days ; and when he fails, and on taking off his shoe he is discovered 
to have a corn, it is impossible to prove that it existed at the time of sale 
by any evidence but that of the smith who shod him previously to it. 
]>xcepting, therefore, in very slight and fecent cases, in which it wiU 
sometimes be followed by success, this plan of treatment is only imlliative, 
and what is worse, it tends to increase the weakness of the foot and con- 
sequent tendency to the disease. 

EoR the curative plan we must do something more than merely 
take the pressure off the sole ; the bar and heel of the crust must also bo 
3'elieved, and the sensible sole must be stimulated, by a proper application, 
to secrete healthy horn, as well as by pressure on the frog. If the horse 
's to be rested, this can be done easily enough by taking off his shoes, but 
le may be kept at work by jjutting on a bar-shoe (fig. 5, Chap. XXXII.), 
.aid cutting down the bar and crust, so as to throw all the pressure off 
them upon the frog. A double purpose is effected in this way. Eirst, the 
sensible sole is relieved of the constant pressure which the crust bears 



SANDCRACK. 535 

npon it laterally; and, secondly, the jar on the frog, communicated 
through the shoe, from the ground, induces a healthy action in the foot, 
and the sole has a greater tendency to secrete healthy horn. There is no 
douht in my mind that all horses would work much better, and keep their 
feet in much sounder condition, if their frogs could he brought into use, 
without being guarded as they are by the ordinary shoe. This part is 
intended by nature to take upon itself great pressure ; and if it has not 
its natural stimulus it becomes weak itself, and, moreover, it does not 
stimulate the surrounding parts to a healthy action, as it ought to do. 
The bar-shoe is inconvenient for many purposes, and, therefore, it is not 
generally applied;, but as a curative agent these objections are to be dis- 
pensed with, and then it will be found to be extremely valuable, not only 
in relieving the diseased part (the corn), but in giving a healthy action to 
its seat, the sole. The smith should, therefore, pare down the crust at the 
heel, so that when the bar-shoe is applied it wdl alloAV a penny-piece to be 
insinuated between the two surfaces. With this the horse does his work 
comfortably on the road ; and in process of time, that is, in two or three 
months, the heel grows up, and takes its own share of pressure, or a part 
of it, becoming gradually accustomed to the amount which it will have to 
bear when the bar-shoe is discontinued. In the meantime a little of the 
following lotion may be applied daily to the situation of the corn by 
means of a feather. 

Take of Chloride of Ziuc 1 drachm. 

Water 6 oza. 

Glycerine 2 ozs. Mix, 

In every case, the bar-shoe must be continued until the heel of the crust 
and the bar grow down strongly ; and then a common shoe may be 
applied, as directed in Chap. XXXII. 

SAl^DCEACK. 

In the anatomical description of the foot, at page 448, it will be 
seen that the crust is composed of fibres, running parallel to each other in 
a direction from the coronet to the ground surface. These fibres are glued 
together firmly in a sound and strong hoof ; but, in a weak one, it some- 
times happens that the gelatinous matter is not in sufficient quantity, and 
then the fibres separate, and leave a crack of greater or less extent, 
according to circumstances. This, called a sandcrack, happens at the 
thinnest part, which is the inner quarter in the fore foot, and the toe in 
the hind. To cure it, the foot must be rested, or at least that part of it 
where the crack occurs, which in the fore foot may be effected by the use 
-of a bar-shoe, throAving the pressure entirely on the frog, as recommended 
in the last section on corns, and taking care that the crust behind the 
crack is not in contact with the shoe. By ado]Dting this plan, I have suc- 
ceeded in curing sand cracks during moderate work ; but if it happens in 
the hind foot, complete rest must be given, as the toe cannot be relieved 
by any possible contrivance. The next thing to be done is to open the 
crack slightly, so that any grit getting into it shall not cause its further 
expansion ; and in doing this, if there is any little cellular cavity, it 
should be exposed. If the crack extends to the coronet, which it rarely 
<loes, nothing can be done until it has grown out for at least half an inch 
from that part, when the point of a hot iron may be appHed to the angle 
of the crack for a second, so as to keep out water, which has the effect of 



536 THE HORSE. 

causing the fibres to split by the capillary attraction which is exercised. 
The burn should be very slight, and should not be carried deeply into the 
substance of the horn. A fine nail should then be driven from below 
through the crust, the shoe being removed ; and when brought out at the 
usual place, should be left projecting. The shoe should be put on, and 
the innermost nail also left projecting. These two should then be firmly 
bound together by fine wire, so as to bring the edges of the crack together ; 
and the foot should be left in this state for at least a month or five weeks, 
when the shoe may bo taken off, and the operation repeated. This is far 
better than bmding wire or twine round the Avhole foot, as it acts more 
completely on the crack, without confining the growth of the remainder of 
the foot. Of course, after the wire is twisted on, the nails must be 
clenched, and there will be a greater projection than usual ; but this is of 
no importance whatever. In cracks of the hind foot the nails in each 
quarter will keep the two sides from separating, but the horse cannot be 
worked. 

FALSE QUAETEE. 

When, from an accident, the coronary substance is permanently 
injured, it ceases to secrete sound horn, and a stripe of the crust, defective 
in strength, runs aU the way down from the coronet to the plantar edge. 
This generally happens at the inner quarter, and is owing to the horse 
treading on his coronet ; but it may also occur on the outside, either from 
the tread of another horse, or from some kind of external violence. The 
result is similar to that of a sandcrack ; there is no strength in the affected 
heel, and lameness is produced. The treatment is very much the same as 
for sandcrack. In the first place, the pressure must be taken off the 
quarter, and a bar-shoe applied, so as to convey the weight on the frog, as 
described under the head of Sandcrack. The hetl of the affected quarter 
should be lowered, and thus further injury will be prevented. The next 
thing to be done is to stimulate the coronet to a healthy action by blis- 
tering it, which must be done two or three times, taking care that the 
blister is not of too violent a nature, and that the skin heals before a 
second is applied. By these means, a cure may sometimes be effected ; 
but it takes a considerable time, and until the quarter is reproduced in 
full strength, or nearly so, the bar-shoe should be continued. By its use, 
any horse with a sound frog can travel very well on the road, even if the 
quarter is entirely and permanently separated from the toe by inefficient 
horn ; and without it, the chance of a cure is not to be reckoned on. 

QUITTOE. 

By this term is understood a chronic abscess of the foot, the matter 
always forming sinuses, from the difiiculty which nature has to overcome 
in finding a way for it to reach the surface. Generally, the mischief is 
occasioned by an overreach, or a bruise of the sole, or by the inflammation 
resulting from a neglected thrush, or, lastl}"^, from a nail-prick. Erom any 
of these causes, inflammation of the delicate investment of the coffin-bone 
is set up, pus is secreted, and, in working its way to the surface, it burrows 
between the horn and the bone, and forms one or more sinuses, or pipes, as 
these fistiilous tubes are called by the farrier. A quittor is recognised by 
the eye and nose detecting an opening in the horn, from which a foul dis- 
charge proceeds ; and on introducing a probe, it will generally pass freely 
in two or three directions, sometimes giving a grating sensation to tlio 



THRUSH. 537 

finger, showing that the bone is denuded, and most probably carious. 
There is generally a considerable increase of temperature in the foot, 
and ahvays more or less lameness, with, in most cases, swelling of the 
bulbous heels and coronet. On examining the sole carefully, some part 
will either show a difference of colour from the adjacent horn, or there 
will be a yielding on pressure, owing to its being luidcrmined. The treat- 
ment must be conducted on the same principle as for fistulous sores. In 
the first place, a dependent opening must be formed, so that no matter 
shall be confined, but it shall be allowed to come away as fast as it forms. 
This can only be done by probing ; and if the original opening is in the 
coronet, the probe nnast be passed dowTi as low as possible, and then the 
sole should be pared away till the end can be reached. In tolerably 
recent quittors, this plan alone will allow the sinus to heal ; but in old 
ones, the internal surface has become callous, and no granulations are 
thrown out. Here an injection should be throAvn in every day with a 
syringe, a saturated solution of sulphate of zinc being that generally 
recommended ; but I have found the chloride answer still better, using 
one drachm of the salt to a pint of water at first, and gomg on up to two 
drachms. By injecting this daily, and introducing a piece of lint, wetted 
with it, into the superior opening, leaving the lower one free, I have cured 
many bad quittors, even when there was evidence of caries of the cofnn- 
joint. The disease requires a careful adjustment of the remedies to its 
extent and nature, and a theoretical description of it is of little use. 

THEUSH. 

Ant offensive discharge from the frog is called by this name, 
although tlie cause and treatment may be as different as possible. It 
varies greatly in the fore and hind feet ; and, indeed, it must never be 
forgotten that, in every case, the cause wdiich has produced the discharge 
must be clearly made out before any plan of treatment can be carried out 
with any prospect of success. Sometimes thrush is merely the result of 
the decomposition of the horny frog, from the foot being constantly kept 
wet with urine, which is most common in the hind foot. Here the surface 
becomes soft, and is gradually dissolved ; while the cleft, from its retain- 
ing the moisture, is increased in size. This state is often brought on by 
the too frequent use of cowdung-stopping in horses with soft frogs ; and, 
instead of doing good by his treatment of the foot, the groom is really 
destroying it by encouraging the decomposition of the healthy defence 
which Nature has given to it. For this kind of thrush, very little treat- 
ment is required, if the cause which produced it is withdrawn. Still, it is 
not always easy to keep the frog dry, and stop the decomposition, without 
the application of some astrmgent ; and if the mere use of dry litter, and 
the application of tar ointment, do not seem to harden the frog at once, it 
may be touched with a wash composed of ten grains of bluestone to the 
ounce of water. This will soon dry it; or, if it fails by any chance, the 
cliloride of zinc may be used in the same way, by dissolving five grains in 
an ounce of water. 

The second kind of thrush is that in which from a gross habit of 
body there is a simple inflammation of the sensible frog, and instead of 
sound horn being secreted, a spongy substance is deposited, which breaks 
away in places, and the frog looks ragged and uneven, -with a greasy 
surface, smells very foul, and feels hot to the touch. Here the treatment 
must be general as well as local. A dose of physic should be given, the 



538 THE HORSE. 

food slioiild be of a less stimulating quality, and care should be taken 
that regular exercise is allowed every day. The stable should be kept 
•cool, and of course attention should be paid to cleanliness both of the 
foot and the litter. As to local remedies, they must not be of the stimu- 
lating kind, which will suit the thrush from decomposition, or that 
presently to be described. The foot should be placed in a bran poultice, 
•and kept in it for some days, till the tinited action of the local and 
general treatment have reduced the inflammation. After a few days it 
will be well to dress the frog with tar ointment, or the poultice will do 
more harm than good, by causing the decomposition of its horny covering, 
and indeed it is seldom that this wet application should be employed for 
more than a week. After this time has elapsed, all the good to be 
■derived from it has been accomplished, and the subsequent treatment 
may generally be effected by attention to the health, and dressing the 
frog with tar ointment. Sometimes it may be necessary to employ a 
slight stimulus, and then the solution of chloride of zinc will be found 
to be the best. 

The third kixd of thrush occurs in contracted feet, and is due to the 
same cause, namely, chronic inflammation of the sensible frog, produced 
"by overwork, aided in many cases by neglect in shoeing. There is a 
tendency to the secretion of unsound horn over the whole foot, sometimes 
too thick and hard, and at others of a ceUular structure, without sufficient 
strength to bear the pressure of the road. The horny frog generally looks 
shrunken and withered, and in its cleft there is a foul discharge, on wiping 
which out a soft spongy matter may be seen at the bottom, which is the 
sensible frog itself, but in a diseased condition. In bad cases, the sides 
■of the horny frog have separated, and even the toe is sometimes deficient 
of its covering; bat generally the horn has only disappeared in patches, 
and there are ragged portions remaining. The disease here is of too 
chronic a nature to be easily cured, and if there is much disorganization 
of the laminae it will be almost impossible to effect a perfect cure. The 
first thing to be done is to clear away all the ragged portions of horn, so 
as to be able to reach the sensible frog. Some tow is then to be smeared 
with the following ointment : — 

Take of Ointment of Nitrate of Mercury 1 drachm. 

Zinc Ointment 1 oz. 

Creosote 4 drops. Mix. 

and pressed into the cleft of the frog, where it can best be retained by a 
bar shoe lightly tacked on, and in this case taking its bearing on the heels 
and not on the frog. Sometimes a wash answers better than a greasy 
application, and then a strong solution of the chloride of zinc may be 
-employed, about six grains to the ounce of water. Tow dipped in this 
may be applied in the same way as with the ointment, and either one or 
the other should be re-appHed every day. As the new horn grows, it 
must be kept supple by tar ointment, and until it is fully developed the 
bar shoe should be kept on, applying some degree of pressure by means 
of the tow, wliich should be stuffed in so as to compress the frog, begin, 
ning with very light pressure, and, as the born increases in substance, 
augmenting it in proportion. By attention to these directions a thrush 
of this kind may be cured, if the foot is not damaged throughout, and 
even the frog may be restored to a comparative state of health. 



LAMINITIS. 539 



CANKEE. 



Canker is generally an extension of the third form of thrush, the 
ulcemtion spreading to the sensible sole, and afterwards to the coffin-bone 
itself At first the ulcerated surface is concealed by the old horn, but 
gradually this breaks away, and then the extent of the mischief may be 
seen. A part or the whole of the sole and the frog may be in a state of 
ulceration, generally depending upon the time during which the disease 
has been in existence, and the care which has been taken of it, or the 
reverse. The only treatment to be adopted is the careful removal of every 
loose piece of horn, so as to expose the unsound surface to the action of 
remedies, and at the same time to avoid poisoning it by the decomposing 
horn, which has a most irritatmg effect. The sulphate of copper, and 
chloride of zinc, are the best applications, and they must be used in full 
strength. These cases, hoAvever, require an experienced eye to enable the 
prescriber to judge of the proper amount of caustic required ; and beyond 
suggesting the kind of remedy requhed, no good can be done by written 
])rescriptions. If it is impossible to obtain the advice of a veterinarian, it 
will be better to begin by using a mild caustic, and then increase the 
strength as it is found to be wanted. Pitch ointment forms the best greasy 
apjjlication to the adjacent sound surfaces to protect them from the irrita- 
tion of the discharge. 

LAMINITIS. 

[Founder or Fever of the Feet.) 

The term laminljis is now familiar with every one at aU accustomed 
to horses, though it has not long been introduced into the vocabidary of 
the professional man. The disease, however, has been recognised for 
many years under the terms "founder" and "fever of the feet." It 
consists in an inflanunation (which may be acute or chronic) of the 
parts between the crust or wall and the pedal bone, including the 
laminae, whence the name by which it is now distinguished. These 
parts are supphed Avith a profusion of blood-vessels (see page 451), 
and when inilammation is set up in them, the progress which it makes 
is rapid, and the constitutional disturbance is unusually great, owing 
probably to the want of space for the swelling which accompanies all 
inflammations, and especially of vascular substances. The causes are 
either, 1st. LocaUzation of fever, whence the name "fever in the feet." 
2d. The mechanical irritation of hard roads upon feet not accustomed 
to them ; and 3d. Long confinement in a standing position on board 
ship. When it is recollected that in our system of shoeing, the laminae 
are made to support the whole weight of the body in consequence 
of the shoe being in contact with the crust only, it can only occasion, 
surprise that tliis disease is not more frequent. Nature framed the horse's 
foot so that an elastic pad should interpose between its back paria and 
the ground, intending that the edge of the crust shoidd take its share, 
but not all of the weight. The laminse are therefore called upon to do 
far more than their structure is designed for, and when there is the 
elightest weakness or tendency to inflammation, they are sure to sufier. 
Acute laminitis is not very often met with, because horsemen are aware 
of the risks they run, and take their measures accordingly ; but the 
chronic form is common enough, and hundreds of horses arc more or less 



540 



THE HORSE. 



lame from this cause. Too often it is not suspected until irreparable 
mischief is done, the elasticity of the laminae being destroyed, and the 
foot having assumed a shape which utterly unfits it for bearing the 
pressure of the shoe upon hard roads. When the disease has been going 
on for a long time, the elastic substances between the laminae and the 
pedal bone, as well as the fine horny lamellae between them and the crust, 
lose the property of extension, and the horn of the crust is secreted by 
nature of a more spongy character, and much thicker in substance, than 
in health. On making a section of such a foot, the arrangement of parts 
will be such as is here delineated in fig. 1, in which 1 is the os suffraginis, 
2, the OS coronae, and 3, the pedal bone, with its anterior surface separated 
from that of the crust (7) by a wide space occupied by spongy matter. 
Here the toe of the pedal bone projects into the sole and renders it 
convex, instead of being concave, and corresponding with the lower 
surface of the pedal bone. 

Tlie laminae and elastic sub- 
stances bet^veen them and their 
contiguous structures no longer 
suspend the pedal bone to the 
crust, but the weight falls partly 
upon the sole by means of the 
toe of the pedal bone, and partly 
on the frog, which descends so 
low that in spite of the thickness 
of the shoe it touches the ground. 
This descent of the frog is a very 
marked feature in lammitis, and 
whenever it is apparent that 
disease may be suspected. 

But to produce such a 
marked alteration op form as 
is here delineated and described 
takes a long time, and even 
then it is only in a few cases 
that the disease reaches to this 
stage. It will, therefore, be 
necessary to trace its progress 
from the commencement, and the effects Avhich are exhibited as it 
goes on. 

When acute laminitis sets in, there is a considerable amount of 
fever, indicated by a rapid pulse, usually fuU and hard, and hurried re- 
spiration. There is a general look of restlessness from pain, the horse 
stamping gently with his feet, and constantly lying doAvn and then 
getting up again. When, as usually happens, the fore feet only are 
affected, the hind feet are brought under th e body to bear as much weight 
as possible, and the fore feet are so carried forwards that the heels support 
the legs rather than the toes. On examining the feet, there is great 
reluctance to allow one to be picked up, on account of the necessity 
which is thrown upon the other of taking the Avhole weight of the fore 
quarter. The coronet and hoof feel very hot, and, when wetted, may be 
seen to steam very perceptibly. If this state of things is not speedily 
stopped, the laminae cease to secrete horn, and the connexion between 
them and the hoof ceases, causing the latter to separate, and the sensible 
parts to be exposed, covered with a thin scaly horn. This has happened 




Fig. 1. — Section of the Foot in Confirmed 
Laminitis. 

1. Os suffraginis. 

2. Os coronte. 

3. PeJal bone. 

4. Navicular bone. 

5. Frog. 

6. Sole. 

7. WaU or crust gi'eatly thickened. 



LAMINITIS. 541 

in many cases wlaicli have afterwards secreted new hoofs ; but the horn is 
not so strong and useful as before, and a horse with such feet is not fit for 
hard work on the road. If proper treatment is adopted, the inflammation 
either subsides entirely, leaving no mischief behind it, or there is a 
chronic inflammation left which induces the alterations of structure which 
have been alluded to. The treatment should be by first removing the 
shoes, and then, after paring down the sole so as to allow of the expansion 
of the sensible parts, a large quantity of blood is taken from tlie toe, 
making sure that a vessel of sufficient size is opened to produce a strong 
shock on the heart and arteries, as well as to relieve the local aff"ection. 
If the blood does not flow freely, the foot may be placed in a pail of warm 
water, but when the operation is properly performed (see Chap. XXXII.) 
there is never any difiiculty in obtainmg any quantity of blood which may 
be reqi;ired. Next tack the shoes on lightly again, and then give a smart 
dose of physic, or else, Avhat is perhaps a better plan, give the following : — 

Take of Barbadoes Aloes 

Tartar Emetic, of each 1 drachm. 

Powdered Digitali!3 | drachm. 

Syrup enough to form a ball, 

which should be given every six hours, until the bowels act, when the_ 
other materials may be contmued without the aloes. The feet should be 
kept constantly wet and cool by tying a piece of felt or flannel around each 
pastern, and allowing it to fall over the hoof, when it is to be continually 
wetted. If the inflammation is not abated next day, the bleeding may 
be repeated, and it will be Avell also to act on the kidneys by adding two 
or three drach]ns of nitre to the tartar emetic and digitalis. 

Chronic laminitis is generally first shown by a slight soreness or 
lameness, generally appearing in both fore feet, and, therefore, being often 
overlooked by casual observers. In coming in from work the coronets 
feel warmer than natural ; but this goes off" during the night, and, for a 
time, no great fears are entertained of the feet recovering their former con- 
dition, the blame being, perhaps, laid upon the shoe. In a month or two, how- 
ever, the smith (who has, perhaps, been ordered to take off the shoes two or 
three times, by which the injury is increased) finds that his nails do not hold, 
and the quarters break away ; while the action of the horse becomes more 
shambling every day, and he cannot make a sound trot on any hard road, 
especially tvith a weight on his back. In many cases a horse with chronic 
laminitis can run in hand sound enough for an ordinary observer ; but 
when the extra weight of a rider is placed on him the feet cannot bear 
the pain, and the gait is shambling in the extreme. Such animals have 
a strong propensity to save their toes, and prefer (if their shoidders will 
allow it) bringing their heels to the ground first, so that, although their 
action is excessively low and shambling, they seldom fall. An experienced 
horseman at once detects this pecidiar style of going, and condenms its 
possessor for laminitis. Indeed, it may be assumed as a rule, that where- 
ever the heel is put carefully down upon the ground with low action, the 
foot is the subject of laminitis to some extent. "V^Tien the heel is naturally 
brought to the ground first, the knee is Avell bent, and the foot is raised 
high in the air ; but in process of time work tells on it, the laminse become 
inflamed, and then the action is reduced in height, and the feet are moved 
in the manner peculiar to foundered horses, including those which before 
they vrere foundered perhaps exhibited " toe action," or, at all events, 
a level fall of the foot. This state of disease ought to be well studied, and 



642 THE HORSE. 

compared with tlie remarks on sound action at page 124 et seq., which it 
■will serve to illustrate and explain. The foot itself is changed in form, 
and the toe and sole have more or less altered their relations, as explained 
already. Sometimes there is a large space or cavity between the outer 
surface and the umcr, shown at 7, tig. 1, page 540. This hollow in tho 
crust is more or less cellular, and the disease is called a " seedy toe," but for 
what reason I am at a loss to know. The sole, moreover, is ahv lys either 
flatter than natural or absolutely convex, and its horn is brittle and 
spongy, constituting what is termed the "pumiced foot." The frog is 
generally large and spongy ; and on placing a straight-edge across tlie 
shoe, from heel to heel, it is found to touch that part, or nearly so, indi- 
cating that the relatioDS between it and the crust, as well as the sole, are 
altogether changed from a natui-al state. The laminse are no longer slings 
for the foot, but the whole pressure is taken by the parts lying beneath 
the pedal or coffin bone and the navicular bone. Such being the symptoms^ 
the next thing is to consider what can be done 1 If the disease is of long 
standing, little hope can be given of a perfect recovery. The shape of the 
external parts may be partially restored, but the internal delicate structures 
no longer have the power of performmg their offices ; and the elastic action 
of the horse suifering from the effects of laminitis can seldom be restored on 
hard ground. After proper treatment he may, and generally does, go on 
'turf well; but either on hard ground or on plough (on the latter of 
which, though soft enough for the laminiB, the sole has to bear con- 
siderable pressure) he is dreadfully sore and lame. This is shown after 
all intlammation has ceased, the foot being as cool as possible, and some- 
times exhibiting very slight evidences of previous mischief In treating 
such cases, if there is no heat or other sign of inflammation, bleeding and 
similar lowering measures will be of no avail They may be required soon 
enough, it is true, for a foundered foot is always in danger of inflammation 
when battered ; but until symptoms of this kind of mischief are exhibited 
it is better to avoid all depletory measures. At the same time, everything 
wliich wUl tend to keep off increased action should be avoided ; the horse 
should be fed on the least heating food which wiU serve the purpose for 
which he is intended, and his stable shoidd be kept as cool as possible. 
Beans ought never to be allowed to the possessor of feet with the slightest 
suspicion of founder ; and no more oats should be used than are necessary 
for the condition required. Tor horses at slow work, bran mashes and 
nitre, with small doses occasionally of physic, will serve to keep down the 
tendency to inflammation, and by their use, joined to cold applications after 
work (they are of no use at other times), and a cool stable, the horse may 
be enabled to do moderately fast work. If the frog is not very prominent, 
a leather sole, put on in the usual way, will save the jar, and in some 
measure supply the place uf the natural elastic tissue, destroyed in this 
disease. Usually, however, it only adds to the mischief by increasing the 
pressure on the frog, and thtn the leather must be introduced between tlie 
foot and the shoe, but cut to the same shape as the latter, so as not at all 
to bear on the frog. Many horses with shght traces of laminitis can wofk 
for years with leather apphed in this way, and it may be said to be the 
most useful mode of treating this disease when exhibited in a mild form. 
Sometimes by thiowing a horse by for six months, taking off his shoes, 
and blistering his coronets two or three times, a great deal of good may 
be done, but he must be put to stand on tan or sawdust during the whole 
time, and never allowed to go on hard ground, even for half a mile at a 
•walking pace. 13y this plan, and by very careful and gradual increase of 



THE SEEDY TOE. 543 

exercise at the end of that time, 1 have succeeded in restoring an elastic 
condition of the foot ; but I have never known one so patched up bear 
hard work, and I should never advise the risk incurred by submitting 
him to it. Hunting and racing, or, indeed, any kind of work on soft 
ground will do no harm ; but battering on the roads, especially vvithoufc 
leather, applied as above described, is sure to bring back the inflammation. 

THE SEEDY TOE. 

This term is so generally employed among horsemen, that though th» 
state Avhich it describes is one of the ordinary consequences of laminitis, 
I prefer to give it a distinct section. I have already described its nature 
in the preceding page, aijd have only now to allude to its treatment. This 
may generally be so conducted as to restore the shape of the foot, if tho 
inflammation has not lowered the toe of the pedal bone, as shown at 
lig. 1 ; for if this has taken place, although it is perhaps possible to get rid 
of the cavities in the horn, the relative positions of the bony parts cannot 
be changed. When, however, as is often the case, a moderately small 
hollow has been formed between the layers of the wall, and the foot 
retains a tolerably healthy shape, by cutting away all the external horny 
walls, exposing the parts in contact with the laminae, and resting the 
horse in a loose box, the secreting surface will form a new wall, Avithout 
any spongy texture, in the course of three or four months, if the coronaiy 
band is constantly stimulated by external applications. To effect this, the 
horse should be put to stand on red deal sawdust, without shoes ; and his 
coronets, after being gently stimulated by a mild liquid bHster, should be 
kept dressed with tar ointment, which should also be applied to the 
exterior of the horn. It is seldom, however, that a foot which has beeii 
thus treated is sufficiently sound to bear hard work. 

CONTEACTIOX OE THE FOOT. 

This reputed disease has been long the bugbear of the horsemastcr ; 
but it is now discovered to be a complete mistake. Some of the most 
contracted feet in point of width are particularly free from all risk of 
disease, and on the' other hand many open ones are as liable to it. The 
donkey, whose heels are shaped exactly like those of tire contracted horse' ti 
foot, is so seldom lame, that few can recall having seen one in that condi- 
tion, and, therefore, reasoning from analogy, one would be led to doubt 
that this shape renders the horse prone to lameness. At the same time it 
is quite true that in the disease which will next be investigated, the frog 
withers and contracts, and the heels are thereby drawn in ; but here the 
contraction is a conseqiience and not a cause of disease, and certainly 
cannot be considered as a disease in itself. Bad shoeing will do much to 
cause either laminitis or navicular disease, and it will certainly produce 
corns and inverted heels, but it will not waste the frog, or induce that 
condition of the foot where the sole is arched so high that the frog does 
not touch the ground when the shoe is off. Such a state of thiu^.o can 
only be brought on either by thrush or navicular disease, and is never the 
result of the mechanical mismanagement of the foot, to which what used 
to be called contraction was generally attributed. All sorts of plans have 
been suggested for expanding the heels and for allowing them to expand ; 
but the real truth is that so long as the frog is sound and tlie parts above 
it, allowing the proper amount of pressure to be communicuted to the sole, 
bars and heel of the crust, these latter divisions of the foot have no room 
to contract, and of a certainty they never do. 



544 THE HORSE. 



NAYICULAR DISEASE. 

This formidable disease, called also the navicular joiyit lameness, and 
navicularthritis, is the chief danger to be apprehended from a good- 
looking strong foot, just as the open flat one is prone to laminitis, and is 
rarely subject to disease in the navicular joint. The reason of this 
immunity on the one hand, and the contrary on the other, is this. The 
open foot, with a large spongy frog, exposes the navicular bone and the 
parts in contact with it to constant presaure in the stable, so that these 
parts are always prepared for work. On the other hand, the concave sole 
and well-formed frog are raised from the ground by our unfortunate mode 
of shoeing, and when the whole foot is exposed to injury from battering, 
and in addition the tendon which plays over the navicular bone presses it 
against the os coronte, the vmprepared state in which this part is allowed 
to remain is sure to produce inflammation, if the work is carried far 
enough. Thus in each case the weak part suifers, but occasionally, though 
very rarely, the foot with an arched sole contracts laminitis, and the flat 
one is attacked by navicular disease ; the exceptions, however, are so few 
that they may be thro"\vn out of the calculation, and from the shape of 
the foot alone it may almost invariably be pronounced, when a horse is 
known to be subject to chronic lameness, whether its seat is in the 
laminae or in the navicular joint. 

When a foot is examined after death wliich is known to have 
been the subject of navicular disease, the parts implicated are invariably 
either the navicular bone, or the soft parts in contact with it, or often all 
together. Most frequently on dividing the tendon of the flexor perforans 
and turning it down so as to expose the back of the joint between the 
navicular and coronal bones, that part will be greatly thickened and in- 
flamed, the tendon being often adherent to it. In the healthy condition 




Fig. 2. — Ulceration op the Posterior Surface of the Navicdlar Bone. 

1. Lower or plantar surface of pedal bone. 2. Small specks of exostosis. 

3. Carious patch. 

there ought to be no adliesion of the fibres of the tendon to any part of 
the navicular bone but its postero-inferior edge, to which the tendon is 
fixed by some few fibres, the bulk passing on to be inserted in the os 



NAViCULAR DISEASE. 545 

pedis. Tlie posterior face of tlie navicular boue should be beautifully- 
smooth, and lined by synovial membrane which forms a lubricating sac 
for it to play upon, and thus take off the friction between the tendon and 
the bone. Such is nature's provision against mischief in this delicate 
part of the machinery of the foot, which she keeps m order by the con- 
stant supply of synovia or joint oil. Eut when the sac is not stimulated 
to a healthy action by the pressure of the frog below it in doors and out, 
synovia is no longer secreted in proper quantity, and as soon as the horse 
IS put to hard work inflammation takes place for want of it. The result 
is some one of the consequences of inflamed joints. Either ulceration 
takes place in the postero-inferior surface, where the tendon glides over it 
as shown in fig. 2 (at 3), sometimes ending in caries of the bone itself ; or 
adhesion takes place without ulceration of the tendon with the surface of 
the bone, or there are small exostoses thrown out, see fig, 2 (2), or lastly 
there is simple inflammation without either adhesion or idceration, and in 
this stage the disease is amenable to treatment without leaving any trace 
behind. 

The symptoms of navicular disease are the same, whether tlie miscliicf 
has extended to ulceration or not; but the history will guide us in ascer- 
taining how far it has gone. Of course they vary in degree, for there 
may be only a shght extent of ulceration, or a high degree of simple 
inflammation; but in the former case the lameness will not be so marked 
as in the latter, though the prospect of recovery will be much less. There 
is always more or less lameness ; but, in consequence of its affecting both 
feet, it is not so marked to the careless observer as in some much more 
trivial cases where only one is diseased. .The distinguishing sign, though 
not absolutely iirfallible, is the pointing of the toe, and a peculiar round- 
ing forward of the fetlock joint, so as to relieve the navicular bone 
of any Aveight. In laminitis, the object of the suflerer is to relieve all 
pressure as much as possible, by bringing the hind legs under the body, 
and by bearing the weight of the fore quarter on the heels. Here, the 
reverse of the latter attitude is observed — the heels are not allowed to take 
any pressure, and the toes alone are placed at all firmly on the ground. 
This is marked in the stable by the pointing of the toe (in each foot 
alternately, if both are diseased, but in the one only, if they are not both 
aifected). Out of doors, the toes dig into the ground, the heel never 
being brought firmly down, and frequent stumbles mark the difference 
between this species of lameness and laminitis. The subject of navicular 
disease generally wallcs sound ; but the moment he is trotted, he goes as 
if his legs were tied together, his stride being shortened in a remarkable 
manner, but without exhibiting the peculiar fumbling gait of the foun- 
dered aniaiaL As in his case, soft ground suits him, and he has no fear of 
plough, because his sole is hard and unyielding. INIany tolerably con- 
firmed cases of navicular disease may, therefore, be hunted, except when 
the ground is hard, sxipjDosing, of course, that they are kept off the road ; 
but no plan of management will enable them to bear the jars incidental to 
harness-work or hacking. When one foot only is the subject of navicular 
disease, it often happens that it is smaller altogether than the other ; but 
it is somewhat difficult to say whether this is a cause or a consequence of 
inflammation. One thing is quite clear, that many horses are met with, 
still perfectly free from lameness, in which there is a difference of size in 
their fore feet; but wh'i'ther or no these are afterwards invariably the 
subjects of navicular dispasr-^ it is almost impossible to ascertain. It is, 
however, th-.^ general opinion, founded on experience, that when this 



546 THE HORSE. 

variation exists, navicular disease is extremely likely to attack the smaller 
foot, if it is not already there ; and for this reason, horses with such feet 
are generally avoided by the intending purchaser. 

The treatvient of navicular disease, as before remarked, is only successful 
in the early stage, before either ulceration or adhesion has taken place. 
If a horse with strong concave soles suddenly becomes lame, points his 
toe, and shows other signs that his navicular bone is inflamed, he should 
be treated in the usual way suited to inflammation, and at the same time 
liberty should be given to the vascular tissues to expand, by reducing the 
substance of the horn. Bleeding at the toe has the double good effect of 
abstracting blood, and at the same time weakening the sole, so as to allow 
of the expansion Avhich is desired. The operation should, therefore, at 
once be performed ; at the same time, the whole sole may be reduced in 
thickness, and the heels lowered in proportion. The foot should then 
(after the shoe is tacked on) be placed in a cold bran poultice, which will 
soften the horn ; and the system should be reduced by the exhibition of 
the medicines recommended under Laminitis, at page 541. Next day, if 
the pulse continues high, more blood may be taken ; but, in ordinary 
cases, it is better at once to insert a seton in the frog (see Operations, 
Chap. XXXII.), and trust to this for relieving the chronic inflammation 
remaining, by its counter-irritation. But when the disease itself is mas- 
tered, there is still a good deal to be done to prevent the injurious effects 
which are so apt to follow. The horse contracts a habit of stepping on 
his toes, to prevent hurting his navicular structures ; and hence the frog 
is not used, the heels of the crust and the bars are not strained, and there 
being no stimulus to the soft parts which secrete them, they waste and 
contract in size. If the human hand is allowed to he idle, the palm and 
the insides of the fingers are covered with a delicate cuticle, which affords 
so poor a protection to the cutis, that, on using it with any kind of hard 
work, it actually separates, and leaves an exposed surface, which speedily 
inflames. But by gradually exposing the same hand to pressure, a thick- 
ened and tougher cuticle is secreted ; and this will bear any moderate 
amount of pressure or friction without injury. ISTevertheless, even the 
hand so prepared must be continually stimulated by work, or the skin 
returns to its original delicate state, and is then exposed to the same risk 
of injury as before. So it is with the horse's foot, even in a state of 
health; but this is far more marked after an attack of disease.. The 
tendency then is to produce the natural horny groAvths of a smaller sub- 
stance than before ; and if the secreting surfaces are not stimulated by 
pressure, they become doubly idle, and the frog, as well as the adjacent 
parts beneath the navicular bone, shows a wasted and shrivelled appear- 
ance. To avoid the risk of these ill consequences, the horse should bo 
placed, for two or three hours daily, on a bed of wet clay, which will allow 
the shoe to sink into it, but will yet be tenacious enough to make firm and 
steady pressure on the frog, Avlaile its low temperature will keep down 
inflammation. ISTo plan is of so much service in producing what is called 
expansion of the heels and growth of the frog as this ; not, as is com- 
monly supposed, from the clay mechanically pressing the heels out, but 
from the stimulus of its pressure causing the soft parts to secrete more 
horn, and of a sounder quality than before. 

Should these remedies fail in restoring the foot affected with navi- 
cular disease to a healthy state, recourse can only be had to the operation 
of neurotomy, which is perfectly efficacious in removing the lameness ; 
and if there is no ulceration, and merely an adhesion of the tendon to the 



ACCIDENTS TO THE LEGS. 547 

bone, it will, by causing tho horse to step more on his heels, effect an 
absolute improvement in the shape of the foot, and hence it has some- 
times been considered to have produced a cure. "Where, however, there is 
caries of the bone, or even ulceration of the synovial membrane, the 
disease progresses even faster than before the operation, and in process of 
time the joint becomes mechanically unfit to perform its duties. 

ACCIDENTS TO THE LEGS AND FEET. 

These paets aee subject to a variety of accidents, trifling perhaps in 
the cause which produces them, but serious in their effects, from the 
lameness which ensues. The chief of these are ordinary cutting, speedy 
cutting, and pricks of the foot either from putting the sole down upon 
a nail or a piece of glass, or driving a nail improperly in shoeing. Bruises 
and over-reaches also come under this head. 

Oedinabt cutting may occur either before or behind, the latter being 
the more common. It is often met with in poor horses, where the flesh 
is so reduced in substance that the legs are brought nearer together than 
in a proper condition. Here all that is required is patience, till the legs 
are restored to their proper relative position, taking care in the meantime 
that there is no permanent injury done. Usually the inside of one or 
both feet strikes the fetlock joint of the other leg in passing it, but some- 
times the blow is given higher up, and it may occur anywhere on the 
cannon bone except just below the knee, when it is called " speedy 
cutting," which will be separately considered. Sometimes this blow on 
the side of the cannon bone is either the cause or the effect of a splint, 
the blow of the foot having a tendency to produce exostosis (see Splints, 
page 454). But if a splint is thrown out on a part of the cannon bono 
which comes in the way of the natural action, the horse whose foot pre- 
viously passed clear of that part of the other leg will hit it, and Jiot only 
give pain, but cause a considerable access of inflammation in the previoiis 
enlargement. In the treatment, therefore, of cutting, it is necessary to 
prevent the habit being continued from the swelling produced either by 
a splint or by previous blows. A horse perhaps, either from weakness or 
bad shoeing, liits his leg and produces considerable swelling and soreness. 
Here, uxdess the swelling is reduced or protected, there is no chance of 
preventing the cutting, because there is a projection of the swollen soft 
parts right in the way of the other foot. No alteration of the shoeing, 
and no increase of strength or flesh, will be of service until the inflam- 
mation is reduced, and the sore, if any exists, is healed, and this can only 
be done either by rest or by protecting the leg with a boot. Tlie latter is 
the better plan, and wherever a horse cuts it is, in my opinion, advisable 
to let him wear a boot for some weeks, until the skin is quite sound again 
and reduced to its proper thickness. A piece of an old rug folded round 
the leg so as slightly to overlap, and then tied with a tape and turned 
down over the fetlock joint, is quite sufficient to serve this temporary 
purpose, and being soft it is well calculated to protect a swollen joint ; 
but if it is worn for any length of time, the pressure of the tape and the 
friction of the grit from the road wear away the hair, and cause an un- 
sightlj'- appearance, which is sometimes permanent. If, therefore, the 
cutting is not rectified completely in the course of a month or six weeks, 
a leather or india-rubber boot should be nicely adapted to the joint and 
buckled round it, the flat surface of the strap not having so injurious an 
effect as the tape of the cloth boot. Wlien the cutting takes place above 

N N 2 



518 THE HORSE. 

tlie joint, a pad must be adapted to its inside, and fastened round the 
cannon bone by two or tliree buckles, according to the height at Avhich 
the injury takes place. 

Such is the best mode of guarding against the injury done by cutting, 
but we must also consider how it can be entirely prevented. In the first 
place it should be carefully ascertained by what part of the foot or shoe 
the blow is given. Most commonly it will be found, by chalking the 
inside of the foot, that a small patch is rubbed clear of challv, about half 
an inch above the middle of the quarter, and corresponding with the hinder- 
most nail hole, especially when four inside nails are used. When this 
is the hitting point, if great care is taken to aA^oid driving in a nail there, 
the tendency to cut can never be increased as it often is by a raised clench, 
and at the same time the rasp may safely be used to reduce the thickness 
of the hoof at least the eighth of an inch, or often much more. The crust 
is usually here about three-eighths of an inch thick, and very often it is 
so soimd that it will bear to be rasped down till there is only one-eighth 
left, provided it has not to hear the 2yressure of a nail near it, and that the 
reduction is not carried up too near to the coronet. In the hind foot the 
quarter is fully half an inch thick, and it therefore will bear reduction 
better even than the fore foot. Sometimes the blow is given by the shoe 
itself, which is fixed on so as to overlap the crust, and then the remedy is 
simple enough, for this ought never to occur, and can easily be prevented 
by any smith. But supposing, in spite of these precautions, the cutting 
still continues after the horse is restored to his natural strength and flesh, 
can anything be done by shoeing 1 In most cases this question may be 
answered in the afifirmative, by the use of what is .called a feather-edged 
shoe, which will be described under the head of shoeing in Chap. XXXII. 
By its aid the heels are both raised, not the inner one only (which is 
entirely useless and even prejudicial, for then the ground surface of the 
shoe is not a true plane), but both heels, the inner one being narrow, and 
having no nail holes beyond the two near the toe, so that there is no 
danger of the web projecting ; nor is there any naO. hole required, with 
the fear of a clench rising, or of the crust being weakened so as to pre- 
vent its being thinned to a proper degree. By thus raising the heels (La 
the hiad foot especially), the fetlock is less bent, and as in horses that 
cut there is almost always a tendency in their fetlock joints to bend in- 
wards as well as backwards, this diminution of the angle will not only 
straighten the leg in a forward direction, but will also increase the dis- 
tance between the joints, which is the object to be desired. In the fore 
foot the obliquity in this direction is not so frequent, and then the high 
heel will be of no use ; indeed, it is only when the toes are much turned 
out that this plan of shoeing the fore foot is ever successful. When 
cutting occurs before, unless there is this turn out, it is- better to put the 
shoes on in a perfectly level manner, and trust to the reduction of the 
thickness of the quarter, and the absence of the third nail. If, with 
these precautions, the horse, when in good condition, still strikes his fore 
legs, it will be better to put up with the constant use of a boot. Generally, 
however, if the inflammation is first subdued, and the foot is shod in a 
perfectly true and level manner, taking care to rasp away the particular 
part which strikes the other leg, it will be found that the cutting is 
avoided. 

Speedy cutting is more dangerous than ordinary cutting, because the 
pain given by the blow is generally more severe, and is often so great that 
the horse falls as if he were shot. On examining the lefc of a confirmed 



INJURIES TO THE FEET. 549 

speedy cutter there is alwa3"s apparent a small scab or bruise on tbe inside 
of the cannon bone, immediately below the knee ; but in slight cases rest 
may have been used to alloAV the skin to heal, and then no mark may 
possibly be left. A careful examination "will, however, generally detect a 
small bare place, partially concealed by the growth of the adjacent hair. 
In bad cases the periosteum is swollen, and there is a considerable 
enlargement of the surface of the bone. In the management of slight 
cases of this kind of cutting, the action should be examined while the 
hoof is covered Avith chalk, and the latter should be treated in the same 
way as already described. If, however, this fails, as it generally does in 
this form of cutting, there is no remedy but to put on a regular speedy- 
cut boot, in which there is a pad buckled on the inside of the leg, and 
reaching from the knee to the fetlock. It must be of this length, because 
otherwise it cannot be kej^t in its place, as the leg allows it to slip down 
until it reaches the larger circumference presented by the joint. Where 
there is pain and swelling, caused by the contusion, it must be treated in 
the ordinary Avay, by the application of cold water and tincture of arnica, 
a wine-glassful of the latter in two quarts of water. 

Pricks in shoeixg occur from the want of skill in the smith, who 
drives the nail too near the laminae, and sometimes even absolutely Avounds 
them. It may be that the nail in its passage upwards is not within an 
eighth of an inch of these delicate parts, and the horsa may not have 
flinched during the driving of it, but when he is put to work the nail 
opposes a hard unyielding line to the soft parts, inflammation is established, 
and possibly even matter is formed which may end in quittor. "When, 
on the day after shoeing, a horse which was pireviously sound goes lame, 
and the foot is hot to the touch,' it may generally be assumed that a nail 
or nails have been driven too near to the quick, unless there is evidence 
of laminitis from other causes. On taj^ping the crust with a hammer, 
the horse will flinch at some particular spot, and there is the nail Avhich 
is in fault. Sometimes there is little inflammation as yet set up,, but the 
pressure of the nail is sufficient to cause lameness, and in either case the 
shoe should be taken off. Then, if there is reason to suppose that matter 
has formed, the openmg from which the nail came out should be enlarged, 
and the matter allowed to escape. If, however, the foot has been merely 
" bound," it may be either left to nature, "with a shoe lightly tacked on, 
and a wet "swab" round the coronet, or it maybe placed in a bran 
poultice, which is the safest plan. 

When a nail is picked up on the road, the prognosis will depend 
upon the part which it has penetrated. If it has entered deeply into the 
toe of the frog, the probability is that the navicular joint has been wounded, 
or probably the tendon of the flexor at its insertion into the pedal bone, 
either of which are very serious accidents. If the wound is further back, 
there is less risk of permanent injury, as the bulbous heels or cushion of 
the frog "will bear a considerable amount of injury without permanent 
mischief. In any case the treatment should consist in cutting away the 
horn round the opening, so as to alloAV of a free escape of matter if it 
forms. At the same time inflammation shovdd be kept under by cold 
" swabs " to the coronet, or by putting the whole foot into a bran 
poultice. 

Over-reaches, Avhen slight, may be treated by the application of 
friar's balsam, or tincture of arnica in full strength, which will have a 
tendency to dry them up and prevent suppuration. If, however, the heel 
is very much, bruised, a poultice must be applied, but even then a little 



550 THE HORSE. 

tincture of arnica should be sprinkled on it. "When the bruise is so 
severe that a slough or core comes away, the wound may be dressed with 
a piece of lint, dipped in a solution of nitrate of silver, eight grains to 
the ounce of distilled water, and over this a bran poultice. In most 
cases, however, it is better to foment the part weU, and then apply the 
tincture of arnica neat. 

A BRUISE on a thin sole wiU sometimes cause matter to form, in which 
case the horn must be cut away, and the case treated as for quittor. 
Before matter forms, the horn should be reduced, and the foot should be 
placed in a cold bran poultice. 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES. 
JEYEES — ANASARCA — GLANDERS — rAECr. 

FEVEES. 

The horse is very rarely subject to fever as a disease of itself, inde- 
pendently of inflammation, under which head I have already described 
catarrhal fever, both of the simple kind and when epidemic, and known 
as influenza. Indeed, aU the important inflammations of the body are 
attended with fever ; but in them the local affections are evidently more 
serious than the general disturbance of the system, which we call by the 
name of fever. By many veterinarians it is doubted whether fever ever 
shows itself in the horse without inflammation ; but occasionally it raaj 
be observed under the form of simple fever, presenting all the symptoms 
which accompany ordinary inflammation, but without any such complica- 
tion, and more rarely of the typhoid form, wliich now sometimes attends 
influenza and other epidemics. 

Simple fever shows itself by dulness and reluctance to move, a staring 
coat, and cold legs and feet, with increased warmth of the body. The 
pulse is quick, soft, and variable — breathing a little accelerated, but not 
much — appetite entirely lost — ^bowels confined, and urine scanty. These 
symptoms continue for two or three days, and then either go on into the 
typhoid form, or they are complicated by inflammation in some organ of 
the body. The treatment merely consists in giving a mild dose of physic, 
followed by a febrifuge drink, such as the following : — 

Take of Spirit of Nitrous Etlier ] oz. 

Nitre 3 to 5 drachms. 

Tincture of Ginger 2 drachms. 

Camphor Mixture 6 oz. 

Mix, and give twice a day. 

Typhoid fever sometimes appears as an epidemic, occurring either as a 
sequel to influenza, or in its pure form, without any compHcation. The 
latter condition is, however, extremely rare. In its early stage, it can 
scarcely be recognised or distinguished from simple fever ; but in the 
course of two or three days the strength is so much reduced, the breath is 
«o fetid, and the mouth is loaded with such a black discharge from the 



ANASARCA. 551 

toiigue and gums, that tiie nature of the disease is clearly manifested. 
The pulse is very low, the languor increases, and there is often more or 
less delirium. The course of the disease is extremely rapid, and in five or 
six days a strong horse will sink beneath its powers, refusing food, and 
dymg with(jut any attempt to rally. The treatment should be of the most 
generous kind, as soon as the bowels have been gently moved, which 
should be effected, if possible, by injection. Then give a ball two or tlu'ee 
times a day, composed thus : — 

Take of Carboncate of Ammouia 4 to 1 drachm. 

Powdered Gin;^er 1 drachm. 

Powdered Yellow Bark 3 drachms. 

Syrup enough to make iuto a ball. 

This should be washed down with a quart of ale caudle, and hay tea 
should be allowed as the drink ad libitum; or, if there is diarrhoea, rice 
water may be ' used in the same way. Few cases, hoAvever, will recover, 
in. spite of every exertion and careful treatment on the part of the 
attendant. 

AI^ASAECA. 

Anasarca, or moor-ill, occiirs chiefly among horses turned out in 
marshes or low commons, and may readily bo known by the general 
swelling of the body, increasing by gravitation in the legs during the 
standing posture, but showing itself chiefly in the lower side of the body 
in the early mornmg, when the horse has been lying down all night. The 
disease is now rare, but it occasionally appears under the circumstances 
above described. The treatment must be hj acting on the kidney's, the 
following being a useful recipe for the purpose : — 

Take of Nitre 4 drachms. 

Powdered Resiu S drachms. 

Ginger 1 drachm. 

Spirit of Nitrous Ether 1 .^ oz. 

Warm "Water 2 Pints. 

Mix and give as a drench every night. 

GLAN^DEES. 

This frightful constitutional disease appears to consist in the 
generation of some poisonous matter in the blood, which nature attempts 
to throw off by establisliing a discharge in the nostrils. It is perfectly 
incurable, and therefore it is only necessary to study its ST/mptoms, with a 
view to distinguish it from ozena, with whicli alone it is liable to be con- 
founded. Its chronic character and insidious onset will serve to dis- 
tinguish it from catarrh and strangles. 

At its cojimencement, it seems to be confined to the internal lining of 
the nostrils, which is not reddened, as in chronic catarrh (ozena), but 
presents a leaden or purple colour, sometimes of a deep shade, but at first 
generally very light and pale. This is accompanied by a thin acrid dis- 
charge, transparent, and without odour. Generally, one nostril only is 
affected, which in this country is more frequently the left, and in France 
the right; but why this should be so has never yet been even conjectured 
with any appearance of probability. This state of things usually only 
lasts for a few weeks, but it may go on for an indefinite time, and is 
recognised as the first stage; during Avhich the health does not suffer, and 
tire horse can, and often does, go on with his ordinary work. It may be 



552 THE HORSE. 

distinguislied from ozena "by tlie purple colour of the lining membrane, 
and ty the transparency and freedom from smell of the discharge. 

In the second stage, the discharge increases in quantity, and though 
still watery and transparent, it is slightly sticky, indicating the presence 
of mucus. The lymphatic glands below the jaw enlarge, and become 
adherent to the hone, feeling hard to the touch, and almost like exostosis. 
Here the permanent character of the discharge and the adherence of the 
glands to the bone are the diagnostic signs from ozena. 

In the third stage, the discharge increases rapidly, and becomes yellow 
and opaque — in fact, it is pure pus. If the nose is carefully examined, 
its lining membrane will be seen to present one or more sores, with 
depressed centres and ragged edges, and surrounded by small varicose 
vessels leading to them from all directions. In proportion to the extent 
of the local mischief, constitutional disturbance is displayed. The appetite 
fails — the horse loses flesh and spirits — the coat is turned the wrong way 
— the skin is hide-bound, and the legs fill slightly during the day, but go 
do^^Ti at night — the nose is, at last, frightfully ulcerated, the sores spread- 
ing to the larynx — ulcers break out on the body — and the horse finally 
dies, worn to a skeleton. 

WJten the diagnosis of the disease is confirmed, as it is undoubtedly 
highly contagious, both to other horses and to man himself, the patient 
ought to be destroyed. By the use of green food, his life may be pro- 
longed for a time, and a certain amount of work may be got out of him ; i 
but the risk of contagion is too great to be incurred, and no man who j 
regards his oAvn weKare, and that of his neighbours, should keep 
glandered horse. 

• FARCY. 

This disease appears to depend upon the development of the same 
poison as in glanders ; but the attempt at elimination is made in the skin, 
instead of the mucous membrane lining the nose. A horse inoculated 
with glanders may exhibit farcy, and vice versa; so that the essence of 
the disease is the same, but its seat is a different tissue. 

Farcy usually shows itself first by one or two small hard knots in the 
skin, called "farcy buds." These soon soften, and contain a small quan- 
tity of pus ; but as this is rapidly absorbed, the lymphatics which convey 
it into the circulation inflame ; and at a short distance another bud is 
formed, and then another, and another. These buds are usually met with 
in the thin skin covering the inside of the thighs and arms, or the neck 
and lips. They vary from the size of a shilling to that of a haK-crown ; 
and as they increase in numbers, the skin becomes oedematous. In pro- 
cess of time, the general system suffers, as in glanders, and the horse dies, 
a miserable, Avorn-out object. No treatment can be rehed on to cure the 
disease ; and as it is equally contagious with glanders, every farcied horse 
ought at once to be destroyed. The hard nature of the buds, and the 
thickened lymphatics extending like cords between, clearly make knoAvn 
the nature of the disease. 



SHOEING. 653 



CHAPTER XXXII. 

OPERATIONS. 

SHOEING— ADMINISTRATION OP CHLOROFORM— METOODS OF CONFINING THE HOESE- 
BLEEDING— FIRING — SETONS AND ROWELS — BLISTERING — CASTRATION — DOCKING AND 

NICKING UNNERVING — REDUCTION OF HERNIA ADMINISTRATION OF PHYSIC — 

CLYSTERS — BACK-RAKING. 

SHOEING. 

IjEfoee proceeding to describe the various metliods adopted in shoeing 
the horse, it will be well to consider whether it is necessary to protect 
his feet in this way at all. This has been doubted by many, and an 
attempt has recently been made by Lieutenant Perry to prove that 
even in this country a horse can work on our roads unshod. His opinion, 
and that of the few who coincide with him, is that if the foot is gra- 
dually accustomed to the friction of the road, it will secrete a stronger 
horn, and throw it out more rapidly, so that it will bear the enormous 
wear and tear which its use on our macadamized road entails upon 
this organ. This argument is supjiorted by numberless instances abroad, 
in which horses are used without shoes ; but it does not follow that 
because they will bear the friction and blows incidental to one kind of 
surface, a dilferent one Avill not lame them. Every experiment Avhich has 
been made in this country of worldng horses unshod has turned out a 
failure, and in Lieutenant Perry's case the mare on which he tried the 
plan became so sore that his commanding officer interposed to prevent 
a further continuance of the trial. It can only therefore be considered 
conclusive by those who are willmg to take the opinion of a colonel of 
Engineers as opposed to a subaltern officer — which is the position in 
which this single experiment stands. Every horseman knows that with- 
out a gradual seasoning there is no doubt about the foot being too weak 
to stand the wear of the road, and therefore unless the trial is made under 
every advantage it goes for nothing ; and the mere fact that a horse, after 
losing a shoe, can hardly be taken home without breaking his foot, proves 
nothing, because it may be alleged that the same animal, if left unshod, 
would in course of time secrete a horn so tough and hard that it would be 
capable of bearing any amount of friction. Judging from those cases in 
which I have seen the plan partially tried, that is, with tips instead of full 
shoes, I believe that it is impossible to make it succeed with high-actioned 
horses on our roads during the summer season, for even with that protec- 
tion the heels and frogs become very thin, and I am satisfied that the 
toes, if unprotected, would wear or break away to the quick in a very short 
time. Whether it is possible to work any horse, possessing an average foot, 
with tips only on our roads, I am by no means prepared to say, but that 
some horses can do so I know from positive experience. The heels wear 
thin, but do not become bruised, and the horny matter of the frog is 
renewed as fast as it is required. Undoubtedly the toes when unshod are 
much more exposed to injury than the heels, especially in those horses 
"whose action is inclined to make that part touch the ground first, for 
there is a tendency to break as well as wear away. It i? also an admitted 



554 



THE HORSE. 



fact, that many tiioiisands of horses are annually lamed by our present 
system, and therefore I should much like the system of shoeing with tips 
tried on a large scale. The question is, whether those horses Avho bring 
their heels do^vn first would be able to bear the bruising of the frog which 
this action causes ; and if not, it would always be a doubtful point, which 
must be left to the discretion of the smith, whether every individual 
liorse should be shod in one way or the other. Unless therefore tips 
could be used in a vast majority of cases, I do not expect much good 
from their introduction. 

The anatomy of the foot has been described ct page 448 et seq. and 
it is therefore unnecessary to return to it again. It will, however, bo 
desirable, in describing the proper mode of preparing the foot for the 
shoe, to recapitulate the several parts wliich the smith has to work upon. 
These are delineated in fig. 1, of the projier form and proportions. In 
effecting this, the old shoe (excepting of course unshod colts) must first 
be taken off, to do which the clenches must be raised with the tool 
called the buffer, loosening any nails which may appear tight by driving 
them back with the punch. Then taking hold of one web of the shoe, 
raise it from its bed by liftmg one side bodily and then the other, taking 
care not to draw it off completely on one side, or the crust will be broken. 
Xext rasp the whole surface of the crust to a lovcl. Avhich will expose 




Fio. 1. — A SOUND Fore-foot prepared for the Shol. 

E. E. The angles between the heel and bars, 
wliwe corns appear. 

F. F. The coucave surface of the toe. 
(J. G. The bulbous heels. 

H. The cleft. 



A. The heel of the crust. 

B. The toe cut out to receive the clip. 

C. C. The quarters of the crust. 

D. D. The bars as they should be left with the 

full fi-og between them. 



any stubs remaining, and if there are any they must be taken out. All 
this is a mere mechanical operation, requiring no thought; but now comes 
the important pai't of the smith's work. He must decide how far he 
shall remove the horn Avliich has grown since the last shoeing, and this 



SHOEmG. 555 

demands some knowledge of tlie anatomy of tlie foot and also of its 
diseases. He must remember that lie has only ahout half an inch of horn 
at the thickest part between his knife and the sensitive internal parts ; 
and though he can generally make a foot looh well by the use of his tools, 
he often only does this at the expense of the destruction of a part which 
alone keeps the foot sound. Much will dejiend upon the natural or 
acquired formation of the foot he has to shoe. K it is very strongly 
covered with horn, great liberties may be taken mth it, as compared with 
one where the sole is flat and thin, and the crust very shelly and weak. 
Generally he -will only have to take an equal proportion off from the 
whole concave surface of the sole, that is, supposiug the foot was properly 
i:)repared the last time it was shod ; but sometimes it will have been 
allowed to grow greatly out of shape, and then much experience and skill 
are required to know how far to go with the knife. A perfect model 
must not always be carried in the eye, with a view to render the one 
before the smith exactly like it, but he miist rather consider how he can 
make the best of the materials he has to work upon, which will generally 
be by preserving horn rather than by removing it. If the foot is strong, 
the toe may be slightly shortened, the heels of the crust and the bars may 
be lowered a little, and then the sole may be pared out so as to present a 
concavity downwards, avoiding too free a use of the laiife. The frog ■will 
only want to be cleared of any ragged portions depending from it, and 
the attachment of the bars to the crust must studiously be preserved. It is 
usual to clear out the sole in the angular interval bet'ween the bar and the 
crust, so as to avoid all risk of the shoe pressing upon the foot and causing 
a corn ; but if care is taken to prevent the shoe from being twisted side- 
ways, this can never hapj)en, and the sole may be left here on a level with 
the bar, unless it has previously been the seat of a corn. 

Such ^re the general directions for preparing the healthy foot for 
the ordinary English shoe ; but supposing that there is any disease or 
tendency to it, or that some unusual form of shoe is decided on, there 
will be a necessity for certain modifications in the j^lan adopted. It wiU, 
therefore, be desirable in this place to examine into the various kinds of 
fore shoes at the option of the smith, which may be comprised under — 
1st. The common English shoe ; 2d. The French shoe ; 3d. Mr. Goodwin's 
improved shoe ; 4th. Eracy Clark's hinged shoe ; 5th. Turner's unilateral 
shoe ; 6th. The half-moon shoe ; 7th. The tip ; 8th. The plate or racing 
shoe; 9th. The bar shoe; 10th, The patten. The hind shoe will be 
subsequently examined. 

1. The common English shoe for general purposes is represented in 
the annexed engra-sdng, which shows both its surfaces. It is often made 
wider at the heels than the foot it is intended for, but this is a great 
mistake, and leads to the very mischief which it is intended to avoid. 
On examining the foot represented at page 554 it Avill be seen that at the 
back part of the crust on each side there is a considerable narrowing, or 
approach of the one heel to the other. This should be exactly copied, so 
that when the shoe is fitted neither heel will project a hair's^ breadth 
beyond the other. The web will vary in breadth according to the nature 
of the sole which it has to protect, being made broader for a thin, weak 
Bole, than for a strong one. On the internal or foot surface, the inner 
half or rather more is forged in a concave shape, so as to make the iimer 
edge much thinner than the outer. This is called the concave seat, and 
is intended to keep all pressure off the sole, and to prevent the ordinary 
sized pieces of grit and gravel which insinuate themselves between the 



5bC, 



THE HORSE. 



shoo and tlio foot from injuring the latter Ly their presence. The weh of 
this shoe is perfectly flat on the ground surface, and is of the same thick- 




Fio. 2. — Concave-seated English Shoe fop. Git Fore Foot, showing both Suufaoks. 

A. Clip at toe. C. C. Level bearing for heel of crust and bar to 

13. Concave surface to lighten the shoe, and rest upon. 

keep off pressure from the sole. D. D. Fullering for nail heads. 

E. E. Flat web, gi-ound side. 

ness throughout. !N"ear its outer edge a groove is punched, with a tool 
called a "fuller," and in most shoes the fullering is carried all the way to 



SHOEING, 557 

the heel, but for what purpose the shoe is thus weakened, I am at a loss 
to know. It has not the slightest effect in preventing slipping, because 
it is not wide enough to present a rough edge to the ground, and therefore 
it only weakens the u"on without any counterbalancing advantage. Its 
use is to hold the nail heads, so that they do not wear away and lose their 
shoulders, by which alone they keep the slioe on. The fullering, in my 
opinion, should merely extend far enough to contain the number of holes 
required, which ase punched in it after the shoe is otherwise completed. 
According to the thickness of the crust in each foot should be the distance 
of the fullering from the outer edge, the inner side of the groove corre- 
sponding exactly with the inner edge of the crust. This will allow of the 
nails taking firm hold of the horn without being driven in a parallel line 
mth the fibres of which it is composed. If this is not avoided there is 
always a risk of their pricking the laminas, or passing so close to these parts 
as to endanger them by causing undue pressure. INIr. Miles, who has written 
a most practical treatise on Shoeing, at the instance of the Eoyal Agri- 
cultural Society, is of opinion that five nails only are required to keep any 
shoe firmly on, but tliis is contrary to the experience of most practical men, 
who find that with less than three nails on the inside and four on the out 
the shoe is very liable to come off. j\Ir. JMilcs recommends two nails on the 
inside and tliree on the out, but though fewer m number they are wider apart 
than usual, and they are carried quite as far back as they need be when two 
additional nails are employed. There has been a great outcry made lately 
against the confinement of the foot by fixing the inside heel of the crust 
to the shoe, and Mr. Tm-ner has insisted upon avoiding this, by driving 
all the nails into the outside crust, and none whatever into the inside. 
Here I think a great mistake has been committed, for if the foot alters 
its shape in reference to its shoe, that is to say, if the heels expand, 
since the outer one is entirely confined in its place, it cannot move, and all 
the friction is thrown upon the inside heel, whereby harm instead of good 
is done, as it is more readily brought inwards than driven out. I much 
prefer, therefore, using seven nails instead of five, but keeping all the 
nails nearer the 'toe, as shown in fig. 2. This number of nails, properly 
driven, will keep any shoe on, if it is not too long at the heels for the 
foot, and if it is not allowed to overlap it. When the crust is very thin, 
and will not admit of a firm hold being taken by the nails, the holes 
must of coiu'se be punched further back on the outside ; but Avith a sound 
foot and unbroken crust, the position of the nails shown in fig. 2 is the 
best for preserving the foot in a sound state. The toe of the shoe should be 
turned up into a chp, which, however, need not be large enough to inter- 
fere with the nail holes there. It is a great mistake to cut away all the horn 
from the toe in the attempt to make the foot look well, and if this is not 
done there is ample room for the nails behind the outer edges of the chp. 
The shoe recommended by Mr. Spooner in his well-known and 
admirable work on " The Foot of the Horse," is described by that gentle- 
man as follows : "It is then a seated shoe, with the flat part rather 
wider than common. The web of the shoe, for a moderate-sized horse 
used on the road, is about an inch in width, but varying according to 
circumstances, and being narrower at the heels, where the upper wearing 
surface is very slightly bevelled outwards, than at the other parts : the 
ground part flat, sometimes fullered and sometimes stamped ; but when 
the former plan is adopted the fuller is not deep, or too near the edge, 
but somewhat wider than common. Three holes merely are stamped on the 
inside toe, and five on the outside toe and quarters, with a clip at the toe 



558 



THE UORSE. 



and another at the outer quarter. In light horses one, two, or three nails 
can be dispensed with. Sometimes, instead of a clip at the toe, the shoe 
is turned up in the French fashion, as recommended by Mr. Goodmn ; 
this plan is very advantageous when horses are in the habit of hitting 
the toe and tripping, or wearing it in undue proportion. In contracted 
feet the application of this shoe has materially enlarged the foot, quite as 
much as it is desirable to do ; indeed, I believe if it were applied early, 
contracted feet Avould be altogether avoided. It is also.calculated in great 
measure to prevent corns, from bearing so easy on the inside heel." 

These are admirable directions, with the exception of the cKp on the 
outside, which I strongly object to as destroying so much of the crust for 
no useful purpose. I much prefer them to those of Mr. Miles, who has 
taken credit for more than he really deserves, as the originator of the 
present fashion for a small number of nails. If his drawings of shoes 
are examined, it will be seen that though his nail holes are few in number 
the outside nails are carried nearer the heels than usual, and the hindmost 
inside nail is quite as far back as the third nail as driven, by most good 
smiths. Mr. Spooner's plan of filing the heels, with a slight inclination 
outwards, is excellent, as it has a tendency to prevent the heel of the 
crust from curling inwards, and may possibly cause it to expand slightly 
in the contrary direction. I confess, however, that I cannot see what 
there'is in his shoe to make "the bearing so easy on the inside heeL" 
On the contrary, the bevelling outwards of the heel of the shoe has a 
tendency to cause an increase of pressure on the seat of corn, rather than 
to relieve it. ]\Iy own opinion is that it does neither the one nor the other, 
unless the shoe is twisted bodily outwards. 

The shoe used in hunting is made of a different shape as regards the 
seating, bemg only slightly relieved with the file at this part, so as to 
avoid any approach to convexity, and hollowed on the outside, in a manner 
similar to the form adopted in the inside of the ordinary shoe ; thus — - 




Fia 3--HuNTKNii SuoE FOR Off Foke Foot, concave on the Gkoujtd Sii/D. 
A. Conca\ity dvkIo to cive foothold, and Hghten the shoo. 



i 



SHOEIXG. 559 

This is intended to give a firmer foothold of the ground than the smooth 
web of the common shoe Avill allow of, and answers that purpose most 
effectually. In other respects, the hunting shoe is made exactly like the 
common shoe, except that it is generally as light as possible, consistently 
with a necessary strength, and Avith a sufficient A\4dth to protect the sole. 
Sometimes the outside nails must be carried considerably further back 
than I have here represented, and especially Avhen the horse to be shod is 
apt to pidl off his shoes, or when he is intended for a deep clay country; 
but for grass or any liglit arable, seven nail holes, punched as I have 
represented in fig. 3, aud the nails well driven and clenched, will keep on 
the shoe, without any danger of its getting a twist. Here, again, I shall 
insert Mr. Spoonor's admirable description of the shoe recommended by 
him for this purpose : " For hunting, the shoe must be narrower than 
for the road, and an additional nail may be placed on the inside ; no evil 
will result from this, because in the field the pressure on the crust is in a 
great degree relieved by the sole and frog. There must be space for a piece 
of paper to pass between the foot and inner rim of the shoe, but no more, as 
the foot can then be withdrawn from heavy soil with less difficulty than 
when the usual space is permitted. To avoid overreaching, the heels of 
the fore shoe should scarcely project beyond the heels of the crust " 
(they should not at all), " and they should be rounded off, instead of 
being left square, as is usually the case. The hind shoes should also, 
when there is any disposition to overreach, be square at the toe, set a 
little within the crust ; and the inner rim at the toe should have a piece 
cut out, so that, instead of a sharp edge, there should be a rounded surface, 
which, of course, is not so likely to catch the heels of the fore feet." It 
Avill be seen that this description tallies very closely with that which 
I have given above, the only point of difference being the external con- 
cavity of the web, which I believe to be of great importance in procuring 
a secure foothold. It also allows the foot to be pulled out of wet clay far 
more easily than the flat web ; and there is a reduction of useless weight, 
as the hunting shoe does not wear out, except with those riders who keep 
to the roads, and they of course should have a road shoe. 

2. The French shoe differs from the English form in both its surfaces, 
that which comes in contact Avith the foot being concave, while the other 
is convex. To make it fit the foot, the toe and heels of the latter must 
be pared away and made to fit the shoe, as here represented. The web is 
very wide, and punched with eight countersimk nail holes, the English 
plan of fullering not being adopted. The holes are also punched fully the 
third of an inch from the edge of the shoe, and the nails are driven in a 
very great slant, so that they come out little more than haK an inch above 
the shoe, as represented in fig. 4. By adopting this plan, several advan- 
tages are said to be gained, as compared with the English method, which 
Mr. Goodwin, who advocates the French shoe (yet proj)Oses another on 
exactly the opposite principles), enumerates as folloAvs : " If we refer to 
the action of the fore leg, it "will tend to explain some of the advantages to 
be derived from the curved shoe. When a horse is about to move, the first 
indication of motion is a bend at the knee, which necessarily raises the 
heels, and they become more and more elevated, till the toe (which is the 
last part that leaves the ground) is suspended for the moment that the foot 
is lifted. The base of the foot, just at its leaving the ground, is almost 
perpendicular; when the knee is bent to its fullest extent, the foot is then 
in the same position, with the heels of the shoe pointing upAvarcls. If we 
consider this final part of the motion of the limb, we find the movement 



5G0 



THE HORSE. 



of the foot very nearly describe a semicircle, and on \'iewing tlio form of 
the joints connected "vvith. action, the necessity for a curve at the toe is 
clearly demonstrated. Again, the form of the shoe, worn out, at once 
shows that it must be more suitable to put on a neAV one of that form, 
rather than to suffer the action of the leg to be opposed until it is worn to 
that form. In the second part of the action, when the foot comes to the 
ground, the quarters and heels touch first, and they are the only parts 
occupied in placing it on the ground again. There may be deviations 
from this general rule, as in those horses that have bad action; a!!so when 
horses are drawing heavy weights, it must necessarily differ. The fore 
legs may be considered simply as pillars of support, having no power of 
themselves to propel the body forward, progression being entirely per- 
formed by the hind parts ; and if it were not so, the action would be 




Fig. 4.— The French Shoe. 

different, as I have before observed it to be in those horses which have 
great weights to draw, and this may be move readily observed in any 
draught horse going up hill. I have offered thise few rismarks on action, 
in order to bring the reader's attention to the curve uf the French shoe at 
the toe. This form of shoe certainly harmonises more with the motion of 
the fore foot than the English does ; it affords a greater surface of bearing 
at the toe than the projecting ridge of the straight ordinary shoe, and is 
much more calculated to allow of the motion of the leg and foot ; the 
labour of the muscles is also diminished, and the limb being in its natural 
position, the ligaments have less imposed upon them ; they are more at 
ease, and consequently are not so liable to be strained. The shape of the 
rofl&n-bone is also another proof of the French system being more con- 
sistent with the principles of nature than the straight ordinary shoe. If 
the coffin-bone of a fore foot be placed on a level surface, the quarters and 
heels are the only parts in contact with it, which proves that they are 
intended by nature to meet the ground first, and to bear the greater pro- 
portion of weight; but if the quarters of the hoof be removed (lowered or 
diminished) to admit of the straight shoe, the portion of weight intended 
to be borne on the quarters must be thrown upon the heels ; and hence 
the great 7iiischief which ensues from the common (plain) English shoe." 



SHOEIi\'(}. 561 

A reference to page 320, where tlie coffm-bone is carefully delineated in 
profile, -will show the correctness of a part of this argument ; for un- 
doubtedly the lower surface of the edge of the coftin-bone is convex, and 
therefore there is no impropriety in cutting away the crust till it is left of 
an equal thickness between this bone and the shoe. Eut if it is decided 
to adopt the French shape, it must never be forgotten that it is not merely 
by cutting away the heels and toe that a foot prepared in the English way 
can be fitted to a French shoe, but by allowing the quarters to grow at 
the part where they are usually, in this country, sliced away to arrive at a 
plain surface. If this is not done, the heels will be too much Aveakened, 
and a corn will almost inevitably be produced in the inner one. The 
du'ections given by IM. Bourgelat, and by INI. Janze in his quarto on 
shoeing, are nearly the same ; namely, that the convexity should be two 
and a half times the thickness of the shoe. This curvature is distributed 
so that the toe shall be raised twice the thickness of the shoe from the 
ground, and the heel the remaining half; the bend at the latter part 
beginning at the hindmost nail hole, and that of the front of the shoe 
springing from the next nail. There is a great deal to be said in favoui- 
of this method of shoeing, grounded on the theory of action, Avhich is not 
very clearly explained by JMr. Goodwin in the remarks which I have 
quoted ; but the strongest argument is founded on the fact that French 
horses are much sounder on their feet than the English. It must l^e 
remembered, however, that the roads in France are not like ours ; they 
are either paved or composed of loose gravel, both of which surfaces are 
more likely to suit the convex shoe than our hard flint, gravel, or granite 
roads. But, independently of the difference in surface in the shoes of the 
two countries, there is also a great variation in the nail holes, which in 
the French shoe are placed on both sides of the web, as I have represented 
them on the outside (figs. 3 and 4) ; thus the outer heel is less confined 
in France than in this country, and to this fact I attribute a great part of 
their superior success. It would be a long time before so great a revolu- 
tion could be accomplished as is necessary for the introduction of the 
French shoe into general use ; but I believe that it Avould, on the whole, 
be far superior to our own. 

3. Mr. Goodwin has suggested an improvement on the French shoe, 
consisting in making the heels of the shoe slightly convex towards the 
foot, necessitating a double sweep in both surfaces. It is difficult to 
convey an accurate idea of Mr. Goodwin's shoe without an illustration, 
but his object is to place the heel of the crust on a sloping surface, so that 
when pressure is made downwards, it has a tendency to expand the heels. 
I believe, however, that all attempts to effect this object by mechanical 
means are fallacious, and that it is only by causing a due development of 
the frog and bars through the stimulus of pressure that it can be done. 
I, therefore, see no advantage in Mr. Goodwin's alteration, and should 
prefer the French plan, pure and simple. 

4. Mr. Bract Clark, in his great anxiety to prevent contraction, sug- 
gested a hinge at the toe of the shoe, by which it might be allowed to 
expand with the foot. At fhst sight this looks extremely simple, and likely 
to be efficacious, bi;t there is one objection which completely explains the 
reason of its utter failure in practice. It must be nailed on firmly to both 
quarters, and at least four nails in each Avill be required. If, therefore, 
the heels are to expand, they must do so by a hmge or bend in the toe of 
the foot, since the quarters are nailed to the shoe, and no yielding can 
possibly take place between the four nails which are driven into each. 

o o 



862 THE HORSE. 

Novf the toe is not the faulty part in contraction, but the curve takes 
phice at the back of the quarters, and moreover, the toe being guarded by 
the thickest part of the horn in front, and strengthened by the angle 
Avhich the sole makes with it, cannot possibly expand or contract in the 
Avay which must be accomplished to carry out the object of the hinged 
shoe. The plan is therefore abandoned as practically useless, and theo- 
retically founded on fallacious principles. 

5. Turner's unilateral shoe. This name is not very descriptive of 
tlic plan which Mr. Turner, the well-known Veterinary Surgeon of Regent 
Street, introduced into notice some years ago. It is not a one-sided shoe, 
but a shoe nailed only on the outside quarter and toe. Two clips are 
used, one at the toe and the other at the back of the outside quarter. Ho 
also reduces the thickness of the heel by tiling away the ground surface, 
leaving a shoulder about three-quarters of an inch from the extreme 
point, and thus his shoe is nearly exactly similar in principle to the French 
plan, excepting in not continuing the curve to the toe. Mr. Turner con- 
siders that this prevents any pressure being made at the seat of corn ; but 
he forgets that iron is of a most unyielding nature, and that a blow given 
to the middle of the shoe is distributed equally over the whole of the 
under surface of the foot, and is not confined to that part only immediately 
above it. I believe that his plan is more likely to produce corns than to 
prevent them, as by reducing the shoe up to a shoulder it is more likely 
to bend there, and then permanent pressure would be made on the heel, 
which would be far more likely to produce a corn than occasional blows. 
As far as the mode of nailing on the outside only is concerned, I believe 
it also is liable to objection, inasmuch as while it entirely frees the inside 
half of the foot, it sacrifices the outside in a terrible manner. It is quite 
true that the inner heel is weaker than the outer, but a contracted foot is 
afi"ected on both sides of the frog, and thus there is more mischief done to 
the outer heel than good to the inner. The principle of avoiding confine- 
ment of the heel by nailing is good, but the practice of sacrificing the 
outer one to the inner is not to be recommended, where it is possible to 
avoid injury to either. As I before remarked, contraction takes place in 
the back part of the foot and not at the toe, and a nail driven considerably 
in front of the middle of the quarter has no prejudicial effect in confining 
the heel. 

6. The half-moon shoe was strongly recommended by Professor 
Coleman, in the belief that unless the frog touches the ground it is impos- 
sible to keep up a due secretion of the parts which depend upon that 
organ for their proper size and situation. His shoe was flat towards the 
*'oot, and concave like the hunting shoe (fig. 3) on the ground side of the 
Sole, and would allow of sufficient paring out to give space between the 
two. If this could not be done, the usual kind of concave seating 
(fig. 2) was adopted. The toe was made of the usual thickness, the web 
becoming gradually thinner till it was reduced to one-third, at the back 
of the quarter, where it ended. In preparing the foot the toe was 
lowered considerably, so as to make up for the difference in the thickness 
of the shoe, and thus take off" the extra jar which would otherwise be 
thrown upon it, and the additional strain on the flexor tendons and sus- 
pensory ligament. Mr. Coleman did not expect that any unsound foot 
could bear this shoe, nor that it could be used on any horse whose heels 
had long been protected by iron, without a considerable preparation by 
gradual work, but he thought that if adopted from the first the frog and 
heels would bear the friction of our roads without suffering, and if so, 



SUOEING. 



r)G3 



that the contraction -would be entirely prevented. The plan was tried on 
the Royal Artillery horses, forty years ago, and was reported on favouT- 
ably, but it was not long persevered in, and has never since, as far as I 
know, been reintroduced. It is excellent in principle, but the general 
opinion is that, when carried into practice, few of our horses would bear 
the battering of their lieels Avhich our hard roads would entail. It is 
worth a second trial, however, and I should much like to see one fairly 
carried out. 

7. The tip is exactly similar in shape to the half-moon shoe, but is 
not so carefuUy seated on the foot, because it is merely wanted for horses 
intended to be turned out on soft ground. It is also generally made of 

•equal thickness throughout, but it would be better if the substance of iron 
were reduced at the heels. 

8. The plate or RxVCing shoe is merely a narrow rim of iron, flat on 
the side towards the foot, and grooved on the other. This groove gives a 
good foothold, and conceals the naU heads also, so that no fullering or 
countersinking is required. The breadth of the web is generally about 
half an inch. 

9. The bar shoe is never used in this country for sound feet, but it is 
a great pity that some modification of it cannot be introduced so as to 
obviate all the objections which apply to the ordinary shoe. It consists of a 
complete ring of iron, similar in shape to the ordinary shoe, as far as the 
back of the quarters, but from that jiait bending inwards to meet the web 




Fia. 5.— Bar Shoe rou Okf Poke Foot: Fitted, but not nailed, on. 
A. A. Bulbous heels of the foot. B. B. Fullermg punched with seven holes. 

of the opposite side, with which it is welded. It is now used for two pur- 
poses, exactly the reverse of each other. In the one case the foot is so pre- 
pared that the frog shall touch the shoe, while the heels are quite free, and 

00 2 



5G1 ■;■"■•: HORSE. 

are thereby relieved from all pressure. In the other the frog does not 
come in contact with the shoe, which is solely supported by tlie crust and 
bars. It may thus be made either to defend the frog or the heels, Avhich- 
ever may be in fault, and it is one of the most valuable aids to veterinary 
surgery. Should the frog be more prominent than the crust, the shoe 
may be made thin in proportion, at the part where it covers the former, 
and by this means it may be made exactly to fit the cwo when it is 
desired to divide the Aveight between them. Tliere are many weak-heeled 
harness horses which woiild do their work far better if they were perma- 
nently shod in this way, and but for the danger of pulling these shoes off, 
and the httle liold which they take of the ground, hacks might also some- 
times he advantageously shod Avith the bar shoe. It is unsightly, cer-- 
tainly, and at present marks the existence of some disease, and for these 
reasons it is now seldom employed, except on compulsion. 

10. The patten is merely a bar shoe made square at the heels and 
turned down at the back, so as to raise this part an inch from the ground. 
The object is to relieve the flexor tendons or suspensory ligament. It is 
also sometimes used in curb, Mith a view to relax the calcaneo-cuboid 
ligament, and tendon of the gastrocnemius internus muscle. 

11. A LEATHER SOLE is often introduced between the shoe and the foot, 
for the double purpose of lessening the vibration and protecting the sole 
and frog from injury by blows against an irregular surface, such as new- 
laid gravel, or granite, or rough paving. Sometimes, when the feog and 
sole are sound, but from the action being very high there is a tendency 
to jar the foot, the leather is cut to the exact shape of the shoe inside and 
out, leaving the sole and frog uncovered ; but in general a piece of leather 
is insinuated between the two, with a straight edge, crossing from heel to 
heel, and after the nails are driven and clenched, the outside edge is pared 
off level with the foot. Before, however, this is done, the space occupied 
by the concavity of the sole, and the crevices in the cleft of the frog and 
between it and the bars, must be carefully filled with tow, saturated with 
a mixture composed of equal parts of tallow and tar. This not only keeps 
the horn moist, but it prevents any grit or fine gravel from working its 
way forwards thi'ough the crevices which are presented in the cleft of the 
frog and at its sides. It is an extremely useful mode of saving the feet 
of high-actioned horses which are much used on our hard roads, especially 
where the heels are weak. The leather must be well soaked in water 
before it is used, and it will then accommodate itseK to every slight irre- 
gularity in the foot. It is often alleged that this plan allows the frog to 
receive more pressure than with the ordinary shoe ; but the leather is so 
yielding that this cannot really be the case, especially as it is of the same 
thickness throughout. 

With this choice before him, the smith proceeds to make his selec- 
tion of the form best suited to the foot of each horse. I have made no 
mention of steel tips to the shoe, because I believe them to be worse than 
useless. If the horse wears his toe out quicker than the heels, all that is 
necessary is to turn up the former into a very strong clip, in fact rounding 
it in the French fasliion, but somewhat more suddenly. The toe will 
then have the same appearance when first shod as it presents at the end 
of a fortnight's work if made in the usual way, and there will be no occa- 
sion for a steel tip. In order to aid the choice, I shall here recapitulate 
tlie various plans which I think deserving of attention : — 

1. The concave-seated shoe, for ordinary road work (see page 556). 

2. The hunting shoe (page 558), for all hunters but those whose soles 



SHOEING. 565 

are pumiced or very flat and thin, which must be shod with the concave- 
seated shoe. 

3. The French shoe (page 5G0), if a smith can be found to make it and 
put it on properly, is particularly well adapted for those horses whose 
action is high, birt whose feet come to the ground with the toe first, by 
which this part is rapidly Avorn away. 

4. The half-moon shoe (page 5G2) is worth a trial on colts with sound 
feet, intended to be kept for home use. 

5. The bar shoe (page 563) is specially valuable for tender frogs, or, 
when these are sound, for corns and weak heels and quarters. 

6. The patten (page o^^ cannot bo used in any work beyond a slow 
walk, but it is invaluable after accidents to the flexor tendons or sus- 
pensory ligament, or in bad curbs. 

7. The leather sole (page 564) may be used with great advantage for 
horses with high action, and having weak soles or frogs, or with tender 
feet from laminitis, provided the crust is sound enough to bear the extra 
strain from the longer purchase on the nails. 

When the choice of the shoe is akrived at, the next thing is to 
make it and put it on. The former is a mechanical operation, Avhich can 
scarcely be learnt Avithout actual demonstration, and I shall omit all 
account of it here ; but I may remark that a detailed descrip)tion of it is 
given by Mr. Miles, in his little book on Horse Shoeing, to Avliich I have 
before alluded, illustrated by most beautiful lithographic drawings. But 
Avith regard to the latter operation, so much depends upon it, and it is 
often so carelessly performed, that the master, or his confidential servant, 
should occasionally, if not alAvays, superintend it ; and unless he knows 
Avhat ought to be done, he might as Avell stay at home. Of course, the 
smith Avill have prcAdously decided hoAV much horn the horse will bear to 
have cut aAA\ay at the toe, and Avill have made his shoe accordingly. Then 
having roughly reduced this part, and cleared out the sole and frog as 
much as he thinks is necessary, he must finish his fitting by gently apply- 
ing the shoe in a hot (but not red) state, without which he cannot tell 
Avhere to apply his knife. There is often a great outcry made by igno- 
rant men against this plan ; but the fact really is, that the light touch 
Avhich is necessary for the purpose merely scorches the surface of the 
horn, and has no effect upon the parts beneath. If, as is sometimes done, 
a red-hot shoe is made to burn its Avay to its level bearing, mischief may 
of course be done ; but this is an abuse of the plan, Avhich no smith of 
the present day Avill be likely to adopt, and should not be allowed to 
frighten a master into giving orders that his shoes shall be " cold fitted." 
Engineers, in their fine fittings of one metal Avith another, are obliged 
either to smoke or to cover Avith red lead the surface which is to be fitted, 
and Avhere this leaves its marks they apply the file. In the same way the 
shoeing smith uses the hot shoe to colour the horn, Avliich it need only be 
heated enough to do, and Avherever he finds the mark he uses the knife 
to pare aAvay a slice of horn, until the Avhole shoe takes a level bearing. 
Sometimes the smith heats the toe of the shoe fixst, and fits that part 
before he adapts the remaining portion to the heels ; but if he has au 
eye for his work, he AviU have little difficulty in making tA\'o level sur- 
faces, and by preparing the toe Avith the knife, he can adjust it and the 
Avhole surface of the crust by one heating. Unless, ho av ever, he is a clever 
operator, it is better to do this at twice, and it may even be safer to 
spring the heels of the shoes before fitting the toe, AA^hich will prevent all 
danger of burning the former AAdiile h*^ is doing this. The plan, hoAvever, 



563 THE HORSE. 

is considered only necessary for beginners, and is therefore generally 
avoided even by them as a confession of Avant of skill. If the shoe is 
only heated to a point which will scorch but not burn, it will not injure 
the heels any more than the toe. Above all, in fitting the shoe to the 
back part of the foot, let the smith take care that it is not longer or wider 
than the point where the crust and bars imite. An eighth of an inch may 
be allowed to project backward beyond this point, but not more, but there 
should not be the slightest overlapping sideways. Mr. Mills deserves 
great credit for insisting strongly upon tliis ; and if he has made no other 
great improvement in shoeing, this alone should cause his labours to be 
estimated at a high rate. When the concave seating is carried all the way 
back to the heels, and the shoe is considerably wider than these parts, 
both of which mistakes are often committed, the heels are placed upon 
two inclined planes, each with a slope Avhich draws them inwards ; and 
though I do not believe that it is easy to expand or contract the 
whole foot, yet I am quite sure that the heels may readily be made 
to curve inwards. There is some excuse for dealers attempting to 
deceive their ignorant customers by shoeing their horses wide at 
the heels, for in looking at the foot without reference to this plan, 
the wide shoe makes it look far better than it really is ; but for work 
there is nothing more likely to lead to corns, and it should never 
be permitted to be adopted for a single day. Every horse, when pur- 
chased, ought to have his shoes otY, in order to see if he has corns, 
and before putting them on again, if the heels are too wide, they should 
at once be brought in. Wlien the shoe tits properly, no light oiight to be 
visible anywhere between it and the foot on looking at them sideways, 
unless it is intended to " spring the heels," that is, to leave a small space 
between the two surfaces here, when the foot is weak in this part. After 
the fitting is finished, the shoe is " filed up ; " but in this merely the 
edges should be very slightly rounded to avoid all risk of burs, except at 
the heels, where the angles should be carefully smoothed off in all direc- 
tions, and the outside of each bearing-place should be reduced, as recom- 
mended by IMr. Spooner, and alluded to at page 557. 

In nailing on the shoe very little art is required if the holes are 
punched straight through far enough from the edge, and the crust is not 
broken or unusually thin. If these precautions are not taken, the incli- 
nation of the hole gives a bias to the nail which it is difficult to rectify 
while, if the holes are punched too near the edge, in order to get a 
sufficient hold they must be driven Avith a very slight slant far up into 
the wall of the hoof, and tlien the difficult}^ consists in bringing their 
points out at the proper place. When the nails are all driven through, a 
notch is made beneath each Avith the rasp ; they are then carefully turned 
down and tAvisted off Avith the pincers, leaving a proper length to clench, 
AA'hen after a second hammering to secure their being driven well home 
they are clenched Avith the hammer by turning their points doAAOi mto the 
notch previously made with the rasp. The AA^hole foot is then slightly 
rasped over so as to remoA'e any rough edges projecting beyond the shoe, 
and the operation is completed. 

In the hind shoe there is not so much variation as in that used for the 
fore foot, because the hind foot is not nearly so subject to disease as the 
fore. It is generally made thicker but narroAver than the fore shoe, and 
there is no necessity to make it concave-seated, because the sole is not 
often tender, nor is it CA'er so thin and flat as is common enough before. 
As the horse stops himself by his hind feet chiefly, he requires some- 



SHOEING. 



567 



tliiDg to prevent his slipping, and the common practice is to turn up 
one or both heels, which projections are called "calkings" or "cogs" 
(see figs. 6, 7, C). In horses for heavy harness work it is necessary 
to use these on both heels, but as the inner one is apt to cut the 
opposite fetlock joint, or bruise the coronet by treading on it, and 
one suffices for light work, the usual practice is to turn up the outer 
heel only for all ordinary work, such as light, fast harness, hacking 
and hunting. If, however, this is done, the inner heel must be made 
proportionately thick, so as to give the horse a level bearing, without 
which he never works in comfort. Many smiths maintain that this is not 
necessary, because the calking sinks into the ground and does not there- 
fore really raise that heel above the other. This is true enough when the 
roads are soft; but when they are hard, as even Macadamised roads often 
are, the calking sinks very little or not at all, and the twist complained 
of is actually felt. It -is the best practice, therefore, to shoe the hind feet 
in aU light harness horses, hunters, and hacks, with an outside calking, 
but the inner web narrow but deep, or what is called "feather-edged." 
This is shown in fig. 6, which is a side view of such a shoe, specially 




A. Clip at toe. 



Fio. 6. — Feather-edoed Off Hixd Shoe. 

B. Inside lieeL C. Outside heel, with " calking.' 



adapted to prevent " cutting," but also, as before remarked, useful for 
general purposes. Mr. Miles recommends instead of this, for ordinary 
horses, that both heels should be made of double thickness for about an 
inch, leaving a slioulder in the ground surface at that distance from tlic 
heel, but this is just as likely to cause "cutting" as the "calking," as 
there need be no more projection in the one than in the other, and the 
nearer this is to the quarter the more likely it is to strike the opposite 
leg, this part of the foot being wider than the heels. I cannot, therefore, 
recommend the adoption of Mr. ]\Iiles' hind shoe, which has all the dis- 
advantages of the double calking and of the feather-edged shoe without 
the advantages of either. As I before remarked, there can be no objection 
to the feather-edged shoe, which is not necessarily without nails on the 
inside, and may be punched by using a deep fullering so as to take two or 
three nails on that side. The toe of the hind shoe wears away very 
rapidly, being always brought to the ground before the heel on level roads 
and in going up hill, in the latter especially so, while in going down liill 
it wears away as fast as the heel. It should therefore be made stouter 
and thicker than the fore shoe, with a small clip in the middle to prevent 
it from being driven back out of its seat. The back edge as well as tlu) 
front side of the clip should be well rounded, as represented in fig. 7, to 
prevent any risk from overreaches caused by a cutting blow from the 
latter, while the former, if left sharp, wUl be liable to catch hold of the 
projecting heel of a fore shoe and pull it off. 



568 THE HORSE. 

■ The time for removing the shoes of a horse must depend upon the 
work he does, and the nature of his foot. If the quarters are thin or 
broken, the less frequently the shoes are removed the better, up to a 
month, beyond which no shoe should be allowed to remain on. Those 
that have plenty of horn are better for a "remove" at the end of a fort- 
night, and the shoes of horses doing no work should never be allowed 
to remain on for more than three weeks at the outside, as the feet 




Fig. ".—Ground Surface of Near Hind Shoe. 

A- The toe rounded off before and behind. B. Inside heel, feather-edged. 

C. Outside heel, with "calking." 

are far more liable to contract while at rest than when at work, provided 
always that the latter is not ao liard as to produce inflammation and 
consequent deficiency in the secretion of the horn. 

During frosts, when the roads are rendered slippery by ice, the shoes 
must be "roughed" in some way, to enable the horse to go with safety 
upon it. The common method is to turn up the heels with a sharp 
" calking," and sometimes also to rivet a sharpened projection at the toe. 
These take hold of the ice and enable the horse to travel as easily as on 
the summer road as long as they are sharp, but in a few days the points 
wear down and the shoe must be removed. In slight frosts a few of the 
nails may be punched out, and "frost-nails," with large heads, maybe 
driven in their places ; but these are of no use for any distance, as their 
heads soon wear do\vn. To avoid the necessity for this removal of the 
shoe at the commencement and during the course of every frost, several 
plans have been invented, but none of them answer the purpose, except 
that introduced to general notice by Mr. White, in his " Farriery," sixty 
years ago, but now seldom used, for what reason I cannot teU, as it 
answers admirably wherever a smith can be persuaded to carry it properly 
out. Mr. Spooner, who has edited the later editions of Mr. White's book, 
has omitted all mention of the plan, possibly because he has never tried 



SHOEING. 



569 



it. I have used it for many years, and can speak from practical experience 
as to its great utility and extreme simplicity. The plan is as follows : — 




Fig. 8. -White's Flan of IlotroniNO Shoes. 



Hole drilled in each heel, and tapped to receive 

a sharpened calking or cog, shown full size. 
Hoel with calking screwed in, ready for use. 



c. Calking shown separately. 

d. Side view of concave-seated fore shoe, with 

calkings screwed in (reduced size). 



A h-ole is drilled in eacli heel, and tapped to receive the screw at the base 
of a calking (see fig. 8). This is aU that is necessary to be done at the 
time of shoeing, as the cogs may be made in large numbers, and can be 
kept at home till they are wanted, when they may be fixed to the shoe in 
five minutes on the appearance of a frost, and even if the horses are from 
home, by merely carrying the necessary tool, Avhich. is simply a spanner 
made to fit them (see fig. 9, e). I have alwayc been charged 4:d. per shoe 
extra for this puncHng of the heels and tapping, and finding the taps 
myself, which it is better to procure, together with the calkings, from an 
engineer, the former costing Qs., and the latter 2c?. to Sd. a piece, if ordered 
by the score. The extra cost, therefore, for shoeing horses during three 
months of the year in this way is about 3s. per month, which places the 
owner out of all risk of accident or delay, and is certainly not more than 
is paid for roughing in the ordinary Avay on the average of seasons, while 
it saves the horse's feet from damage, and often prevents a broken knee 
or a worse accident. The tapped hole fills with dirt, which can readily be 
cleaned out with a bit of stick, and it will always last as long as the shoe. 
'No one who is likely to want his horses roughed at a minute's notice 
should be without this apparatus ; but there is always a difficulty witli 
the smiths, as they object to it on account of the loss of work which it 
causes to them. But masters should remember that what is a loss to the 
one is a gain to the other; and as the choice rests with them, they can 
adopt the plan if they like. 

Since the first edition of this book was published, I have had so many 
iuquiries for the best means of procuring these cogs and tools, that I have 
arranged with a London engineer, who is to be depended on, to furnisla 
them when required. His prices are sHghtly higher than the Bhmingham 



570 



THE HORSE. 



charges, "but the quality of liis work is far superior, as the taps are all 
hand-made. The following are the tools he supplies, with the prices. 
His address is S. Morris, 50, RathLone Place, Oxford Street, London. 





il 


il 


il 



Fig. 9.— Spaxxkr axd Taps for Uouohing. 
e. Spaimer. /. g. Taps for tappinj. \ inch size. 

The price of these is 6s., and the cogs 3s. per dozen. If a larger screw 
is wanted — that is, three- eighths of an inch in diameter — the price is 8.s. 
for tools, and 4s. 6d. a dozen for cogs. He has supplied nearly 100 gross 
of these cogs during the winter of 1861-2. 

Patent machine-made shoes are sold at a greatly reduced price, either 
in the rough state, or finished ready for fitting. On tlie large scale this 
may effect some little saving, but the shoes themselves are not very 
neatly turned out of hand, and a very large stock also must he kept to fit 
all kinds of feet. In public forges there are always long intervals, during 
which very few horses are sent to be shod, and the time is occupied in 
turning shoes, while if patent ones are used the men must remain idle. 
The saving, therefore, is not so great as might be supposed, and in point 
of quality there is no comparison between machine and hand-made shoes. 
The best in the market are those of Messrs. Goodwin, Dudley, and Co., 
Soho Square, London. Tliey can be punched or fullered according to 
fancy. 



OPERATIONS. 571 



ADMmiSTRATIOI^ OF CHLOEOFOEM. 

The use of chloroform to procure insensibility to pain is a great aid 
to the operator on the horse, who -ndthout it acts under great difficidties, 
owing to the nervous twitch which the poor animal gives at each touch of 
the knife. Under chloroform, however, he lies as if dead ; and as long as 
its effects continue, the most elaborate dissection may be conducted with 
comparative ease. There is some little danger of over-doing this powerful 
agent, but the risk is not so great as is generally supposed, and with 
ordinary care it is more than 1,000 to 1 that no injurious effects are 
produced. 

The best akd most simple apparatus for the purpose of administering 
chloroform is a common wire muzzle, to the upper edge of which a strip 
of leather six inches deep is stitched, and so arranged that it may be 
buckled round the upper part of the jaws. This insures that all the 
air inspired shall pass thro\igh the wires, and by covering them with a cap 
of very loose flannel, in which a few holes are cut to facilitate respiration, 
the muzzle may be made ready for use. The horse is first cast, after 
which the above apparatus is put on and buckled round the jaw, when 
on sprinkling the chloroform over the cap of flannel, it may be applied or 
removed in an instant, and the amount of anesthesia regulated accordingly. 
Without some guard such as the wire affords, the chloroform runs over 
the nostrils and lips, and blisters them to a serious extent ; but when it is 
used, such an accident can only occur from over-saturating the flannel. 
The necessary quantity of this powerful agent must be employed ; but 
when once it is found that a prick of a pin or other pointed instrument is 
borne withocit shrinking, the flannel may be withdrawn, and the operation 
quickly commenced, taking care to have an assistant ready to put it on 
again if the horse shoAvs signs of returning sensibility to pain. Six or 
eight ounces of chloroform must be provided, as the quantity required is 
rather uncertain, the average dose being about three or four ounces. 

If casting is objected to, either from the absence of hobbles, or from 
fear of injury to the horse, a soft bed of straw should be provided, and a 
strong halter must be put over the muzzle with two cords, one of which 
should be held by a man on each side. These will serve to guide the 
horse in falling ; but it is extremely difficult to make sure of his going 
down where he is wanted to lie ; and there is also considerable time lost 
in securing him after he is do"\vn, which the safety of the operator 
imperatively requires. The effect of the chloroform must therefore bo 
kept up for a much longer time than if it is given after the horse is cast 
and secured. 

METHODS OF CONFINING THE HOESE. . 

There are various rLA.xs adopted by veterinary surgeons to bind the 
horse's limbs, so that he cnnnot injure himself or them when undergoing 
an operation. Even when chloroform is employed, some caarcion of 
this kind must generally be adopted, as directed in the last section ; for 
if it is given in the standing position, the horse is very apt to 
injure himself in falling, which is often accompanied by powerful 
convulsive motions, and moreover he cannot with certainty be placed 
in a suitable position. The plan adopted by Mr. Earey is seldom 
suitable, because it can only be employed on subjects previously taught 



572 THE HORSE. 

to go down witliont resistance, for tlie severe struggle which the un- 
taught horse makes before he submits is calculated to produce injurious 
constitutional disturbance, and, moreover, it would sadly increase any of 
the various diseases of the limbs for which operations are so often per- 
formed. Sometimes, however, it might advantageously be introduced 
into veterinary surgery, as for instance in castration, when the colt will 
not suffer his hind legs to be touched, but even then it will be necessary to 
throw him two or three times, or he will be in such a state of arterial 
excitement that inflammation will be likely to follow. The usual methods 
of confinement are : 1st. The hobbles ; 2d. The side line. 3d. The trevis, 
or break. 4.th. The twitch and barnacles. 

Hobbles consist of four broad padded leather straps, provided with 
strong buckles, and long enough to encircle the pasterns. To each of 
these an iron ring is stitched, and to one of them a strong soft rope, six 
yards in length, is securely attached. Provided with four, or, if possible, 
five assistants, the operator buckles the hobble with the rope attached to 
the near fore leg, and the remaining three to the other legs. Then passing 
the rope through their rings, and through the first also, it is held by three 
assistants, the nearest of whom stands about a yard from the horse, so as 
to pull upwards as well as away from him ; a fourth assistant holds him 
by the head to keep him quiet, and to be ready to fall on it as soon as he 
is doAvn, and the fifth stands at his quarters, ready to push liim over on 
his off side. This place is sometimes occupied by the operator Hmsei 
when he is short of hands. Casting should never be attempted on any 
hard surface, a thick bed of straw being necessary to prevent injury from 
the heavy fall which takes place. The hind legs should be brought as far 
forward as possible before beginning to pull the rope, and when the men 
do this they should do it " with a will," but without jerking, so as to 
take the horse off his guard, when he will resist much less stoutly than if 
he is allowed more time. As soon as the legs are drawn up together, the 
man at the quarters is quite safe from injury, and he may lean forcibly 
against that part, and force the horse over to the off side, upon wluch he 
falls : the assistant at the head keepmg that part down, no further strug- 
gling takes place, and he is secured by passing the end of the rope under 
the hobble rings between the fore and hind legs, and securing it with a 
hitch. Something more, however, is necessary to be done before any of 
the usual operations can be performed, as all of the legs are at hberty to a 
certain extent and the scrotum cannot be reached in safety. The fol- 
lowing further precautions must therefore be taken, varying according to 
the part to be operated on. 

For castration the horse should be cast on his near side, with a web 
halter in the usual place of a collar. The rope of the halter is then passed 
tlu'ough the ring of the hobble on the off hind leg, and using it as a pulley 
the foot is draAvn forcibly forward beyond the arm and firmly secured to 
the webbing round the neck, and bringing it back again it may be passed 
round the thigh above the hock (which shoidd be guarded from friction 
by a soft cloth or leather), and again secured to the webbing. By these 
precautions the scrotum is completely exposed, and the liind legs cannot be 
stirred beyond the slight spasmodic twitch which extends to the whole 
body. 

To PERFORM ANY OPERATION ON THE FORE LEG, it mUSt be taken OUt of 

its hobble, and drawn forward upon the straw by a webbing attached to 
its pastern, where it must be held by an assistant, the horse having little 
or no ]D0wer over it in this position. 



i 



BLEEDIKG. 573 

The niND leg is secured in the same way as for castnition, unless the 
fetlock is to be fired, when webbing must be applied to the thigh above 
the hock only. With most horses, however, firing can be performed 
without casting, by buckling up the fore leg, or by having it held by a 
competent assistant. 

When the horse is to be released, the hobbles are quietly unbuckled 
in succession, beginning AA^th the undermost hind leg. 

Several improved hobbles have been invented, but they are suited 
rather for the veterinary surgeon than for the ordinary horsem aster, who 
will only require them for castration and minor operations. 

The side line is sometimes used for securmg one hind leg thus : — the 
long rope and single hobble only are required, the latter beiug buckled to 
the hind pastern, which is to be secured. The rope is then passed over 
the withers and brought back round the bosom and shoulder of the same 
side as the leg to which it is secured, and then passed inside the first part 
of the rope. By pulling at the end of this cord the hind leg is drawn up 
to the shoulder, and secured there with a hitch, but the plan is not nearly 
so safe as casting. 

The trevis or break consists of four strong posts driven into the 
ground, at the corners of a space six feet long by three feet wide, Thev 
are strongly braced together by wooden stays, three feet six inches from 
the ground on three sides, the fourth being left open for the horse to 
enter, after which tliis also is made good by a padded bar passed through 
stout iron rings fixed at three feet from the ground to the uprights. By 
means of this framework, to which sundry rings are bolted, the body of 
tlie horse is first securely confined by two broad bands under the belly 
and two above the shoulders and croup. Thus he can neither rear nor 
kick to any extent sufficient to free himself, and all that is necessary is to 
lay hold of any limb selected for operation, and confine it to one of the 
uprights, or to some other convenient pomt. This is the best plan to be 
adopted for firing and other operations on the legs, and if the belly-bands 
are wide, strong, and secure, chloroform mav be administered in it, without 
the horse gomg down 

The twitch is a short stick of strong ash, about the size of a mopstick, 
with a hole pierced near the end, through which is passed a piece of 
strong but small cord, and tied in a loop large enough to admit the open 
hand freely. This is passed over the upper lip close to the nostrils, and 
then, by twisting the stick, compression is made to a painful extent, 
which will keep horses quiet for any slight operation. Sometimes it is 
placed on the ear in preference, but in either case the effect is dependent 
on the pain produced. 

Barnacles consist in the application of pressure by means of the 
handles of a pair of pincers inclosing the muzzle, and held firmly by an 
assistant. They are, however, not so useful as the twitch. 

BLEEDma 

In the early part of the present century bleeding was resorted to 
on every appearance of the slightest inflammation, and often without the 
slightest necessity. Many horses were regularly bled " every spring and 
fall," to prevent mischief, as was supposed ; but at last it always happened 
to every horse which lived long enough, that the more frequently blood 
was taken the more the operation was required, and when it was absolutely 
wanted to lower the heart's action, such a quantity of blood must be taker 



574 THE llOKp^E. 

that the system was reduced to a dangerous degree. Stallions Avcra 
constantly submitted to this treatment, and mares* as long as they were 
worked, so that in course of time it has happened to the horse, as it has 
also to man himself, that the horrible abuse of the lancet for two or three 
consecutive generations has completely changed the type of the diseases 
to which they are both subject. Inflammation does not now follow the 
same course that it used to do, but is of a much milder type, and the 
attendant fever is inclined to assume a typhoid character, if lowering 
measures are pushed to any great extent. An attempt has been made to 
account for this change in human diseases by the alteration in the habits 
of the present generation, which are certainly more temperate than those 
of the previous one ; but in the case of the horse the reverse holds good, 
for he is now stimulated by more corn than evt: The only point, as far 
as I can make out, in which the horse and his master have been similarly 
maltreated, is in the abuse of the lancet, which undoubtedly may account 
for the change in the type of their diseases to which I have alluded, and 
it is, therefore, reasonable to refer it to this cause. But though this 
powerful agent has been thus abused, we must not be deterred from 
having recourse to it when severe inflammation occurs in the horse. 
Sometimes there is no time to wait for the effects of a slower remedy, 
even if there is one which will be sufficiently powerful to control the 
heart's action. The only sensible plan in such case is to choose the lesser 
of the two evils, and to save life, or the integrity of the organ attacked, 
as the case may be, by abstracting blood, always remembering that this is 
to be avoided as long as it is safe to do so, but that when it is decided 
on, a sufficient quantity must be taken to produce a sensible effect, 
without which the/e is no attendant good to counterbalance the evil. 

Bleeding is cither performed in the jugular vein, when the whole 
system is to be aff'ected ; or when a part of the body only is inflamed, it 
may be desirable to abstract blood locally, as for instance from the toe or 
from the plate vein, in inflammation of the foot, and in ophthalmia from 
the vein which lies on the face just below the eye. 

The instruments used are either the lancet or the fleam, the former 
being the safer of the two, but requiring some practice to manage it pro- 
perly. In bleeding from the jugular vein a string is sometimes tied round 
the neck below the part to be opened, which is four or five inches below 
the fork in the vein (shoAvn at page 447) in the upper part of the neck. 
The skilled operator, however, makes pressure with his left hand answer 
the purpose of causing the vein to rise, and during this state either uses 
the lancet with his right or the fleam with the aid afforded by the blow of 
a short stick, called a " blood stick." When the blood begins to flow, the 
edge of the bucket which catches it is pressed against the same part, and 
as long as this is continued a full stream will run until faintness occurs. 
After sufficient blood has been taken, the two lips of the wound are raised 
between the fingers, and a small common pin passed through both, when 
the point is cut off" and some tow is twisted round, by which the edges are 
kept together and the pin is retained in position. In a couple of days 
the pin may be Avithdrawn without disturbing the toAV, and the wound 
Avill heal with little or no deformity. Sometimes the blood contiuues to 
flow beneath the skin after it is pinned, and a SAvelling takes place in 
consequence, Avliich is called ecchymosis. "When this happens, cold water 
should be freely applied and the head kept up by racking to the manger. 

The quantity of blood necessary to be taken will vary accordmg to 
circumstances, and can scarcely be fixed from the appearance- of the blood 



FIKING. 575 

drawn, but a repetition of tlie operation may be decided on if the clot of 
the blood, after standing, is very concave at the top (cupped), or if it is 
very yellow (buffed), and especially if both these signs are present. In 
inflammation of a severe character less than six quarts of blood will 
seldom lower the pulse sufficiently to be of much service, and sometimes 
seven or eight quarts even must be taken from a large plethoric animal. 

Inflammation of the vein will sometimes supervene upon bleeding, 
the symptoms being a slight swelling appearing in the evening, or the 
next day, with a little oozing from the wound. These are soon followed 
by a hard cord-like enlargement of the vein, which feels hot to the touch, 
and the parts at the angle of the jaw swell considerably. The consequence 
generally is that the vein, is obHterated, occasioning some disturbance to 
the circulation, especially when the head is held down, as it is at grass. 
The treatment consists in cold applications as long as there is heat, the 
lotion recommended at page 470 being generally useful. When the heat 
has subsided, and the vein remains enlarged, the biniodide of mercury 
wUl procure the absorption of the new deposit, by rubbing it in as recom- 
mended at page 456. 

FIEING. 

The purpose for which the heated iron is employed is twofold ; first, 
to produce immediate counter-u-ritation, by which the previous inflamma- 
tion is reduced ; and secondly, to cause the formation of a tight compress 
over the part, which lasts for some months. It is the fashion to deny the 
existence of the latter effect of this operation ; but every practical man must 
be aware that it follows upon firing to a greater or less extent, according to 
circumstances, but always lasting for a few months, until the skin stretches 
to its previous condition. The blemish which it leaves, and the pain which 
vt occasions, both during and after the application of the irons, should 
cause it to be avoided when any equally useful substitute can be employed ; 
but, unfortunately, there are many cases where it stands without a rival, 
as being at once the safest and the most efficient remedy which can be 
adopted. Blisters and setons can be made to cause the same amount of 
counter-irritation ; but the inflammation accompanying the former often 
extends beneath the skin, and increases the mischief it was intended to 
relieve ; while the latter has no effect whatever in producing pressure 
upon the parts beneath. The pain of firing can be relieved entirely at 
the time of the operation by chloroform ; but the subsequent smarting is 
quite as bad, and this is beyond the reach of any anpesthetic. Inde- 
pendently, however, of the interests of the master, it is also to the advan- 
tage of the horse to get thoroughly cured ; for if he is not, he will either 
work on in misery, or he wiU be consigned to the knacker's yard ; and, 
therefore, the adoption of the most efficacious plan of treatment, even if 
somewhat the most painful, is the best for both. 

Firing may be performed standing, by the use of the side line for the 
hind leg, or by fixing up one fore leg when the other is to be operated on. 
There is, however, nothing like the break or treWs, where more than 
a slight extent of surface is to be lined. The firing- iron should have a 
smooth edge, about the thickness of a worn shilling ; and it should be 
heated to the point Avhen it shows a didl red in the dark. "When the 
disease for which the irons are used is slight, the skin should not be 
penetrated ; but in bad cases, where the mischief is great, and particularly 
wlien it is A\santed to have a good permanent bandage, the cauterization 
must be deeper ; but this requires some practical knowledge to decide. 



576 THE nORSE. 

The hair of the part should be cut very closely with the scissors, oi 
shaved ; then, having secured the leg, the iron is to be steadily but 
rapidly passed in parallel lines over the skin, making just the proper 
pressure which is required to burn to the requisite depth. A Hght brown 
mark should be left, which shows that the proper effect has been pro- 
duced ; and the colour shoidd be uniform, unless it is desired to penetrate 
deeper at certain parts, which is soinetimes practised with advantage. 
The lines are sometimes made in a slanting direction round the leg, and 
at others straight up and down ; but it is useless to describe the details of 
this operation, which can only be learned by watcliing its performance by 
another hand. Badly done firing is always an eyesore ; but when the 
lines are evenly drawn, and they have healed without any sloughs, caused 
by irregular or excessive pressure, they show that a master-hand has been 
at work, and that the poor beast has been treated scientifically. In very 
severe diseases, a blister is sometimes applied over the part, immediately 
after the firing ; but this can seldom be required, and as it aggravates the 
pain tenfold, it should be avoided, if possible. On the following day, a 
little neat's-foot oil should be gently rubbed, or brushed with a feather, over 
the leg; and this should be repeated dail}'-, until the swelling which comes 
on has nearly subsided. Less than three months' rest should never be 
allowed for the operation to have its full effect, as, if the horse is put to 
work before that time has elapsed, the disease will almost certainly return. 
Indeed, it is far better to allow double this time, especially if the horse is 
wanted for fast work. 

SETONS AN^D EOWELS. 

Setons are pieces of tape or lamp cotton, passed through and beneath 
the skin, leaving the two ends hanging out, cither tied together or with a 
knot upon each. The latter is the safer plan, as the loop is always liable 
to be caught on a hook or other projecting body. The needle with which 
the passage is effected has a spear point, slightly turned up, and an eye at 
the other end (see fig. 10), through which the tape or cotton is tlu'eaded. 




Pig. 10.— Setok Needles, one-(JUArter size. 



The ordinary one is about nine or ten inches long, and by its means 
a tape or piece of lamp cotton, smeared vnth. bhster cerate, may be passed 
through a long track of the cellular membrane, by pinclmig up the skui 
into a^fold, and piercing this close to the body with the needle, which is 
then to be carried straight through. On drawing the tape out of the eye, 
it must be 'tied in a large knot at each end, which will prevent its shppmg 
out. In three or four days, a profuse discharge will come on, and it must 
be kept up, if necessary, by repeated applications of blister cerate, or 
digestive ointment, as may be necessary. The ends should be sponged 
occasionally, to remove the accumulated matter. 

A SMALLER CURVED NEEDLE, about five Or six inclies long (see lower 
figure, 10) is used for introducing a seton into the frog, or beneath the eye. 
For the former operation, a twitch is first applied, and the foot is then 



BLISTERING. 577 

biiclvled i;p to the arm, as described at page 167. The needle then, armed 
with the tape, greased with blister cerate, and a little oil to lubricate the 
surface, is thrust in at the heel and out at the cleft of the frog, taking care 
not to go deep enough to wound the tendon as it passes over the navicular 
bone. The needle is then forcibly drawn through, and the tape knotted, 
as already described. The openings must be kept clean by sponging daily ; 
and in three or four weeks the tape will have nearly worked its way out, 
when it may be withdrawn. 

Rowels are now seldom employed, being very unmanageable plans for 
causing counter-irritation. An incision, about an inch long, is made in 
the skin, selecting a part where it is loosely attached, and into this a blunt 
instrument, called a " cornet," is pushed, and worked about in all direc- 
tions, until the skin is separated from the subjacent parts for a circle with 
a diameter of from two to three inches. Into this a piece of thick leather 
of that diameter, with a hole in the middle, is inserted, previously having 
smeared it with blister cerate ; and the part is then left to nature. In 
a few days, a discharge of matter comes on, which must be washed off 
occasionally; and in the course of time, the leather, if allowed, would 
find its way out by ulceration. Before, however, this takes place, it is' 
generally removed. 

BLISTERING. 

When it is decided to blister any part, the hair should be cut off 
as closely as possible ; the ointment is then rubbed in with the hand for 
ten minutes, leaving a good quantity smeared on the surface. If the legs 
are to be blistered, the heels should be protected by lard. Considerable 
itching is caused after the first two or three days, and many horses, if 
allowed, gnaw the part to such an extent as to cause a serious blemish. 
It is therefore necessary to keep the head away, which is done by putting 
a " cradle " on the neck. The irritation of loose straw is very aggra- 
vating, and the stall or box should either be bedded with tan, or sawdust, 
or with used litter, so damp as to lie smoothly. It is generally the prac- 
tice to put the blistered horse on a bare floor ; but he will often do great 
harm to his legs and feet (which are of course iinsound, or they would 
not be treated in this way), by constantly stamping from the pain occa- 
sioned while the blister is beginning to rise. When the legs are stiff and 
sore from the swelling, he stands still enough, but at first there is nothing 
of this kind to keep him quiet. James's blister, which is very mild, and 
useful for trifling diseases of the legs, or for bringing on the hair after 
" broken knee," can generally be used without a cradle ; but even with it, 
horses will sometimes gnaw themselves, and it is better not to run any 
risk. At the end of a week, some neat's-foot oil should be applied every 
morning, with a feather or soft brush, to keep the scabs as supple as 
possible. The various formulas for blisters will be given in the list of 
materia medica. 

CASTRATION. 

For removing the testicles several methods of operation have been 
proposed ; but hitherto none has been tried which is so successful as the 
old plan, in which the division of the cord is performed by a heateoi 
iron with a sharp edge. In human surgery the spermatic artery is tied, 
and all danger of haemorrhage is over, because the small amount of 
bleeding which takes place from the artery of the cord is of no conse- 
quence, as it cannot enter the cavity of the peritoneum. In the horse, on 

P P 



678 THE HORSE. 

the other hand, the inguiiial canal communicates with that cavity, and if the 
ligature is used, there is a double danger of inflanmiation — first, from effused 
blood, and secondly, from the irritation of the ends of the ligature. This 
plan, therefore, is now generally abandoned, though some few practitioners 
still adhere to it, and the choice rests between two methods of removal 
by cautery, namely, the actual and potential, — the former giving more 
pain at the moment when the heated iron is applied, but the latter being 
really far more severe, as the caustic is a long time in effecting a complete 
death of the nerve and other sensitive parts. Torsion of the vessels has 
been also tried, but it is often followed by hasmorrhage, and, moreover, 
the pain which is caused during the twisting of the artery is apparently 
quite as f reat as is given by the heated ii-on. "VVe are all inclined to 
fancy that fire occasions more agony than it really does, but those who 
have in their own persons been unfortunately able to compare the effects 
of the two kinds of cautery, have uniformly admitted that the actual is 
less severe than the potential, if the two are used so as to produce the same 
amount of cauterization. 

The best period for performing the operation on the foal is just 
before weaning, provided the weather is mild. If, however, his neck is 
very light, and the withers low, its postponement till the following spring 
will give a better chance for the development of these parts. The cold 
of winter and heat of summer are both prejudicial, and the months of 
April, May, September, or October should always be selected. 

No preparation is required in the " sucker," but after weaning 
the system always requires cooling by a dose of physic and light food 
before castration can safely be performed. Horses which bave been in 
training, or other kind of work attended with high feeding, require at 
least three weeks' or a month's rest and lowering, by removing corn, 
mashing, &c., together with a couple of doses of physic, before they are 
lit to be castrated, 

For the ordinary method of operating, a pair of clams should be 
provided, lined at the surfaces where the compression is made, with thick 
layers of vulcanized india-rubber. This material gives a very firm hold 
without bruising the cord, and causing thereby inflammation. A large 
scalpel and a couple of irons will complete the list of instruments, over 
and above the apparatus necessary for casting the horse (see Casting, 
page 572). The horse being properly secured according to the directions 
there given, and a twitch being put on the lip in case he should struggle 




Bio. 11. — Clams linef with vulcanized India-rupber, 

much, the operator, kneeling on the left side, grasps the testicle so as to 
make the skin of the scrotum covering it (juite tense. A longitudinal 
incision, about three inches long, is then made down to the testicle, which, 
if care has been taken that there is no rupture, may be rapidly done — a 
wound of its surface not being of the slightest consequence, and giving 
far less pain than the slow niggling dissection of its coverings, which .^ 



CASTRATION. 679 

sometimes practised to avoid it. The testicle can now be cleared of its 
coverings, and the hand laying hold of it gently, the operator raises it 
from its bed, and slips the clams on each side the cord, at once making 
the proper pressure with them, which should be sufiicient to prevent all 
risk of the part inclosed slipping from between its jaws. Great care 
should be taken that the whole of the testicle, including the epididimis, 
is external to the clams ; and as soon as this is satisfactorily ascertained, 
the cord may be divided with the ordinary firing-iron at a red heat. To 
make sure that no haemorrhage shall occur, some operators sear the artery 
separately with a pointed iron ; but if the division is slowly made with the 
heated iron, and avoiding any drag upon the cord, no such accident wlU 
be at all likely to follow, though very rarely it will happen in spite of 
every care. The clams may now be removed, and the other testicle 
treated in the same way ; after which the hobbles are cautiously re- 
moved, and the patient is placed in a roomy loose box, where he can 
take sufficient exercise to insure the gravitation of the discharge, but 
no more. 

The French plan, by means of caustic, requires two pieces of wood, 
each about six inches long and an inch square, with a notch or neck at 
each end, to hold the twine by which they are tied together, and a groove in 
the two opposite surfaces, to hold the caustic. This is composed of one part 
of corrosive sublimate and four of flour, made into a paste with water, and 
it is introduced while moist into the grooves, which it should completely fiU. 
The horse is then secured as before, the cord is exposed, the pieces of 
wood are adjusted on each side, and firmly held together with pincers 
by an assistant, while the operator binds their ends together with waxed 
string. The testicle may now be removed with the knife, if the string 
has been tied sufficiently tight; but unless the operator lias had some 
experience, it is safer to let it remain on till it comes away by the ulcer- 
ation of the cord. This is the uncovered operation, the covered one being 
performed with the same instruments, as follows. The scrotum is grasped, 
and opened, taking care to avoid wounding the tunica vaginalis reflexa, 
or outer serous investment, but cutting down to it through the skin, dartos 
muscle, and cellular membrane. These are to be carefully dissected back, 
until the cord can be isolated without wounding its serous investment 
(tunica vaginahs), which is so thin that it is easy to ascertain with cer- 
tainty the nature of its contents by examination with the fingers. If 
there is no hernia, the caustic can at once be applied to its outside in the 
same way as before ; and if there is, it must be pushed back into the 
cavity of the abdomen, by a little careful manipulation. 

Some veterinary surgeons operate in a similar way to one or other of 
the two last described plans, with the omission of the caustic, which they 
maintain is wholly unnecessary, for there must be sufficient pressure to 
cause a slougliing of the cord. There is certainly some truth in this 
argument, but if the pressure has not been sufficient to cause the sloughs, 
the caustic wiU assure that essential process, and thus it renders the opera- 
tion safer, though it somewhat increases the subsequent local inflammation. 
The plan without caustic is almost precisely the same, as far as safety is 
concerned, as that formerly adopted by country farriers, called " twitching," 
in which two pieces of wood were applied on each side the base of the 
scrotum, and tied firmly at each end. The pain, however, occasioned by 
the pressure on so large a surface of skin,.is intense, and the operation \3 
on that account indefensible, besides which it is not nearly so successful 
as either the ordinary Enghsh or French operations. 

p p 2 



680 THE HORSE. 

DOCKING JlSB KICKING. 

These operations on the tail are subject to the fashion of the day, 
the former being used for the purpose of sliortening its length, wliich is 
inconvenient to the rider or driver in dirty weather, and the latter for 
altering its carriage, when this is too low for the taste of the owner. 
Nicking is, however, very seldom practised in the present day, and never 
to the extent which was the fashion fifty years ago. 

Docking is very rapidly performed by the aid of the docking knife, 
which is made on the principle of the guillotine. As the taU is removed 
at one sudden and forcible chop, the horse need not be confined in any 




Fig. 12.— DocKiNO Knife. 

way beyond fixing up his fore leg, unless he is a very violent animal, 
when he must be placed in the break (see page 573). The exact length 
of the dock to be left being fixed uj)on, the hair is cut off close below, 
and the remainder tied back to the root of the tail. The situation of the 
joint, which may be ascertained from its greater prominence, is then 
marked, by carefully removing the hair with the scissors, and then laying 
it in the rounded groove of the wooden frame in which the knife plays, 
so that the edge of the latter shall exactly correspond with the part to be 
cut, the bandies are suddenly and forcibly brought together, and the end 
is removed at (~>ne blow. A pointed iron should have been previously 
heated, and then raising the tail to a level with the back, the arteries are 
first seared, which a very slight touch will effect, and then the point is 
pushed into the sheath nf tu^ tendons lying at the top of the stump, so 
as to cause them to adhei-e in that position, and effect a handsome carriage 
of the tail. Lastly, a little resin is melted over the end of the stump 
with the iron now pretty nearly cooled, and the operation is concluded by 
untying the hair. 

Nicking was formerly carried to such an extent that the poor horse 
could not lower his tail, but was always obliged to carry it over his back. 
Several deep cross-cuts were made in the under-side after being, docked, 
and then a cord was fastened to the hair, and being carried over a pulley 
attached to the ceiling, the tail was kept drawn up over the back by a 
weight at its end. The horse could lie down by raising the weight, but 
by no possible means could he lower his tail, and in course of time the 
wounds healed by granulation filling up their spaces, and the nicking was 
completed. When a horse now carries his dock too low, a subcutaneous 
incision of the flexor tendons is made, which is generally sufficient, but if 
not the pulley is adopted for a few days. Sometimes the tail is carried 
on one side, and then a similar operation by subcutaneous division of the 
tendons on the side to which the tail is carried will have the desired effect, 
always taking care in each case to keep the knife clear of a joint. 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PHYSIC. 581 

UlTNEIlVINa 

The nerves distributed to the foot are sometimes divided for navicular 
disease, as they lie on each side of the bone above the fetlock joint. No 
one, however, should attempt this operation without having previously- 
seen it performed, as it requires considerable dexterity for its due execu- 
tion. I have described such operations as can be wanted in the colonies, 
where a veterinary surgeon cannot always be reached, but unnerving is 
never required there, and I shall therefore omit any detailed account 
of it. 

EEDUCTIQJir OF HERNIA. 

Hernia is sometimes strangulated ; that is to say, the protruding por- 
tion of bowel is confined in its situation by such pressure on its neck as 
to cause danger of mortification. Under such circumstances, if it is found 
to be impossible to return the bowel by careful manipulation, an operation 
must be performed. This consists in carefully dissecting through the 
coverings of the bowel, and when it is exposed, a long and narrow 
guarded knife [Bistouri cache) is passed by the side of the intestine 
through the opening into the abdomen, and then making the blade 
prominent it is withdrawn, and the fibres causing the pressure are 
divided. This usually allows of the l)owel being passed back again mto 
the abdomen, when the operation is completed by bringing the parts 
together with one or two stitches. 

When hernia occurs in the colt either at the navel or scrotum, it is 
often desired to efiect a cure by returning the bowel and causing the 
opening to close by adhesive inflammation. If the colt is uncut, the 
performance of the covered operation on the French plan (see page 579) 
Avill generally succeed, great care being of course necessary to retu.rn the 
intestine before the clams are applied. In umbilical hernia a similar plan 
has been tried, but the adhesion is too superficial to be of much use ; and 
the only successful method is the passage of one or two skewers through 
the opposite edges of the opening, and then winding some waxed twine 
round them, with a moderate degree of force. This should not be 
sufficient to cause mortification, or the opening will only be increased in 
size, and the bowel will protrude without any covering of skin ; but it 
should be just sufficient to cause adhesive inflammation ; experience in 
such matters alone enabling the operator to hit upon the right amount. 

In all operations for hernia chloroform is of great assistance, as it 
prevents the risk of a protrusion of the bowel while the knife is being 
used, which will otherwise sometimes happen during the struggles of the 
horse. 

THE ADMINISTRATION OF PHYSIC. 

Medicine may be given to the horse either in the solid form as a ball, 
or liquid, and then called a drench, or as a dry powder, when in small 
compass and with little taste, mixed with the corn or mash. Sometimes 
also a small quantity of a tasteless liquid, such as liquor arsenicalis, may 
be given with the food. 

In giving a ball, place a halter on the head with a knot, so that the 
jaws may be widely opened. Then turn the horse round in the stall and 
back him up to the manger, lay hold of the tongue and draw it out of 
the mouth, grasp it with the left hand, which must also hold the halter- 



582 THE HORSE. 

cord so short that the strain is partly taken off the tongue, and then 
holding the ball in the right hand with the fingers inclosing it like a cone, 
and, the arm bare, it should be rapidly carried to the back of the mouth 
and deposited there, holding the head up till it is seen to pass down the 
gullet. Cautious grooms use a balling iron, which gags the mouth and 
protects the arm, but a handy man will have less difficulty in introducing 
his hand than in inserting the gag, unless the horse is a determined biter, 
when it may be absolutely necessary. In that case the gag is insinuated 
with as much ease as a bit in a flat direction, and the handle being 
suddenly depressed, the mouth gapes and the teeth cannot be brought 
together. Then holding its handle together with the halter in the left 
hand, the right easily introduces the ball into the pharynx. 

In giving a drench, two persons are necessary, the operator standing 
at the right shoulder, while the assistant is ready to steady the head and 
aid him on the left. The operator raises the head with his left hand 
beneath the jaw, and with his right he forces the lip of the horn into the 
side of the mouth, and, raising the small end, pours the contents in. If 
the horse is violent, a twitch must be placed on the nose, and held by the 
assistant. The horn must not be passed far into the mouth, or any 
unnecessary violence used, for fear of producing a cough ; in which case, 
the hand must be instantly lowered. A neglect of this precaution Mall 
probably cause some of the liquid to pass into the larynx. 

CLYSTERS 

Are most valuable agents, if properly administered. The best syringe 
for the purpose is Read's, by which any quantity may be thrown up ; and 
in cohc, some gallons of warm water are sometimes required to produce 
the desired effect. For an ordinary opening clyster, a handful or two of 
common salt may be dissolved in five or six quarts of warm water. 

BACK-RAKIKG 

l8 EFFECTED by passing the greased hand and arm into the rectum, and 
withdrawing any hardened fseces which may have accumulated there. 
When the quantity of these is great, the hand must be passed several 
times, until it cannot reach any more. Whenever physic is given to an 
unprepared horse, as is sometimes necessary in severe disease, this pre- 
caution should ne\er be neglected. Mr. Gamgee, of Edinburgh, is of 
opinion that this operation is more safely and easily performed by the aid 
of instruments, supporting his views by the assertion that the introduction 
of the hand gives unnecessary pain. On one or two occasions I have 
certainly seen a shoulder of mutton at the end of a human arm, and this 
would perhaps cause some little difficulty ; but no hand of average size is 
nearly so large as the mass of dung usually passed ; and those who are 
not above doing a dirty job wlien duty reqtiires if, well know by experience 
that the hand and arm may be passed to the shoulder without giving any 
pain whatsoever. Instruments are useful when they cannot be dispensed 
with, but they are always liable to cause laceration. 



ON THE ACTION OP MEDICINES 

AND 

THE DOSES IN WHICH THEY CAN SAFELY BE ADMINISTEREI>. 



CHAPTEE XXXIII. 

THE ACTION OF MEDICINES, AND THE FORMS IN WHICH THEY ARE 
PRESCRIBED. 

ALTERATIVES — ANESTHETICS — ANODYNES — ANTACIDS — ANTHELMINTICS — ANTISPASMO- 
DICS APERIENTS — ASTRINGENTS — BLISTERS — CAUSTICS— CHARGES — CLYSTERS — COR- 
DIALS — DEMULCENTS — DIAPHORETICS — DIGESTIVES — DIURETICS — EMBROCATIONS - 

EMULSIONS — EXPECTORANTS — FEBRIFUGES — LOTIONS NARCOTICS — REFRIGERANTS — 

SEDATIVES — STIMULANTS — STOMACHICS — STYPTICS — TONICS — VERMIFUGES OR WORM 
MEDICINES. 

ALTEEATIVES. 

This term is not very scientific, but it is in very general use, and 
easily explains its own meaning, though the modus operandi of the drugs 
employed to carry it out is not so clear. The object is to replace unhealthy 
action by a healthy one, without resorting to any of the distinctly defined 
remedies, such as tonics, stomachics, &c. As a general rule, this class of 
remedies produce their effect by acting slowly but steadily on the depura- 
tory organs, as the Uver, kidneys, and skin. The following may be found 
useful : — 

1. In Disordered States op the Skin — 

Emetic Tartar 5 ounces. 

Powdered Ginger 3 ounce>'. 

Opium 1 ounce. 

Syrup enough to form 16 balls : one to be given every night. 

2. Simply Cooling — 

Barbadoes Albes 1 ounce. 

Castile Soap I5 ounce. 

Ginger i ounce. 

Syrup enough to form 6 balls : one to be given every morning. Or, 

3. Barbadoes Aloes 1^ drachm. 

Emetic Tartar 2 drachms. 

Castile Soap 2 drachms. MI.t. 

4. Alterative Ball for General Use — 

Black Sulphuret of Antimony 2 to 4 drachms. 

Sulphur 2 drachms. 

Nitre 2 drachms. 

Linseed meal and water enough to form a ball. 



584 THE HORSE. 

5. For generally Defective Secretions^ 

Flowers of Sulphur 6 ounces. 

Emetic Tartar 5 to 8 drachms. 

Corrosive Subhmate 10 grs. 

Linseed meal mixed with hot water, enough to form six balls, one of which 
may be given two or three times a week. 

6. In Debility of Stomach — 

Calomel 1 scruple. 

Aloes 1 drachm. 

Cascarilla Bark, ) 

Gentian Root, > of each in powder .... 1 drachm. 

Ginger, ) 

Castile Soap 3 drachms. 

Syrup enough to make a ball, which may be given twice a week, or 
every other night. 

AI^tESTHETICS. 

AN.fflSTHETics (a, not, privative ; atcr^r/o-ts, sensation) produce insensi- 
bility to all external impressions, and therefore to pain. They resemble 
narcotics in their action, and, when taken into the stomach, may be con- 
sidered purely as such. The most certain and safe way of administering 
them is by inhalation, and chloroform is the drug now universally em- 
ployed. The modus operandi of the various kinds has never yet been 
satisfactorily explained ; and when the comparison is made, as it often is, 
to the action of intoxicating fluids, we are no nearer to it than before. 
With alcoholic fluids, however, the disorder of the mental functions is 
greater in proportion to the insensibility to pain ; and if they are taken 
in sufiicient quantities to produce the latter efi"ect, they are dangerous to 
life itself The action of ancesthetics on the horse is very similar to that 
on man. 

ANODYNES, 

Sometimes called narcotics, when taken into the stomach, pass at once 
into the blood, and there act in a special manner on the nervous centres. 
At first they exalt the nervous force ; but they soon depress it, the second 
stage coming on the sooner according to the increase of the dose. They 
are given either to soothe the general nervous system, or to stop diarrhoea ; 
or sometimes to relieve spasm, as in colic or tetanus. Ojjium is the chief 
anodyne used in veterinary medicine, and it may be employed in very 
large doses : — 

7. Anodyne Drench for Colic — 

Linseed Oil 1 pint. 

Oil of Turpentine 1 to 2 ounces. 

Laudanum 1 to 2 ounces. 

Mix, and give every hour till relief is afforded. 

8. Anodyne Ball for Colic (only useful in mild cases) — 

Powdered Opium . i to 2 drachms. 

Castile Soap 2 drachms. 

Camphor 2 drachms. 

Ginger 1^ drachm. 

Make into a ball with Liquorice powder and Treacle, and give every hour 
while the pain lasts. It should be kept in a bottle or bladder. 

9. Anodyne Ball (ordinary) — 

Opium 2 to 1 drachm. 

Castile Soap 2 to 4 drachms. 

Ginger 1 to 2 drachms. 



MEDICINES. 585 

Powdered Aniseed § to 1 ounce. 

. Oil of Caraway Seeds 5 drachtu. 

Syrup enougli to form a ball, to be dissolved in half a pint of warm ale, and 
given as a drench. 

10. Anodyne Drench in Superpdrgation, oe Ordinary Diarrhcea — 

Gum Arabic '. . 2 ounces. 

Boiling Water 1 pint. 

Dissolve, and then add — 

Oil of Peppermint 25 drops. 

Laudanum ^ to 1 ounce. 

Mix and give night and morning, if necessary. 

11. In Chronic Diarrhcea — 

Powdered Chalk and Gum Arabic, of each . . 1 ounce. 

Laudanum I ounce. 

Peppermint Water 10 ounces. 

Mix, and give night and morning. 

Al^TACIDS. 

As THE TERM IMPLIES, tliese remedies are used to neutralize acids, 
wlietlier taken into the stomach to an improper extent, or formed therein 
as products of diseases. They are often classed as alteratives, when used 
for the latter purpose. They include the alkalies and alkaline earths, but 
are not much used in veterinary medicine. 

ANTHELMINTICS. 

Drugs which are used to destroy worms receive this name in medical 
literature, when the author is wedded to the Greek language. The ad- 
mirers of Latin call them vermifuges, and in English they receive the 
humble name of worm medicines. Their action is partly by producing a 
disagreeable or fatal impression on the worm itself, and partly by irritating 
the mucous lining of the bowels, and thus causing them to expel their 
contents. Failing the remedy recommended at page 511, the following 
may be useful : — 

12. Worm Ball (recommended by Mr. Gamgee) — 

Asafcetida 2 drachms. 

Calomel . , li drachm. 

Powdered Savin l^d i achm. 

Oil of Male Fern 30 "drops. 

Treacle enough to make a ball, which should be given at night, and 
followed by a purge next morning. 

13. Mild Drench for Worms — 

Linseed Oil 1 pint. 

Spirit of Turpentine 2 drachms. 

Mix and give every morning. 

Antispasmodics are medicines which are intended to counteract ex- 
cessive muscular action, called spasm, or, in the limbs, cramj). This 
deranged condition depends upon a variety of causes, which are gene- 
rally of an irritating nature ; and its successful treatment will often 
depend upon the employment of remedies calculated to remove the cause, 
rather than directly to relieve the effect. It therefore follows that, in 
many cases, the medicines most successful in removing spasm will be 
derived from widely separated divisions of the materia medica, such 
as aperients, anodynes, alteratives, stimulants, and tonics. It is useless 
to attempt to give many formulas for their exhibition ; but there are one 
or two medicines which exercise a peculiar control OA^er spasm, and 1 
shall give them without attempting to analyse their mode of operation. 



586 THE HORSE. 

14. In Colic — 

Spirit of Turpentine 3| ounces. 

Laudanum 14 ounce. 

Barbadoes Aloes 1 ounce. 

Powder the Aloes, and dissolve in warm water ; then adJ the other ingre- 
dients, and give as a drench. 

15. Clyster in Colic — 

Spirit of Turpentine 6 ounces. 

Aloes 2 drachms. 

Dissolve in three quarts of warm water, and stir the turpentine well into it. 

16. Antispasmodic Drench — 

Gin 4 to 6 ounces. 

Tincture of Capsicum 2 drachms. 

Laudanum 3 drachms. 

Warm Water 1-j pint. 

Mix and give as a drench, when there is no inflammation. 

APEEIENTS. 

Aperients, or purges, are those medicines wliicli quicken or increase 
the evacuations from the bo-wels, varying, however, a good deal in their 
mode of operation. Some act merely by exciting the muscular coat of 
the bowels to contract ; others cause an immense watery discharge, which, 
as it were, washes out the bowels ; whilst a thii'd set combine the action 
of the two. The various purges also act upon different parts of the canal, 
some stimulating the small intestines, whilst others pass through them 
without affecting them, and only act upon the large bowels ; and others, 
again, act upon the whole canal. There is a third point of difference in 
purges, depending upon their influencing the liver in addition, which 
mercurial purgatives certainly do, as well as rhubarb and some others, 
and which effect is partly due to their absorption into the circulation, so 
that they may be made to act, by injecting into the veins, as strongly ns 
by actual swallowing, and their subsequent passage into the bowels. 
Purgatives are likewise classed, according to the degree of their effect, 
into laxatives acting mildly, and drastic purges, or cathartics, acting very 
severely. 

17. Ordinary Physic Balls — 

Barbadoes Aloes 3 to 8 drachms. 

Hard Soap 4 drachms. 

Ginger 1 drachm. 

Dissolve in as small a quantity of boiling water as will suffice ; then slowly 
evaporate to the proper consistence, by which means griping is avoided. 

18. A Warmer Physio Ball — 

Barbadoes Aloes 3 to 8 drachms. 

Carbonate of Soda -J- drachm. 

Aromatic Powder 1 drachm. 

Oil of Caraway 12 drops. 

Dissolve as above, and then add the oil. 

19. Gently Laxative Ball— 

Barbadoes Aloes 3 to 5 drachms. 

Rhubarb Powder 1 to 2 drachma. 

Ginger 2 drachms. 

Oil of Caraway 15 drops. 

Mix and form into a ball, as in No. 17. 

20. Stomachic Laxative Balls, for Washy Horses — 

Barbadoes Aloes 3 drachms. 

Rhubarb 2 drachms. 

Ginger 1 drachm. 

Cascarilla Powder ... 1 drachm. 



I 



MEDICINES. 587 

Oil of Caraway 15 drops. 

Carbonate of Soda T-^ drachm. 

Dissolve the Aloes as in No. 17, and then add the other ingredients. 

21. Purging Balls, with Calomel — 

Barbadoes Aloes 3 to 6 drachms. 

Calomel 4 to 1 drachm. 

Rhubarb 1 to 2 drachma. 

Ginger 4 to 1 drachm. 

Castile Soap 2 drachms. 

Mix as in No. 17. 

22. Laxative Drench — 

Barbadoes Aloes 3 to 4 drachms. 

Canella Alba 1 to 2 drachms. 

Salt of Tartar 1 drachm. 

Mint Water 8 ounces. Mis. 

23. Another Laxative Drench — 

Castor Oil 3 to 6 ounces. 

Barbadoes Aloes 3 to 5 drachms. 

Carbonate of Soda 2 drachms. 

Mint Water 8 ounces. 

Mix, by dissolving the Aloes in the Miut Water by the aid of heat, and 
then adding the other ingredients. 

24. A Mild Opening Drench — 

Castor Oil 4 ounces. 

Epsom Salts 3 to 5 ounces. 

Gruel 2 pints. Mix. 

25. A VERT Mild Laxative — ■ 

Castor Oil 4 ounces. 

Linseed Oil 4 ounces. 

Warm Water or Gruel 1 pint. Mix. 

26. Used in the Staggers — 

Barbadoes Aloes 4 to 6 drachms, 

Common Salt 6 ounces. 

Flour of Mustard 1 ounce. 

Water 2 pints. Mix. 

27. A Gently Cooling Drench in Slight Attacks of Cold — 

Epsom Salts 6 to 8 ounces. 

Whey 2 pints. Mix. 

28. Purgative Clyster — 

Common Salt 4 to 8 oimces. 

Warm Water 8 to 16 pints. 

ASTEmGENTS 

Appear to produce contraction on all living animal ti?sues witli wliich they 
come in contact, wliether in the interior or on the exterior of the body ; 
and whether immediately applied or by absorption into the circulation. 
But great doubt exists as to the exact mode in which they act ; and, as in 
many other cases, we are obliged to content ourselves with their effects, 
and to prescribe them empirically. They are divided into astringents 
administered by the mouth, and those applied locally to external ulcerated 
or wounded surfaces. 

29. For Bloody Urine — 

Powdered Catechu | ounce. 

Alum i ounce. 

Cascarilla Bark in Powder 1 to 2 drachms. 

Liquorice Powder and Treacle, enough to form a ball, to be given twice a day, 

30. For Diabetes — 

Opium 1 drachm. 

Ginger powdered 2 drachms. 



088 THE HORSE. 

Oak Bark powdered 1 ounce. 

Alum, as much as the Tea will dissolve. 

Camomile Tea 1 pint. 

Mix for a drench. 

31. External Astringent Powders for Ulcerated Surfaces — 

Powdered Alum . 4 ounces. 

Armenian Bole 1 ounce. 

32. White Vitriol 4 ounces. 

Oxide of Zinc 1 ounce. Mix. 

33. Astringent Lotion — 

Goulard Extract 2 to 3 drachms. 

Water i pint. 

34. Sulphate of copper 1 to 2 drachms. 

Water ^ pint. Mix. 

35. Astringent Ointment for Soee Heels — 

Acetate of Lead 1 drachm. 

Lard 1 ounce. Mix. 

36. Another for the Same — 

Nitrate of Silver powdered 4 drachm. 

Goulard Extract 1 drachm. 

Lard 1 ounce. 

Mix, and use a very small portion every night. 

BLISTEES OR YESICAE^TS. 

Blisters are applications wliich inflame the skin, and produce a secre- 
tion of serum between the cutis and cuticle, by which the latter is 
raised in the form of small bladders ; but in cojisequence of the presence 
of the hair, these are very imperfectly seen in the horse. They consist 
of two kinds — one, used for the sake of counter-irritation, by which the 
original disease is lessened, in consequence of the establishment of this 
irritation at a short distance from it ; the other, commonly called " sweat- 
ing " in veterinary surgery, by which a discharge is obtained from the 
vessels of the part itself, which are in that way relieved and unloaded : 
there is also a subsequent process of absorption in consequence of the 
peculiar stimulus applied. 

37. Mild Blister Ointment (Counter-Irritant)— 

Hog's Lard 4 ounces. 

Venice Turpentine 1 ounce. 

Powdered Cantharides 6 drachms. 

Mix and spread. 

38 Stronger Blister Ointment (Counter-Irritant) — 

Spirit of Turpentine 1 ounce. 

Sulphiiric Acid, by measure 2 drachms. 

Mix carefully in an open place, and add — 

Hog's Lard 4 ounces. 

Powdered Cantharides 1 ounce. 

Mix and spread, 

39. Very Strong Blister (Counter-Irritant) — 

Strong Mercurial Ointment 4 ounces. 

Oil of Origanum i ounce. 

Finely-powdered Euphorbium 3 drachma. 

Powdered Cantharides 4 ounce. 

Mix and spread. 

40. Rapidly acting Blister (Counter-Irritant) — 

Best Flour of Mustard 8 ounces. 

Made into a paste with water. 

Add Oil of Turpentine 2 ounces. 

Strong Liquor of Ammonia 1 ounce. 

This is to be well rubbed into the chest, belly, or back, in cases of 
acute inflammation. 



MEDICINES. 5S9 

41. Sweating Blister - 

Strong Mercurial Ointmeut 2 ounces. 

Oil of Origanum 2 drachms. 

Corrosive Sublimate 2 drachms. 

Cantharides, powdered 3 drachms. 

Mix, and rub in with the hand. 

42. Strong Sweating Blister, fob Splents, Ring-Bones, Spavins, &c. — 

Biniodide of Mercury 1 to li drachm. 

Lard 1 ounce. 

To be well rubbed into the legs after cutting the hair short ; and followed by 
the daily use of Arnica, in the shape of a wash, as follows, which is to be painted 
on with a brush : — 

Tincture of Arnica 1 ounce. 

Water 12 to 15 ounces. 

Mix. 

43. Liquid Sweating Blisters — 

Cuntharides 1 ounce. 

Spirit of Turpentine 2 ounces. 

Methylated Spirit of Wine 1 pint. 

Mix, and digest for a fortnight. Then strain. 

44. Powdered Cantharides 1 ounce. 

Commercial Pyroligneous Acid 1 pint. « 

Mix, and digest for a fortnight. Then strain. 

CAUSTICS, OR CAUTEEIES. 

Caustics are substances which burn away the living tissues of the 
body, by the decomposition of their elements. They are of two kinds — 
viz. first, the actual cautery, consisting in the application of the burning 
iron, and called firing ; and, secondly, the potential cautery, by means of 
the powers of mineral caustics, such as potassa fusa, lunar-caustic, cor- 
rosive sublimate, &c. 

Firing is described in the chapter on Operations, at page 575. 

The following are the ordinary chemical applications used as potential 
cauteries : — 

45. Fused Potass, difficult to manage, because it runs about in all (Jirectious, 

and little used in veterinary medicine. 

46. Lunar Caustic, or Nitrate of Silver, very valuable to the veterinary 

surgeon, and constantly used to apply to profuse granulations. 

47. Sulphate of Copper, almost equally useful, but not so strong as Lunar 

Caustic ; it may be well rul>bed in to all high granulations, as in 
broken knees, and similar growths. 

48. CoRROSWB Sublimate in powder, which acts most energetically upon 

wart3' growths, but should be used with great care and discreti<m. It 
may safely be applied to small surfaces, but not without a i-egular 
practitioner to large ones. It should be washed off after remaining on 
a few minutes. For the mode of applying it in casti'ution, see page 579. 

49. Yellow Orpiment is not so strong as Corrosive Sublimate, and may be 

used with more freedom. It will generally remove warty growths, by 
picking off their heads and rubbing it in. 

50. Muriate of Antimony, called Butter of Antimony; a strong but rather 

unmanageable caustic, and used either by itself or mixed with more or 
less water. 

61. Chloride of Zinc is a most powerful caustic. It may be used in old 
sinuses in solution, 7 drachms in a pint of water. 

Milder Caustics : — 

52. Verdigris, either in powder or mixed with Lard as an ointment, in the 

proportion of 1 to 3. 

53. Red Precipitate, ditto, ditto. 

54. Burnt Alum, used dry. 

55. Powdered White Sugar. 



5L'0 THE HORSE. 

Mild Liquid Caustics : — 

5C. Solution of Nitrate of Silver, 5 to 15 grains to the ounce of distilled 
water. 

57. Solution of Blue Vitriol, of about double the above strength. 

58. Chloride of Zinc, 1 to 3 grains to the ounce of water. 

CHAEGES 

Ark adhesive plasters whicli are spread while hot on the legs, and 
at once covered with short tow, so as to form a strong and unyielding 
support while the horse is at grass. 

59. Ordinary Charges — 

Burgundy Pitch 4 ounces. 

Barbadoes Tar 6 ounces. 

Beeswax 2 ounces. 

Red Lead 4 ounces. 

The three first are to be melted together, and afterwards the Lead is to be 
added. The mixture is to be kept constautly stirred until sufficiently cold 
to be applied If too stiff (which will depend upon the weather), it may be 
softened by the addition of a little Lard or Oil. 

60. Arnica Charge — 

Canada Balsam 2 ounces. 

Powdered Arnica Leaves \ ounce. 

The Balsam to be melted and worked up with the leaves, adding Spirits of 
Turpentine if necessary. When thoroughly mixed, to be well rvibbed into 
the whole leg, in a thin layer, and to be covered over with the Charge No. 
69, which will set on its outside and act as a bandage, while the Arnica is a 
restorative to the weakened vessels. This is an excellent application. 

CLYSTEES, OE ENEMATA. 

Clysters are intended either to relieve obstruction or spasm of the 
bowels, and are of great service when properly applied. They may be 
made of warm water or gruel, of which some quarts will be required in 
colic. They should be thrown up with the proper syringe, provided with 
valves and a flexible tube. 

For the turpentine clyster in colic, see Antispasmodics. 

Aperient clysters, see Aperients. 

61. Anodyne Clyster in Diarrhcea — 

Starch, made as for washing 1 quart. 

Powdered Opium 2 drachms. 

The Opium is to be boiled in water, and added to the starch. 

COEDIALS 

Are medicines which act as temporary stimulants to the whole system, 
and especially to the stomach. They augment the strength and spirits 
when depressed, as after over-exertion in work. 

62. Cordial Balls — 

Powdered Caraway Seeds 6 drachms. 

Ginger 2 drachms. 

Oil of Cloves 20 drops. 

Treacle enough to make into a ball. 

63. Powdered Aniseed 6 drachms. 

Powdered Cardamoms 2 diachms. 

Powdered Cassia 1 drachm. 

Oil of Caraway 20 drops. 

Mix with treacle into a ball. 

64. Cordial Drench — 

A quart of good ale warmed, and with plenty of grated gingfnr. 



MEDICINES. 591 

€5. C0RDIA.L AND Expectorant — 

Powdered Aniseed ^ ounce. 

Powdered Squill 1 drachm. 

Powdered Myrrh 1^ drachm. 

Balsam of Peru, enough to form a ball. 

C6. Liquorice Powder ^ ouncf 

Gum Ammoniacum 3 drachms. 

Balsam of'Tolu 1| drachm. 

Powdered Squill 1 drachm. 

Linseed meal and boiling water, enough to form into a mass. 

DEMULCENTS 

Are used for the purpose of soothing irritations of the bowels, kid- 
neys, or bladder, in the two last cases by their effect ujDon the secretion 
of urine. 

67. Demulcent Drench — 

Gum Arabic ^ ounce. 

Water 1 pint. 

Dissolve and give as a drench night and morning, or mixed with a mash. 

68. Linseed 4 ounces. 

Water 1 quart. 

Simmer till a strong and thick decoction is obtained, and give as above. 

69. Maeshmallow Drench — 

Marshmallows . A double handfuL 

Water 1 quart. 

Simmer, as in No. 68, and use in the same way. 

DIAPHOEETICS 

Have a special action on the skin, increasing the perspiration some- 
times to an enormous extent. 

70. Ordinary Diaphoretic Drench — 

Solution of Acetate of Ammonia 3 to 4 ounces. 

Laudanum 1 ounce. 

Mix, and give at night. Or, 

7L Solution of Acetate of Ammonia 2 ounces. 

Spirit of Nitric .^Ether 2 ounces. 

Mix, and give as above. 

72. In Hide-bound — 

Emetic Tartar li drachm. 

Camphor X drachm. 

Ginger 2 drachms. 

Opium ^ drachm. 

Oil of Caraway 15 drops. 

Linseed meal and boiling water, to form a ball, which is to be given twice 
or thrice a week. 

73. In Hide-bound (but not so efiScacious) — 

Antimonial Powder 2 drachms. 

Ginger 1 drachm. 

Powdered Caraways 6 drachms. 

Oil of Aniseed 20 drops. 

Mix as above. 

These remedies require moderate exercise in clothmg to bring out their 
effects, after which the horse should be whisped till quite dry. 

DIGESTIVES. 

Digestives are applications which promote suppuration, and the healing 
of wounds or ulcers. 



592 THE HORSE. 

74. Digestive Ointment — 

Red Precipitate 2 ounces. 

Venice Turpentine 3 ounces. 

Beeswax 1 ounce. 

Hog's Lard 4 ounces. 

Melt the three last ingredients over a slow fire, and when nearly cold 
stir in the powder. 

DIUEETICS. 

Diuretics are medicines whicli promote the secretion and discharge of 
urine, the effect being produced in a different manner by different medi- 
cines ; some acting directly upon the kidneys by sympathy with the 
stomach, while others are taken up by the blood-vessels, and in their 
elimination from the blood cause an extra secretion of the urine. In 
either case their effect is to diminish the watery part of the blood, 9,nd 
thus promote the absorption of fluid effused into any of the cavities, or 
into the cellular membrane in the various forms of dropsy. 

75. Stimulating Didretig Ball — 

Powdered Resin 3 drachms. 

. Sal Prunelle 3 drachms. 

Castile Soap 3 drachms. 

Oil of Juniper 1 drachm. Mix, 

76. A MORE Cooling Diuretic Ball — 

Powdered Nitre 4 to 1 ounce. 

Camphor 1 drachm. 

Juniper berries 1 di-achm. 

Soap 3 drachms. 

Mix, adding linseed meal enou2;h to form a ball. 

77. Diuretic Powder for a Mash — 

Nitre 2 to I ounce. 

Resin 2 to | ounce. 

Mix. 

78. Another more Active Powder — 

Nitre r 6 drachms. 

Camphor _ . I5 drachm. Mix. 

EMBROCATIOIsrS. 

Embrocations or liniments are stimulating or sedative external appli- 
cations, intended to reduce the pain and inflammation of internal parts 
when rubbed into the skin with the hand. 

79. Mustard Embrocation — 

Best Flour of Mustard 6 ounces. 

Liquor of Ammonia 1^ ounce. 

Oil of Turpentine 1 4 ounce. 

Mix with sufficient water to form a thin paste. 

80. Stimulating Embrocation — 

Camphor ^ ounce. 

Oil of Turpentine I5 ounce. 

Spirit of Wine li ounce. Mix. 

1. Sweating Embrocation for Windgalls, &c. — 

Strong Mercurial Ointment 2 ounces. 

Camphor i ounce. 

Oil of Rosemary 2 drachms. 

Oil of Turpentine 1 ounce. Mix. 

82. Another, but Stronger— 

Strong Mercurial Ointment 2 ounces. 

Oil of Bay 1 ounce. 

Oil of Origanum | ounce. 

Powdered Cantharides I ounce. Mix 



MEDICINES. 593 

83. A MOST Active Sweating Embrocation — 

Biniodide of Mercury i to 1 drachm. 

Powdered Arnica Leaves 1 drachm. 

Soap Liniment 2 ouncea.' Mix. 



EMULSIONS. 

When oily matters have their globules broken down by friction with 
mucilaginous substances, such as gum arable or yolk of egg, they are called 
emulsions, and are specially useful in soothing irritation of the mucous 
membrane, of the trachea, and bronchi. 

84. Simple Emulsion— 

Linseed Oil 2 ounces. 

Honey 3 ounces. 

Soft Water 1 pint. 

Subcarbonate of Potass 1 drachm. 

Dissolve the honey and potass in the water; then add the linseed oil iy 
degrees in a large mortar, when it should assume a milky appearance. It 
may be given night and morning. 

85. Another more active Emulsion — 

Simple Emulsion, No. 84 7 ounces. 

Camphor 1 drachm. 

Opium in Powder | drachm. 

Oil of Aniseed 30 drops. 

Rub the three last ingi-edients together in a mortar with some white sugar ; 
then add the emulsion by degrees. 



EXPECTOEANTS. 

Expectorants excite or promote a discharge of mucus from the linin" 
membrane of the bronchial tubes, thereby relieving inflammation and 
allaying cough. 

86. Expectorant Ball in Ordinary Cough without Inflammation — 

Gum Ammoniacum i ounce. 

Port'dered Squill 1 drachm. 

Castile Soap 2 drachms. 

Honey enough to form a ball. 

87. In Old Standing Cough (Stomach) — 

Asafcetida 3 drachms. 

Galbanum 1 drachm. 

Carbonate of Ammonia ^ drachm. 

Ginger li drachm. 

Honey enough to form a ball. 

88. A Strong Expectorant Ball — 

Emetic Tartar ^ drachm. 

Calomel 15 grains. 

Digitalis | drachm. 

Powdered Squills ^ drachm. 

Linseed meal and water enough to form a ball, which is not to be repeated 
without great care. 



EEBEIFUGES, 

Generally called fever medicines, are given to allay the arterial and 
nervous excitements which accompany febrile action. They do this 
partly by their agency on the heart and arteries through the nervous 
system, and partly by increasing the secretions of the skin and kidneys. 

QQ 



50i THE HORSE. 

89. Fever Ball— 

Nitre 4 drachms. 

Camphor 1 2 drachm. 

Calomel and Opium, of each 1 scruple. 

Linseed meal and water enough to form a ball. Or, 

90. Emetic Tartar . 1| to 2 drachms. 

Compound Powder of Tragacanth 2 drachms. 

Linseed meal as above. Or, 

91. Nitre 3 drachms. 

Camphor 2 drachms. 

Mix as above. •- 

92. CooLiNQ Powder for Mash — 

Nitre 6 drachms to 1 oimce. 

May be given in a bran mash. 

03. Cooling Drench — 

Nitre 1 ounce. 

Sweet Spirit of Nitre 2 ounces. 

Tincture of Digitalis 2 drachms. 

Whey 1 pint. 

LOTIOlfS OE WASHES 

Consist in liquids applied to the external parts, either to cool them or 
to produce a healthy action in the vessels. 

94. CooLiNa Solution for External Inflammation — 

Goulard Extract 1 ounce. 

"Vine;:ar 2 ounces. 

Spirits of Wine, or Gin 3 ounces. 

Water . 1^ pint. 

^lix, and apply with a calico bandage. 

95. Another, useful for Inflajild Legs, or fob Galled Shoulders oa 

Back — 

Sal Ammoniac 1 ounce. 

Vinegar 4 ounces. 

Spirits of Wine 2 ouuce.s. 

Tincture of Aruiea 2 drachms. 

Water J pint. Mix. 

96. Lotion for Foul Ulceus — 

Sulphate of Copper 1 ounce. 

Nitric Acid J ounce. 

Waler 8 to 12 ounces. 

Mix. 

97. Lotion for the Eyes — 

Sulphate of Zinc 20 to 25 grains. 

Water 6 ounces. Mis. 

93. Yert Strong One, and only to be dropped in — 

Nitrate of Silver 6 to 8 grains. 

Distilled Water 1 ounce. 

Mix, and use with a camel-hair brush. 

In'AECOTICS. 

A DISTINCTION is sometimes made between anodynes and narcotics, but 
ill veterinary medicine there is no necessity for separating them. (See 
.tVnodyues.) 

KEFEIGEEANTS 

LowEU THE ANIMAL HEAT by contact "with the sldn, the ordinary ones 
being cold air, cold water, ice. and evaporative lotions. (See Lotions.) 



MEDICI^' ES. 515 

SEDATIVES 

Depress the action of the circulatory and nervous systems, witlior.t 
affecting the mental functions. They are very powerful in their effects ; 
and digitalis, which is the drug commonly used for this purpose, has ;i 
special quahty Imown by the name of cumulative : that is to say, if 
repeated small doses are given at intervals for a certain time, an effect 
is produced almost equal to that which would follow the exhibition of 
the whole quantity at once. Besides digitalis, aconite is also sometimes 
iised to lower the action of the heart, and by many it is supposed to be 
equal in potency to that drug, without the danger which always attends 
its use. 

STIMULANTS. 

By this term is understood those substances which excite the action 
of the whole nervous and vascular systems ; almost all medicines aro 
stimulants to some part or other, as, for instance, aperients, which stimu- 
late the lining of the bowels, but to the general system are lowering. 
On the other hand, stimulants, so called 2^<^'>' excellence, excite and raitio 
the action of the brain and heart. 

09. Old Ale 1 quart. 

Carbouate of Amiuouia g to 2 drachms. 

Tincture of Ginger 4 drachms. 

Mix and give as a drench. 

For other stimidants, see Cordials. 

• STOMACHICS. 

Stomachics are medicines given to improve the tone of the stoma^ii 
when impau'ed by bad management or disease. 

100. Stomachic Ball — 

Powdered Gentian J ounce. 

Powdered Ginger 1.^ drachm. 

Carbonate of Soda 1 drachm. 

Treacle to form a ball. Or, 

. 101. Cascarilla, powdered 1 ounce. 

Myrrh 1\ dracliin. 

Castile Soap 1 drachm. 

Mix, with syrup or treacle, into a ball. Oi", 

102. Powdered Colombo 4 tt) 1 o"i' ''• 

Powdered Cassia 1 drachm. 

Powdered Pihubarb 2 drachms. 

Mix as in No. 101. 

STYPTICS. 

Styptics are remedies which have a tendency to stop the flow of blood 
either from internal or external surfaces. They are used either by the 
mouth, or to the part itself in the shape of lotions, &c. ; or the actual 
cautery, which is always the best in external bleeding, may be employed. 
Sometimes, however, the part cannot bo reached with the heated iron, 
and is yet within the influence of an injection, as in bleeding from the 
nostrils, for which the following may be employed : — 

103. Matico Leaves J ounce. 

Boiling Water 1 pint. 

Infuse, and when cold stram and inject into tho nostrils. 

Tor internal styptics, see Astringents. 

Q Q 2 



596 THE HORSE. 



TONICS 

Augment the vigour of tlie whole body permanently, whilst stimulants 
only act for a short time. They are chiefly useful after low fever. 

104. Tonic Ball— 

Sulphate of Iron i ounce. 

Extract of Camomile 1 ounce. 

Mix and form into a ball. Or, 

105. Arsenic 10 grains. 

Ginger . . _ 1 drachm. 

Powdered Aniseed 1 oimce. 

Compound Powder of Tragacantli 2 drachma. 

Syrup enough to form a ball. It is a very powerful tonic. 

VERMIFUGES, OE WOEM MEDICINES, 
Are described under the head of Anthelmintics, which see. 



CHAPTEE XXXIV. 

LIST OF VETERINARY DRUGS, WITH THEIR ACTIONS AND DOSES. 

Acetic Acid ; Distilled Vinegar. — Only used externally, as an ingredient 

in cooling lotions. 
Aconite ; Monkshood, Wolfsbane. — A most active poison in large doses. 

Used medicinally, it is a powerful general sedative, anti-spasmodic, and 

anodyne ; and by many practitioners it is preferred to Digitalis. It is 

generally given as a tincture ; for which see 
Aconite, Tincture of. — Take of root of Aconitum Napellus, dried and 

powdered, 1 6 ounces ; rectified spirit, 1 6 fluid ounces. Macerate for 

four days ; then strain, adding enough si^irit to make it up to 24 

ounces. Dose, 10 minims to 20 minims. 
Alcohol ; Spirit of "Wine, kno\vn as rectified spirit, and proof spirit. — 

The latter is used as a stimulant, in the dose of 2 ounces to 6 ounces. 
Aloes ; Barbadoes is the kind of this drug which is chiefly used in 

veterinary practice. — Its action is cathartic in large doses, nauseating in 

medium doses, and tonic in small. Dose, from 2 drachms to 6 drachms. 

For the foal, 5 grains may be given for every week, of its age. 
Aloes, Horse or Caballine ; an inferior and cheaper quality, generally the 

residue from the purification of Barbadoes and Socotrine aloes. 
Alum ; Sulphate of Alumina and Potass. — Action, irritant, astringent, 

and sedative. Dose, 2 drachms to 4 drachms. 
Ammonia, Liquor of; Caustic Ammonia, Sj)irit of Hartshorn. — A dif- 
fusible stimulant internally ; externally, a strong irritant. Dose, 2 

drachms to 6 drachms. 
Ammonia, Aromatic Spirit of ; Sal Volatile. — Used in the same way as 

the Liquor, which is generally substituted for it in veterinary medicine. 
Ammonia, Carbonate o£ — A strong difi'usible stimulant. Dose, 2 drachms 

to 4 drachms. 



VETERINARY DRUGS. 697 

Ammonia, Muriate of; Sal Ammoniac. — Only used externally, dissolved in 

water as a lotion, mixed witli an equal quantity of nitre. One part of 

the mixture should be dissolved in sixteen parts of water, when it will 

lower the temperature 40° of Fahrenheit. 
Aniseed. — Stomachic and carminative. Dose, 1 drachm. 
Antimony, Oxide of; Antimonial Powder. — Little used in veterinary 

medicine. 
Antimony, Sulphuret of. — A somewhat uncertain drug, alterative and 

anthelmintic. Dose, 2 drachms to 1 ounce. 
Antimony, Chloride of ; Butter of Antimony. — Used as a caustic. 
Antimony, Tartarized; Tartar Emetic. — A very common febrifuge and 

anthelmintic for horses, but of late asserted by the authorities of the 

Edinburgh Veterinary College to be almost inert ; and this assertion is 

supported by a number of experiments. Dose, 1 drachm to 6 drachms. 
Arsenic, White ; Arsenious Acid, — In large doses, an irritant poison; in 

small ones, a tonic, and having also a peculiar effect on the skin. Dose, 

5 to 10 grains. 
Arsenic, Fowler's Solution of; Liquor Arsenicalis. — A solution of white 

arsenic with potass in water, each ounce containing 4 grains of 

arsenicous acid. Dose, \h ounce to 2 ounces. 
Asafcetida, Gum. — A mild stimulant, carminative, and vermifuge. 

Dose, 2 drachms. 
Belladonna ; Deadly N'ightshade. — A narcotic acrid poison in large 

doses ; in small doses, anodyne and anti-spasmodic. Dose, 2 ounces of 

the dried leaves. 
Calomel; Subchloride of Mercury. — Irritant, purgative, alterative, and 

antiphlogistic. Dose, 20 grains to 1 drachm. 
Camphor ; a peculiar concretion from Camphora officinarum. — Slightly 

stimulant ; then sedative and anti-spasmodic. Dose, 1 drachm to 4 

drachms. 
Cantharides ; Blistering or Spanish Flies. — Given internally, irritant, 

stimulant, and diuretic ; externally, rubefacient and vesicant. Dose, 

4 grains to 20 grains. 
Cantharides, Ointment of; Blistering Ointment. — For recipes, see 

page 588. 
Cantharides, Tincture of; Liquid Blister. — Powdered cantharides, 1 

ounce; proof spirit, 16 ounces: digest for several days, and strain. An 

active sweating or vesicating fluid. 
Cantharidis Acetum. — A solution in ten parts of acetic acid of one of 

powdered cantharides. More active than the liquid blister. 
Cascarilla ; Bark of Croton Eleuteria. — A warm bitter tonic. Dose, 

1 ounce to 2 oimces, generally made into an infusion. 

Castor Oil ; expressed from Ricinus communis. — Purgative. Dose, 1 pint. 
Catechu ; extract from Acacia Catechu. — Astringent and antiseptic. Dose, 

2 drachms to 5 drachms. 

Chalk ; Carbonate of Lime. — Antacid and astringent in diarrhoea. Dose, 

1 ounce to 2 ounces. 

Chamomile ; Flowers of Anthemis Nohilis. — Stomachic, carminative, and 

mildly tonic. Dose, 1 to 2 ounces. 
Charcoal ; Carbon. — A powerful antiseptic ; chiefly used externally to 

foul wounds. 
Chloroform. — Anaesthetic, stimulant, and antispasmodic. Inhaled in 

doses of from 2 to 6 ounces. Given internally — dose, 1 drachm to 

2 drachms. 



r.08 , THE HORSE. 

CixcHOXA ; Barlv of several species of Cinchona. — Astringent and tonic. 

Dose, 1 ounce to 3 ounces. 
CoLCHicuM ; Meadow Satfron. — Cathartic, diuretic, and sedative. Dose 

of the root or seeds, half a drachm to 2 drachms. 
Copper, Sulpliate of. — Tonic and astringent. Used externally it is a 

mild caustic. Dose, 1 drachm to 2 drachms. 
Copper, Suhacetute of ; Verdigris. — An external application in grease and 

quittor. 
Corrosive Sublimate, Chloride of IMercury. — An irritant poison. Used 

as a caustic, or as a wash, dissolved in Avater, for mange, lice, &c. 
Creosote. — Sedative, anodyne, astringent, and antiseptic. Dose, 20 to 

30 minims. Used externally in skin diseases, mixed with lead or oil 

— 1 drachm to 3 or 4 oimces. 
Croton oil and seeds ; Croton Tiglium. — Internally a strong cathartic ; 

externally a counter-ii-ritant. Dose, JO to 15 seeds; of the oil 15 to 

20 drops. 
Digitalis ; Foxglove ; leaves of Digitalis Purjmrea. — A strong sedative 

and diuretic. Dose, of the powdered leaves, 20 to 30 grains. 
IEther, Sulphuric. — Stimulant, narcotic, and antispasmodic. Dose, 1 ounce 

to 3 ounces. 
J'ther, Spirit of Nitric. — See Sweet Spirit of Kitre. 
■Galls ; Excrescences of Quercus Infectoria. — A powerful astringent. 

Dose, 4 drachms to G drachms. 
Gallic Acid ; Tannin exposed to air and moistiu'e. — Dose, \ draclim to 

1 di-achm. 
Gentian ; Eoot of Gentiana Lutea. — A bitter stomachic and tonic. Dose, 

4 drachms to 8 drachms. 
Oinger ; Eoot of Zingiber officinale. — Stomachic, cordial, and carminaLive. 

Dose, 1 ounce. 
•Glycerine ; one of the jjroducts of soaiD-bbiling. — A most useful emollient 

external application. 
OuM Arabic. — Useful for making a soothing mucilaginous emulsion. 

Dose, dissolve in water 1 ounce. 
'Gum Tragacanth. — Similar in its action and dose to Gum Acacia. 
Hellebore, "White. — See Veratnim. 
Hemlock ; Leaves of Coniu/ii Maculatum. — Of little value as a medicine 

for the horse. 
Henbane ; Leaves of Hyoscyamus Niger. — N"ot much used. 
Iodine is given internally to produce absorption of morbid growths. 

Dose, 1 di-achm to H drachm. Externally it is applied in the form of 

tincture. 
Iodide of Potassium. — See Potassium, Iodide of. 
Iron, Sulphate of; Green Vitriol. — Astringent and tonic. Dose, 1 drachm 

to 3 drachms. 
Juniper Berries. — Carminative and diuretic. — Dose, 1 ounce to 3 ounces. 
J,EAD, Oxide of; Litharge. — Used to make various plasters. 
3 ::ad. Acetate of — Internally astringent, but not powerfully so in the 

horse. Dose, 20 to 60 grains. Externally useful in the form of solution 

as Goulard's extract, and with lard, t^c, as the cerate of acetate of lead. 
LiNbEED; Liuum Usitatissimwn ; Elax seeds. — Used scalded as an emol- 
lient food, and for fattening pui-poses, in quantities of 4 to G oimces. 
Linseed Oil. — A mild purgative. Dose, 1 pint to 2 pints. 
Magnesia, Sulphate of. — Epsom salts, an micertain cathartic, but gene- 
rally diuretic. Dose, 1 p(jund to 2 poimis. 



VETERINARY DRUGS. 599 

Marsh-Mallows; Eoot of Althcea officinalis. — A mucilaguious emulsiou 

vi made Ly boiling. See page 591. 
Mi^iicuiUAL Ointment; Unguenium Ilydraryyri. — Used externally for 

mange and lice. 
JIercuky, Animonio-Cldoride of ; ^Yllito Precipitate. — Used as a local 

application to kUl lice. 
Meucuky, Nitrate of. — Used mixed with lard, &c., to form an ointment, 

Yi'liicli is efficacious as a mild stimulant. 
Magnesia, Carbonate of. — A mild aperient for foals ; see Eliubarb. 
Mu-RiATic Acid ; Hydrochloric Acid. — In small doses, tonie, 1 drachm 

dduted with water. 
Mustard ; Flour of the seeds of Sinapis Nigra. — Irritant applied 

externally, but not very active in the horse. 
ISTiTiiic Acid. — A tonic when largely diluted. Dose 1 drachm to 2 drachms. 
jSTus Vomica. — A stimulant to the nerves, and useful in paralysis. Uusc, 

1 drachm. 

Olive Oil. — Chiefly used as an ingredient in liniments. 

Opium ; Juice of the Fcqxiver Somniferum. — Primarily stimulant. Then 

narcotic and anodyne. Dose, 1 drachm to 2 drachms. 
PoTASSA EusAj Caustic Potash. — An active caustic, but not very 

manageable. 
Potassium, Iodide of — Dim-etic and deobstruent, having tlie property of 

causing the absorption of morbid growths. Dose, 2 diachms to 4 

drachms. 
Potass, Nitrate of ; Nitre ; Saltpetre. — Diuretic and febrifuge. Dose, G 

to 8 drachms. 
Potass, Acetate of — The same as the nitrate, but milder in its effects on 

the kidneys. 
Piiussiu Acid; Hydi-ocyanic Acid. — Used in the form of diluted hydi-o- 

cyanic acid, to reduce the action of the heart. Dose, 20 to 30 

minims. 
Pyroxylic Acid ; Medicinal Naphtha. — Narcotic, having a special 

action on the bronchial mucous membrane. It is used in chronic 

cough. Dose, ^ ounce. 
IlESIN, or Eosin. — An active diuretic. Dose, 1 ounce to 2 ounces. 
liHUBARB ; Eoot of Rheum Palmatum. — A mild purgative and stomachic, 

chiefly employed for foals, combined with magnesia. 
Salt, Common. See Chloride of Sodium. 
Savin ; Tops of Juniperus Sahina. — Anthelmintic. The essential oil is 

the best form. Dose, 3 to 4 drachms. 
Silver, Nitrate of ; Lunar Caustic ; Lapis Infernalis. — Used externally 

in the solid form and in solution. 
Sodium, Chloride of; Coniraon s.dt. — A useful addition to the diet of 

horses. 
Spermaceti Ointment. — A very useful foundation for several external 

applications. 
Sulphur. — An efficacious remedy in several skin diseases. 
Sulphur Ointment, Compound. — Sulphur, | pound ; white hellebore, 

2 ounces ; nitre, 1 drachm; soft soap, h pound; lard H pound: mix. 
The m' ist useful application, when united with turpentine, in mange. 

Sulphuric Acid. — A powerful canstic, only used externally. 

Sweet Spirit of Nitre. — Diuretic, diaphoretic, antispasmodic, and 

stimulant. Dose, 1 ounce to 2 ounces. 
Tannic Acid. — Powerful! v astringent. Dose, 20 to 30 grains. 



600 THE HOUSE. 

Tar ; Pix Liquida. — Used externally as an ingredient in ointments, and 

as a stimulant to the growth of horn. 
Turpentine, Spirit of ; Oil of Turpentine. — An excellent antispasmodic, 

diuretic, and vermifuge. Dose, 1 ounce to 2 ounces ; or as a diuretic, 

^ ounce to 1 ounce. 
Veratrum Album ; White Hellebore. — Sedative, for which purpose it 

is highly lauded by Mr. Percivall, who gave it in doses of 20 to 30 

grains. Externally it forms an ingredient in several ointments. 
Ztnc, Carbonate of ; Calamine. — Used externally in the form of ointment. 
-^INC, Oxide of. — Used externally as a mild soothing ointment, mixed 

with lard. 
Zinc, Sulphate of; White Yitriol. — Dissolved in water to form a wash for 

the eyes. 
Zinc, Chloride of. — A strong caustic and antiseptic. Generally km/w'n as 

Sir W. Burnett's disinfectuig fluid, which contains 25 grains in. each 

fluid drachm. 



APPENDIX. 



ON SOUNDNESS; AND ON THE PUECHASE AND SALE OF 

HOESES. 

The elastic conscience of a horsedealer has tecome a by- word ; 
but I confess that my experieuce does not lead me to conclude that tho 
class is more open to charges of unfair dealing than many others whose 
proceedings have lately been exposed in the Bankruptcy and Nisi Prius 
law courts. Few intending purchasers of a horse will be content with 
anything less than what they believe to be absolute perfection in him ; 
and if the seller tells the truth about the animal he has to dispose of, his 
chance of a sale would be a poor one. The dealer is, therefore, placed in 
the dilemma of being compelled either to give his horse a character which 
he does not deserve, or to forego all chance of a sale ; and hence it is not 
surprising that he draws rather extensively upon his imagination. Accord- 
ing to my experience, however, amateurs are not exempt from this failing ; 
and if I were compelled to purchase a horse from character alone, I should 
far prefer relying upon that given by a respectable dealer. The latter 
class are, no doubt, more skilled in hiding defects and disease, and there- 
fore it requires a more practical knowledge of the horse to detect their 
artifices where they are sufficiently shortsighted to adopt them. On the 
whole, however, it may generally be concluded that unless a gentleman 
has had an extensive experience in purchasing horses, he will do well to 
place liimself in the hands of a dealer, telling him exactly what he wants, 
and not pretending a knowledge which he does not possess. 

In all large towns there are men of some character and standing, who 
may be selected for this purpose ; and in London, Dublin, Edinburgh, 
Birmingham, Liverpool, Cheltenham, and Leamington, there are reposi- 
tories, where horses are sold by auction on stated days. These auction- 
marts save the vendor from all responsibility, whether pecuniary or moral, 
unless a warranty is given, either of soundness or freedom from vice, and 
then the stipulation only lasts for forty-eight hours. If the . horse is re- 
turned within that time, accompanied by a certificate of unsoundness or 
vice, the auctioneer must take him back, and return the purchase-money, 
unless he is prepared to dispute the evidence which is forwarded to him. 
Under ordinary warranties there is no limitation of the time to Avhich 
they shall extend, and a horse warranted sound may be returned at any 
subsequent time if the purchaser can prove that he was unsound at the 
time of sale. But the lapse of several weeks or months without doing so 
is generally considered to be a strong argument that the purchaser did not 



€02 THE nORSE. 

consider tlie animal to be unsouud until he gave notice to the vendor ; 
ttiul this is strong presumiJtive evidence that the imsoundness did not 
exist. 

The definition op unsoundness is, " the existence of disease or altera- 
tion of structure which docs or will impair the horse's natural usefulness." 
Vice aLso may be defined, on a similar principle, as " the previdence of a 
habit which interferes with the horse's natural usefulness." Eut these 
definitions must be taken with some modifications, for there is not one 
horse in a hundred which does not possess some disease or vice likely to 
impair his general usefulness to some slight extent ; indeed, the proportion 
of strictly sound horses ma}' be considered to be much smaller even than 
this. A bad feeder is so generally from a disordered state of stomach, 
and such a horse caimot stand work like one which will consume double 
the quantity of corn, yet he Avould not be considered unsound; nor would 
a horse be returnable as vicious if he showed the usual symptoms of 
being "fresh," thougli they might impair his usefidnes 5 in carrying a 
timid rider. But subject to such modifications, the above definitions 
may be accepted as suificient to make intelligible the terms, Unsoundness 
and Vice. 

The roLLOWiNG diseases and accidents are generally considered not to 
render theh possessors unsound : — 

Bog spavin, in a slight degree only. 

A DKOKEN KNEE, uulcss the joint is injured so as to impair its functions, 
is not considered to be unsoundness. 

Capped hocks and elbows do not produce any lameness, nor do they 
in any way interfere with the action of the joints to which they are 
tidjacent. 

Contraction of the foot is no evidence of disease, and, taken by 
itself, is not sufficient to prove it to be unsound. 

Crib BITING was decided, in the cases of Broenneiihury v. Haycock and 
tdcolejleld v. Eobh, not to be unsoundness ; but Baron Parker ruled in the 
latter that it came wdtliin the meaning of the word " vice." Undoubtedly 
this is a habit which is generally attended by impaired digestion, and, as 
.such, it comes strictly within the definition given above ; but the law is 
as I have stated it. 

CuRBY hocks, though experience may tell us they are likely to be 
r.tteiided by cui'bs, are decided not to be unsoundness. Tn Brown v. 
MLington, the attention of the vendor Avas directed to the hocks by the 
jmrchaser before the sale, as likely to spring curbs ; but in the action on 
the warranty it was held by Lord Abinger that " a defect hi the formation 
of the horse, which had not occasioned lameness at the time of sale, 
though it might render the animal more liable to be lame at some future 
time, was no breach of warranty;" and the Court -of Exchequer confii'med 
this view of the law, by refusing a rule for a new triak 

Cutting, on the same principle, is no breach of warranty, unless the 
horse is lame from it at the time of sale. 

A splint is not, in itseK, evidence of imsoundness ; but if it is so 
situated as necessarily to interfere with the suspensory ligament or 
tendons, or if it has aheady produced lameness, it is to be accepted as a 
mark of unsoundness. 

TiiOROUGHPiN, vi'hen existing to a moderate extent, is not sufficient to 
render the horse unsound ; but this will always be a question of opinion, 
and a horse with thoroughpin is, therciore, not to be warrunLed with 
sat'etv. 



APPENDIX. 603 

Thrush, occurring from mismanagement only, and not from any defect 
in the liorse, is clearly not to be considered as unsoundness. 

Soreness of the joints from work, as it soon goes oJi' after a short rest, 
is not accepted as unsoundness. 

AViNDGALLS are also only evidences of work, and do not usually cause 
lameness. When this coexists, it is sufficient to produce unsoundness, 
without resorting to the windgalls. 

The follcwing list comprises the diseases and injuries which have 
heen settled as sufficient to entitle the purchaser to return a horse warranted 
sound : — 

Bog spavin, when it is so severe as clearly to interfere with the action 
of the joint ; and blood spavin, as marking an aggravated form of the 
same disease. 

Breaking down, even though the horse is restored so as to run without 
lameness. 

Broken wind. 

Cataract, iu any degree. 

Corns, unless very trifling ; but they should be discovered within a 
few days of the sale, or it may be alleged that they have been produced 
by subsequent mismanagement. 

Cough, as long as it lasts. A horse mtli chronic cough is clearly 
returnable. 

Curbs constitute unsoundness ; but they must be shown to exist at the 
time of purchase, for a horse may throw one out immediately after he is 
transferred to the purchaser. 

Diseases of the organic kind, in any of the internal viscera. 

1'arcy. 

Founder, or laminitis, whether it produces lameness or not, if it 
manifestly has existed, is to be accepted as unsoundness ; for when there 
is evidence of its previous occurrence, the lamiuaj are injured so much as 
inevitably to lead to lameness when the horse is put to work. 

Grease, and Glanders. 

Mange. 

Megrims, when the attack comes on subsequently to the sale, and can 
be shown to have occurred before it. 

A nerved horse is unsound from the existence of the disease for which 
the operation has been performed, as well as from the division of the nerves. 

Ophthai^mia, if it can be proved to have previously existed, and comes 
on soon after the purchase, is to be received as unsoundness. So, also, 
when any of the evidences of its previous presence can be detected, and 
are proved by a vetei'inary surgeon, the horse is returnable. 

Ossification of any of the structures adjacent to the joints is unsound- 
ness, and hence ossification of the lateral cartilages will be considered so, 
without doubt. 

Pumiced foot, as evidence of laminitis. 

Quiddixg. 

Quittor. 

liiNGBONES, and Sidebones, Avhether large or small, are imdoubtedly 
sufficient to constitute a horse unsound. 

liOARiNG, whistling, &c., as evidence of contraction of the rima glot- 
tidis, and therefore interfering with respiration. 

ItUPTURKS OF ALL KINDS. 

Spavin (bone); although it may not ha\e occasioned lameness, if it is 
clearly tJic disease so named. 



604 THE HORSE. 

Stringhalt has been decided to be unsoundiiess [Thompson v. Patterson). 

Thick wind, as marking some impediment to respiration. 

Thrush, when it is in one of its severe forms, and not caused by mis- 
management. 

Thickening op the back sinews, or suspensory ligament, when existing 
to any extent easily appreciable, is to be received as a proof of unsoundness. 

Eeturnable Vices are comprehended in the following list : — 

Biting, when carried to any unusual extent. 

Bolting or running away. , 

Crib-biting. 

Kicking, when more than usual. 

Eestiveness, or refusal to proceed in the desired direction. 

Rearing. 

Shying, when marked. 

Weaving in the stable. 

When a horse is purchased, with the conditions that he is warranted 
sound, or free from vice, or quiet to ride and drive, the warranty must 
either be in Avriting, or given in the presence of a disinterested third 
person. The form of warranty is as follows, and it is better that it should 
be on the same paper as the stamped receipt, though this is not absolutely 
necessary if it is shown that the receipt is properly given. 

Date. 

Eeccived of A. B.C. fifty pounds for a bay gelding, by Smallhopes, war 
ranted five years old, sound, free from vice, and quiet to ride and drive. 

50^. ■ X.Y.Z. 

Any one or more of these points may be omitted, or the hors»-«iay 
simply be warranted "a good hack," in which case he must fairly answer 
that description. The terms "has been hunted," or " has carried a lady," 
are not to be trusted, as it is only necessary to prove in defence that the 
horse has seen hounds, and had a woman on his back. 

Whether the horse under examination is to be warranted or not, 
the intending purchaser should never omit to look over every point where 
unsoundness is likely to occur. To do this effectually it should be done 
regularly, by which there is less chance of passing over any serious defect. 
The usual mode of proceeding is as follows. Under no circumstances, if it 
can possibly be avoided, should the horse be looked at immediately after 
having been out of doors ; and if he is of necessity brought to the pur- 
chaser, let him be put in the stable and quietly rested for one or two 
hours at the least, by which time the effects of most of the " coping" 
tricks will have gone off. 

Before the horse passes the stable-door, stop him with his head 
just inside, and in that position carefully examine his eyes. The light is 
exactly suited to this, and the sensibility of the iris may be well judged 
of. Any specks or opacities are also here readily seen. Then let him be 
led to a level surface, and then proceed to look over every part, beginning 
with that nearest the one already inspected, namely the mouth. Then, 
" cough" him by tightly grasping the larynx, by which some idea may be 
formed of the state of his respiratory organs, after which the usual 
manoeuvre with the stick may be practised if there is no opportunity of 
examining into his freedom from roaring in the saddle. When these 
points are satisfactorily disposed of, look to the position of the fore leg.s, 
that is, whether they are turned in or out, and if the latter feel the 
elbows, and see if they are confined or " tied," that is too close to th« 



APPENDIX. 605 

ribs, also look for marks of cutting and speedy cutting. Pass the hand 
down the back sinews and suspensory ligaments, examine the knees for 
any marks, and then carefully feel the coronets and heels for any marks 
of exostosis or ossification. Lastly, take a good look at the front of the 
foot, and then liftmg it inspect the frog, heels, and sole. This will 
complete the front half of the body, after which the form of the 
middle and loins should be regarded, and then, liftmg the tail, the 
openness or otherwise of the space round the anus will give some idea 
of the streagth of constitution, wliile the resistance afforded by the dock 
will be a ^n of the muscular strength of the back. Then look care- 
fully at the hocks, examine the spavin and curb places, and finish the 
whole by passing the hand down the hind cannon bones to the fetlocks, and 
feel them in the same order as in the fore legs. iN'ow let the horse rest a 
minute if Ms groom will let him, with his head quite at liberty, and you 
will be able to judge of his ordinary habit of standing, when imexcited. 
At the conclusion of this careful examination while at rest, the action 
must be as minutely investigated, by first having the horse walked with a 
loose rein, and then trotted in the same ivay slowly, Avhen if he is sound he 
will put his feet down regularly and firmly. Grooms, when they want to 
conceal defects, will not let the head be loose, nor Avill they trot slowly, 
but bustle the horse along with their hands as close as possible to the 
mouth, so as to prevent any nodding of the head as much as they can. A 
very good judge will be perhaps able to select a pleasant pack or harness 
horse by seeing him thus run, and afterwards ridden, but a far better test 
is to ride or drive him yourself, when his fi-eedom from vice, or disease, 
may be ascertained, as well as his manners, and the ease of his various paces. 
No fc>uble should be spared to get this real trial, wdiich is worth ten per 
cent, on the purchase money, for many a horse which loolis to go well 
does not feel so, and it is well worth that sum to be saved the trouble 
attending upon the possession of a horse which does not suit. When, 
however, after such a careful examination by a competent judge, and sub- 
sequent trial in the saddle or ia harness, the horse is found to be really 
likely to answer all the purposes for which he is wanted, a few pounds 
should never prevent his being obtained. 



INDEX. 



Abdomen, boundaries of the, 424 ; con- 
tents of, ib. ; longitudinal sectional 
plan of the, 425 ; ti-ansverse sectional 
plan of the, 426. 

Abdominal diseases, general remarks 
on, 497. 

Abdominal viscera, supply of blood to 
the, 427 ; nerves of the, ib. 

Abyssinia, the horses of, 17. 

Accidents to the legs and feet, 547. 

Action, locomotive, of horses, 119, 

African hoi'ses, 17. 

Age of the horse, marks of, 815, et seq. 

Agricultural horse, the, 112. 

Ali Bey, his desci'iption of the modern 
Arab, 17. 

Alimentary canal, absorption of fluid 
from, 428. 

Alteratives, action of, 582 ; receipts for, 
ih. 

Atlo-axoid ligament, superior, 357 ; in- 
ferior, ib. 

Amaurosis, nature of, 526 ; symptoms 
of, ib. ; treatment of, //). 

Amble, the, description of, 134. 

America, list of English horses im- 
ported into, 37. 

American horse, fastest trotting on re- 
cord of, 31. 

American match-trotting, extent of, 32. 

American thoroughbred, the, 36 ; stout- 
ness of the, 42. 

American trotter, the, 31 ; pedigrees 
of, 34. 

Amphiarthrodial joints, 354. 

Anasarca, treatment of, 551 ; symptoms 
of, 551. 

Anchylosis, nature of, 454 ; of the 
shoulder joint, case of, 462. 

Ancient methods of using the horse, 4. 

Anodynes, action of, 584 ; recipes for, 
ib. 

Aujesthetics, action of, 583 ; recipes for, 
ib. 

Antacids, action of, 585 ; recipes for, ib. 

Antispasmodics, action of, 5^5; recipes 
for, ih. 

Anthelmintics, action of, 585; recipes 
for, ib. 

Aperients, action of. 586 ; recipes for, ib. 

Ai>paratus for bi-eakiug to harness, 183. 

Apoplexy, n.iture of, 521 ; treatment 
of. ib. 

Arab horse, colour of the, 20; food of 



the, ih. ; of antiquity, 3 ; pure, 19 ; 
speed of the, 20; stallion, the, 19; 
the modern, 17 ; mare, the, 23. 

Arsenic, treatment of the effects of, 
499. 

Arteries, arranged in two groups, 412 ; 
coats of the, ih. ; plan of the, 413. 

Arteria, 414 ; aorta, 412—414 ; aorta, 
anterior, anatomy of, 414 ; aorta, pos- 
terior, 416; auricularis, 415; axillar's, 
414; carotideea exterua, 415; caro- 
tidasa interna, 415, 416; cervicalia 
inferior, 414; cervicalis superior, ib.; 
circumflexa ilii, 416; cseliaca, ib.; 
common carotid, 414 ; dorsalis, ih ; 
epigastrica, 417; femoralis, 416; 
gastrica, ib. ; hepatica, ib. ; iliaca ex- 
terna, ib ; innominata, 414; plan of 
branches of, 415; tibialis anterior, 
417; lumbalis, 416; masseterica, 415 ; 
maxillaris interna, ib. ; meseuterica 
anterior, 416; meseuterica posterior, 
ib. ; obturator, ib. ; of the bulb,. 1 6. 
of the frog, 451 ; plantaris, ib. ; occi- 
pitalis, 416; parotidsea, 415; po- 
plitasa, 416; profunda femoris, 417; 
pterygoidea interna, 415 ; renalis, 
416 ; sacraUs lateralis, ib. ; sperma- 
tica, ih. ; splenica, ih. ; submaxillaris, 

415 ; iliaca interna, 416 ; thoracica ex- 
terna, 414 ; thoracica interna, ib. ; 
tibialis posterior, 417; umbilicali-, 

416 ; verteliralis, 414, 

Arteries, supplying the abdominal vi;j> 
cera, 427; anatomy of the, 411; uf 
the foot, the, 451 ; of the foot, view 
of, injected, ib. ; of the frog and solo, 
view of, injected, 452; of the stomach, 
431, 

Articulation, astrafralo-calcanean, 381 ; 
between the bones of the tarsus, lb. ; 
carpometacarpal, 368 ; chondro-cos- 
tal, 360 ; chondro-sternal, ib. ; costo- 
transverse, ib. ; cos+o-vertebral, 359 ; 
coxo-femoral, 375 ; fcmoro-tibial, 376; 
inter- metn carpal, 371 ; iuter-meta- 
tiirsal, 383 ; interpbalangeal, 371 ; 
lumbo-sacral, 362 ; metacarpo-phalan- 
geal, 371 ; of atlas with occiput, 357; 
of dentata with atlas, 357 ; of the 
lura'.ar vertebrie aiid sacrum, 362; 
of the thorax, 358 ; pbalaugeo p'^dal, 
374 ; radio-carpal, o(i7; remaining, of 
the p(isterj(jr members, 383; Ba:;ro- 



608 



INDEX. 



iliac, 363 ; scapulo-humeral, 364 ; 

taiso-metatarsal, 382 ; temporo-max- 

illary, 362 ; tibio-fibular, 379 ; tibio- 

tarsal, 379 ; view of costo vertebral, 

360 ; view of metacarpo-phalangeal, 

372. 
Arthrodia, 353. 
Arytenoid cartilages, anatomy of the, 

421 ; view of, ib. 
Asiatic horses, 25. 
Astragalus, os, 348. 
Astringents, action of, 587 ; recipes for, 

ib. 
Atlas, articulation of, with occiput, 357, 

back view of, 327. 
Atmospheric air, changes produced iu 

.by respiration, 418. 
Attitude assumed by horses in standing, 

120. 
Australian horse, the, 26. 
Austrian horse, the, 45. 
Average age of the horse, 14. 



Back and loins, symptoms of strain in, 

471 ; treatment of strain in, ib. 
Back-raking, mode of performing, 582. 
Back sinews, lemarks on strain of the, 

473 ; symptoms of sti'ain of the, 474 ; 

treatment of strain of the, ib. 
Balanitis, symptom,? of, 516 ; treatment 

of, ib. 
Bandages, use and application of, 252. 
Barb, the, 15. 
BarJ)s, treatment of, 499. 
Bai-ley as food for horses, 228. 
Barnacles, description of the, 573. 
Bar shoe, the, 563 ; view of the, ib. 
Bath, the Turkish, 266 ; plan of Turkish, 

267. 
Beans, used as food, 225. 
Bedding of Hoi-ses, 240 ; wheat straw 

for, ib. ; refuse tan for, 241 ; sand 

for, ib. ; sawdust for, ib. 
Birmau horse, the, 26. 
Bites of insects, treatment of, 350. 
Bit, used for breaking, 175. 
Bits, varieties of snaffle, 285 ; of curb, 

287. 
Biting, remedy for the vice, 261. 
Bladder, anatomy of the, 437; diseases 

of, 514 ; calculi iu, 515. 
Bladebone, the, 317; profile view of, 

ib. 
Blacking, recipe for harness, 282. 
Bleeding, remarks on, 573 ; quantity of 

blood taken iu, 574 ; when performed, 

ib. ; instruments used in, ib. 
Blindness, caused by various disease.?, 

523. 
Blistering, remarks on, 577. 
Blisters, action of, 588 ; recipes for, ib. 
Blood, physiology of the, 409 ; circula- 
tion of the, 410; purity of in the 

racehorse, 82 ; spavin, identical with 

bog spavin, which see, 468. 



Blood-vessels of the chest and nose, 
diseases of the, 496. 

Bog spavin, nature of, 468; symptoms 
of, ib. ; treatment of, ib. 

Bone, its structure, 301 ; office of, ib. ; 
corpuscles of, 306 ; medulla of, 307 ; 
periosteum of, ib. ; lymphatics of, ib.; 
enumeration of the diseases of, 453. 

Bone-spavin, nature of, 459; view of, ib.; 
symptoms of, ib. ; treatment of, 460. 

Bones, number of, composing the 
skeleton, 309. 

Bots, nature of, 501 ; group of, attached 
to the stomach, 502 ; uselessness of 
treatment for, ib. 

Breastbone, the, 334 ; profile view of, 
ib. 

Breast-strap, view of, 303. 

Breastplate, the, 284. 

Breathing, essence of, 418. 

Breechen and kicking strap united, 
view of, 302. 

Breaking down, remai-ks on, 475.; symp- 
toms of, ib. ; treatment of, ib. 

Breaking, halter used for, 475 ; superi- 
ority of the ordinary method of, 182 ; 
for the saddle, ordinary English 
method of,175 ; Rarey's apparatus for, 
166; to harness, 183 ; apparatus for, 
ib.; bit used for, 175; importance of 
forming the mouth in, 178; first 
thing to be done in, 177. 

Break, Dr. Bunting's, 185; or trevi.s, 
the, 573. 

Breed of racehorses, object of encou- 
raging the, SO ; of hoi'ses in India, 25. 

Breeding, advantages and disadvantages 
of each plan of, 142; best age for, 
145; blood most suitable for hunters, 
153; causes of a "hit" in, 143; 
choice of a sire and dam in, 148 ; 
concluding remarks on, 155; in-and- 
in, 140; importance of health in, 
144 ; importance of soundness in, ib.; 
influence of the sire and dam in, 146 ; 
kind of horse most profitable for, 
154 ; out crossing in, 141; principles 
of, 137 ; selection of blood in each 
class of horse, 150. 

Bridle, the chain snaffle, 286 ; the Chif- 
ney bit, 287 ; the curb, 286 ; the 
double - jointed snaffle, ib. ; the 
double-ring snaffle, ib. ; the gag 
snaffle, ib. ; the Hanoverian Pel- 
ham, 287 ; the ordinary curb, ib. ; 
the plain Pelham, ib. ; the plain 
snaffle, 285 ; the snaffle with double 
mouth-piece, ib. ; the twisted snaffle, 
ib.; the unjoiuted snaffle, 286. 

Bridle hooks, 211. 

Bridles, varieties of, 284; remarks on,i7). 

British horse, the oiigiual, 4. 

Broken-knee, treatment of slight, 478 ; 
treatment of when the joint is opened, 
ib. 

Broken wind, nature of, 494 ; symptoma 
of, 495 ; treatment of, ib. 



INDEX. 



609 



Bronchi, anatomy of the, 422. 

Bronchial glands, anutomy of the, 423, 

Bronchial tubes, subdivision of, 423. 

Bronchitis, nature of, 481 ; symptoms 
of, 482; treatment of, ib. ; treatment 
of chronic, ib. 

Brood mare, the, 156 ; after treatment 
of the foal, 1 63 ; early treatment of 
the foal, 1 62 ; general management 
of the, 159 ; hovel for, 156 ; paddock 
for, ib. ; time of sending to the 
horse, 160; treatment of the, when 
in foal, ib. ; treatment of, after foal- 
ing, 161 ; weaning of the foal, 163. 

Brougham horse, the, 109. 

Bucephalus noseband, the, 287. 

Buck eye, nature of, 526. 

Bunting, Dr., his break, 185. 

Bursse mucosae, anatomy of, 385 ; nature 
of inBammation in, 469 ; varieties of 
inflammation in, 470. 



Cab-horse, the, 109. 

Calcaneo-astragalan articulation, 362. 

Calcis, OS, 34i5. 

Calculi in the bowels, nature of, 509; 
urinary, 515; symptoms of urinary, 
516; treatment of urinary, 516. 

Canadian horse, the, 28 ; portrait of, 
29. 

Canter, the, 129 ; mode of starting into 
a, 294. 

Capillaries, anatomy of the, 412. 

Capped elbow, treatment of, 470 ; hock, 
cause of, ih ; treatment of, ib. 

Capsule, the suprarenal, 436. 

Capulet, treatment of, 470. 

Caries, nature of, 454 ; of the jaw, 
symptoms of, 464 ; treatment of, ib 

Carpo-metacarpal articulation, 368. 

Carpus (wrist or knee-joint), articula- 
tions of, 348; bones of the, 339; 
anterior view of, ib. 

Carriage horse, the, 109. 

Carriage, brougham, or cah-horse, por- 
trait of the-, 110. 

Carrots, as food, 229. 

Cart-horse, the Clydesdale, 117 ; the 
Lincolnshire, 115, the old English 
black, 112: the Suffolk, 114; the 
Vermont, 42; mixed lireeds of, 118. 

Cartilage, 350; firticular, ib. ; blood- 
vessels of, ib. ; chem.ical composition 
of, 51 ; diseases of, 468 ; epithelium 
of, 350; fibro, 352: nerves of, 350; 
perichondrium of, ib. ; ulceration of, 
468. 

Cartilages, the costal, 360; the lateral, 
452 ; of the ribs, 360. 

Casting, nietho'l of, 572 ; for operations 
upon the fore leg, ib. ; method of for 
castration, ib. 

Cabtration, 164 ; method of casting for, 
572; operation f^r, 577. 

Cataract, causes ofj 525 ; nature of, 
ib. 



Catarrh, nature of, 479 ; epidemic, 480 ; 
treatment of, ib.; epidemic, 481. 

Catchpit, section of, 198. 

Caustics, action of, 589 ; recipes for, 
ib. 

Celebrated match made by the Duke of 
Queensbury, 59. 

Cei'ebellum, anatomy of the, 442. 

Cerebrum, anatomy of the, 432. 

Cervical ligament, 341; view of, 342. 

Cervical vertebrae, 325 ; peculiarities of, 
326 ; profile view of, ^6. 

Chaff, as food for the horse, 229. 

Chaff-machines, 1 93. 

Chapped heels, treatment of, 531. 

Charges, action of, 590 ; recipes for, ib. 

Charger, the, 100; portrait of, 100; the 
Norman, 45. 

Chest, water on the, 493. 

Chifney bit, the, 287. 

Childers, the Devonshire, 68 ; the Fly- 
ing, 68. 

Chloroform, apparatus for administer- 
ing, 571 ; mode of administi-ation, 

Chondro-costal articulations, 360; view 
of, ib. 

Chondro-sternal articulations, 360. 

Chronic cough, nature of, 483; symp- 
toms of, ib. ; treatment of, ib. 

Chyle, the, 428. 

Circulation, plan of the, 410. 

Classification (jf the horse, 5. 

Cleveland horse, the, 118. 

Clipping the horse, 247. 

Clothes, remedy for tearing off the, 2^9. 

Clothing for horses, 216. 

Clover, for soiling, 230. 

Clydesdale horse, 117; portrait of, ib 

Clysters, mode of administering, 582 ; 
action of, ■'i90 ; recipes for, ib. 

Coach-house, 211. 

Coachman, 214. 

Cob, the, 95, 107. 

CcEcum, anatomy of the, 434. 

Coffin-joint, anatomy of, 374. 

Cold, nature of, 479; treatment of, 4S0. 

Colic, nature of, 505 ; symptoms of, 
ib. ; flatulent, signs of, ib. ; from 
stoppage, sjnnptcjms of, 506 ; signs 
of spasmodic, 505 ; treatment of 
spasmodic, 506 ; treatment of flatu- 
lent, ib. ; treatment of from impac- 
tion, ib. ; ti-eatmeut required after, 
607. 

Colon, anatomy of the, 434. 

Colour of the Arab hoise, 23. 

Colt, breaking of the, 164. 

Comparative stoutness of horses, 73. 

Concealed manger for crib-biters, 208. 

Condimental food, artificiaL 231 ; recipe 
for, 232. 

Conestoga draught-horse, the, 43 ; por- 
trait of the, ib. 

Congestion of the lungs, symptoms of, 
491 ; treatment of, ib. \ remarks on, 
490. 



610 



INDEX. 



ConjnnctiTa, anatomy of, 445. 

Constitutioual di>:eases, 550. 

Consumption (phthisis), symptoms of, 
4!^4 ; treatment of, ib. 

Convulsions, symptoms of, 518 ; treat- 
ment of, ib. 

Coccygeal joints, 362; vertebi'ae, 332 ; 
profile view of, ib. 

Contraction of the foot, 543. 

Cord, anatomy of the spinal, 439. 

Cordials, action of, 590; recipes fov, ib. 

Corn for the horse, 223. 

Corns, nature of, 534 ; treatment of, ib. 

Coronary fro'j; band, the, 450. 

Coronary substance, anatomy of the, 
450. 

Corona;, os, 341. 

Corrosive sublimate, treatment of effects 
of, 499. 

Costce, the ribs, 333. 

Costo-transvers3 articulations, 359. 

Costo-vertebi'al articulations, 359 ; in- 
terior view of, ib. 

Cotyloid cavity, view of, 343. 

Cough, nature of chronic, 4S3 ; symp- 
toms of chronic, ib. ; treatment of 
chronic, ib. 

Covert hack, the, 101. 

Coxoe, OS, 343. 

Coxoferaoral articulation, 375. 

Cranium, bones of the, 314. 

Crib-biting, remedy for, 257. 

Ciicoid cartilage, anatomy of, 421. 

Cruizer in the power of his master, 16S; 
with the leg-strap and surcingle on, 
167. 

Cmst of the hoof, anatomy of the, 449. 

Cubitus, the, 336. 

Cuboides, os, 348. 

Cimeiforme, os, 339; os magnum, 318; 
OS parvum, 349. 

Curb-bit, the, 28B. 

Curb-bits, varieties of, 287. 

Curb-bridle, the ordinary, 237. 

Curb, nature of, 476; treatment of, ib. 

Cuts, stable management of, simple, 
273. 

Cutting, ordinary, 547 ; description of 
speedy, 549; prevention of, S'tO, 548; 
treatment of effects of, 649 ; treat- 
ment of ordinary, 547 ; treatment of 
speedy, 548. 

Cushion of tlie frog, 450. 

Cystitis, symptoms of, 514 ; treatment 
of, 514. 

Daily exercise of the horse, 205. 
Damascus Arab, importation of, into 

England, 58. 
Darley Arabian, the, 57. 
Demulcents, action of, 591 ; recipes for, 

ib. 
Dental formula of the horse, 5. 
Dentata, anterior view of vertebra, 328 ; 

posterior view of vertebra, ?6. 
Depuration, its office in the animal 

acouomy,, 429. 



Dermis, the, 446. 
Devonshire Child ers, the, 68. 
Diabetes, symptoms of, 512; treatment 

of, 513. 
Diaphoretics, action of, 519; recipes for, 

ib. 
Diaphragm, symptoms of spasm of, 496 ; 

treatuient of spasm of, ib. 
Diarrhoea, nature of, 507 ; treatment 

of, 508. 
Diarthrodial joints, 353. 
Digestion, physiology of, 427. 
Digestives, action of, 591 ; recipes for, ib. 
Dislocation, nature of, 477 ; of the hip 

joint, ib. ; of the patella, ib. 
Dismounting, directions for, 287. 
Distemper, nature of, 480 ; treatment 

of, 481. 
Diuretics, action of, 592 ; recipes for, ib. 
Docking, operation for, 580. 
Dongola, the horses of, 17. 
Door for loose box, 196. 
Doors of stables, 196. 
Dorsal vertebra;, general characters of, 

329 ; peculiarities of, 330. 
Draught-horse, the Conestoga, 43. 
Dray-horse, the Lincolnshii'e, 115 ; 

portrait of the, 116. 
Drainage of stables, 197. 
Dressing of horses, 242. 
D: iviug a pair, 303 ; a single horse, 301 ; 

four iu hand, 304. 
Drugs, list of, 596. 
Dyspepsia, nature of, 500 ; symptoms 

of, 501 ; treatment of, ib. 
Dysenterv, nature of, 507 ; treatment 

of, 508" 
Duct, the thoracic, 428. 
Ducts, the lacrymal, 446. 
Duke of Queensbury, celebrated match 

made by the, 59. 
Duodenum, anatomy of the, 432. 

Ear, anatomy of the, 446; diseases of 
the, 523 ; scratching the, remedy 
for, 259. 

Early maturity of the horse, 79. 

East, the horses of the, 15. 

P^clipse, pedigree of, 62; history of, 69; 
St. Bet's measurement of, ib. 

Egyptian horse, the, 4, 16. 

Eloow joiut, the, 366 ; view of, ib. ; 
treatment of capped, 470. 

Embrocations, action of, 593 ; recipes 
for, ib. 

Emulsions, action of, 593; recipes for, ib. 

Enarthrosis, 353. 

Encpphalon, anatomy of, 442 ; view of 
the superior surface of the, ib. 

English thoroughbred horse, the, 53 • 
general history of the, ib. ; thorough- 
bred horse of 1750, the, 55; horses 
imported into America, list of the, 37. 

England, first importation of the Da- 
mascus Arab into, 58. 

Enteritis, nature of, 503; symptoms of, 
ib. 



INDEX. 



b'll 



Epiglottis, posterior view of, 421 ; 
auatomy of, ib. ; view of, 420. 

Epidermis, the, 446. 

Epilepsy, symptoms of, 518; treatment 
of, ib. 

Eruptions of the skin, 525, et scq. 

Essentials in the thoroughbred, 82, 

Ethan Allen, the trotter, 35. 

Em'opean Continental horses, the, 44. 

Excretion, physiology of, 428. 

Exercise, daily, of the horse, 255. 

Exhaustion, treatment of, after work, 
272. 

Exmoor pony, the, 108. 

Exostosis, nature of, 453; of the hume- 
rus and scapula, 461 ; of the humerus 
and scapula, treatment of, 462. 

Expectorants, action of, 593; recipes 
for, ib. 

External form of the horse, as indicated 
by points, 6; formation of the race- 
horse, 83. 

Extremities, bones composing the fore 
and hind, 312. 

Eve, anatomy of the, 444 ; appendages 
of, 445; coats of, ib. ; humours of 
the, ib.; simple inflammation of 
the, 523 ; sj'mptoms of simple in- 
flammation of the, lb. ; treatuient of 
simple inflammation of tliC, ib.; 
treatment of injuries of, 525 ; eye- 
lids, anatomy of the, 445. 

Face, bones of the, 315. 

False qnartei-, nature of, 536 ; treat- 
ment of, lb. 

Farcy, symptoms of, 552 ; treatment 
of, ib. 

Farm horses, feeding of, 239. 

Febrifuges, action of, 593; recipes 
for, ib. 

Feeding, theory and practice of, 235. 

Feet, accidents to, 647 ; management 
of the, 253. 

Femon. tibial articulation, 376; ex- 
ternal view of, 378 ; posterior view 
of, 377. 

Femur, the, 344 ; view of the, 345 ; 
treatment of fracture of, 406. 

Fetlock joint, anatomy of, 371. 

Fetlock, remarks on strain of the, 472 ; 
treatment of strain of the, 472-3. 

Fevers, remarks on in the horse, 550 ; 
symptoms of simple, ib. ; symptoms 
of typhoid, ib. ; treatment of simple, 
ib. ; treatment of typhoid, 551. 

Fibrocartilaj^'e, 352 ; interarticular, ib. 

Fibro-c?rtilages, connecting, 352. 

Fibrous tissue, white, 351. 

Fibula, the, 346 ; view of the, ib. 

Firing, method of performing, 575 ; 
remarks on, ib. 

Fisherman, portrait of, 83. 

Fistula of the withers, nature of, 462; 
symptoms of, 463; treatment of, ib. 

Flemish hoise, the, 51. 

Floors of stables Adamantine clinkers 



for, 195; Broseley bricks for, zb.', 
common stock bricks for, 194 ; con- 
crete for, 195; Dutch clinkers for, 
195; pebbles for, 194. 

Flora Temple, the trotter, 34. 

Flying Childers, the, 68. 

Flying gallop, the, 132. 

Foal, the, 156 ; after treatment of the, 
103; early treatment of the, 162; 
weaning of the, 163. 

Foals, rheumatic inflammation pecu- 
liar to, 469; treatment of rheu- 
matic inflammation of, ib. 

Food, eoudimental, 231 ; recipe for, 232. 

Food for horses, 220; of the Arab 
horse, 20. 

Foot, anatomy of the, 448 ; lateral 
cartilages of, 452 ; section of the, 
448; the parts entering into the 
composition of, ib. ; view of the under 
surface of, 449 ; with the hoof re- 
moved, view of the, ib. ; contraction 
of the, 548. 

Forearm, bones of the, 337. 

Fore extremity, view of the bones of, 
321. 

Fore foot, prepared for the shoe ; view 
of, 554. 

Fore-quarter, relative proportions of 
the, 8. 

Fi-acture of the femur, treatment of, 
466 ; of the humerus, treatment of, 
ib. ; of the lower jaw, treatment of, 
ib. ; of the pelvis, treatment of, ib. ; 
of the ribs, treatment of, ib. ; of the 
scapula, treatment of, ib. ; of the 
skull, treatment of, ib. ; of the spine, 
treatment of, ib. 

Fractures, remarks on, 465 ; symptoms 
of simple, ib. ; treatment of simple, 
466. 

French horse, the, 45 ; stallions, list of, 
46. 

Frog, anatomy of the, 450. 

Furze for soiling, 230. 

Galls, treatment of harness, 530. 

Galloway, the, 107. 

Gallop, the flying, 132 ; variation in 
length of stride of, 134; correct view 
of the, 133 ; received interpretation 
of the, 131 ; the hand, 130 ; the ex- 
tended, 131. 

Ganglia, nervous, 439. 

Gangway rail for stable, 205. 

Gastric fluid, the, 432. 

Gastritis, rarity of, 499 ; symptoms of, 
ib. ; treatment of, ib. 

General characteristics of the horse, 5. 

General history of the thorough-bred 
English horse, 53. 

General management of the brood 
mare, 159. 

Generation, anatomy of the female 
organs of, 438 ; anatomy of the male 
organs of, 437 ; theory of, 1 37. 

Genei-ative organs, disease of the, 516. 
R R 2 



612 



INDEX. 



German horse, the, 45. 

Gigster, the, 111. 

Ginglvmus, 353. 

Girths, 284. 

Gland, the kidneys, 435 ; the liver, 
434; the pancreas, 435; the sublin- 
gual, anatomy of, 429 ; the parotid, 
anatomy of, ih. ; the thymus, 423. 

Glands, structure of, 428 ; anatomy of 
the salivary, 429 ; bronchial, 423 ; 
the pulmonarj', 

Glanders, symptoms of, 551 ; treat- 
ment of, 552. 

Go^lolphin Arabian, the, 15 — 57. 

Goraphosis, 353. 

Gorse, for soiling, 230. 

Granary, construction of, 192. 

Grass, for the horse, 220 ; turning out 
to, 275. 

Grease, symptoms of, 532; treatment 
of, ib. 

Greek horse, the, 2. 

Green food, for horses, 230; for soiling 
horses, 230. 

Green oats for soiling, 230. 

Groom, duties of, 215. 

Grooming of horses, 242. 

Grubs, removal of, 530. 

Gruel, 225. 

Habits, of the horse, 5 ; ont-door bad, 
298. 

Hack, the covert, 101; the road, 102; 
the park, 104. 

Hacks, preparation of for work, 272 ; 
feeding of, 238. 

Hsematui'ia, causes of, 514; symptoms 
of, ib. ; treatment of, ib. 

Hsemorrhage, from the lungs, treat- 
of, 497; from the nose, treatment 
of, 496. 

Half-bred horse, the, 95. 

Halters used for breaking, 175. 

Hand-gallop, the, 130. 

Hands, attainment of good, in riding, 
291. 

Hanoverian horses, the, 52; Pelham, 
the, 287. 

Harmonia, 353. 

Harness, blacking, recipes for, 282 ; 
breaking to, 183 ; choice of, 301 ; 
care of, 280 ; double, view of, 304 ; 
directions for cleaning, 281 ; details 
of single, 301 ; fit^ngs, prices of 
patent, 211 ; horses, preparation of 
for work, 272 ; method of drying, 
210; room in stables, 209. 

Hay, chamber, 191 ; as food for horses, 
221 ; musty, 222 ; quantity required 
of the, ib. ; upland, 221 ; weather- 
beaten, 222. 

Haw, anatomy of, 445. 

Head, bones of the, 314 ; division of 
the bones of, ib. ; relative propor- 
tions of the, 311 ; of shaft, 202. 

Health, upland grass most useful in 
restoring, 278. 



Heart, anatomy of the, 411 ; and arte*- 
ries, plan of the, 413; obscurity of 
diseases of the, 49G. 

Heavy machiner, the. 111. 

Heels, treatment of chapped, 531. 

Hemisphere, western, horses of the, 27. 

Hempseed, for stallions, 229. 

Hepatization of the lungs, 489. 

Hernia, operation for reducing, 581 ', 
the anatomy of the parts connected 
with, 394. 

Herbert's, Mr., account of wild horse 
of America, 28. 

Herod, history of, 69 ; pedig^-ee of, 60. 

Hidebound, nature of, 527 ; symptoms 
of, ib. ; treatment of, ib. 

Highblowing, nature of, 488. 

Highland pony, the, 118. 

Hip-joint, 375 ; dislocation of, 477 ; 
ligaments of, 376 ; rarity of strain 
of, 475 ; symptoms of strain of, 476 ; 
treatment of strain of, ib. ; views of, 
357. 

Hobbles, description of, and method of 
using, 572 ; improved, 573. 

Hock, the, 330 ; cause of capped, 470 ; 
treatment of capped, ib. ; treatment 
of strain of the, 476. 
Hock-joint, the, 379 ; anterior ligament 
of, 381 ; external view of, 380 ; in- 
ternal view of, ib. ; lateral ligaments 
of, 379; internal lateral ligaments of, 
380 ; posterior ligaments of, 381 ; 
Btrain of the, 476 ; synovial membrane 
of, 381. 

Hoof, anatomy of the, 449 ; develop- 
ment of by secretion, 450 ; view of 
the, 449. 

Horse, action of the walk in the, 124; 
after treatment of the foal of, 163 ; 
ancient methods of using the, 4 ; 
Arab, food of the, 20 ; Arab, speed 
of the, ib. ; Arab, colours of the, ib. ; 
advantages and disadvantages of each 
plan of breeding, 142 ; American, 
fastest trotting on record, 31 ; appa- 
ratus for breaking to harness, 183 ; 
attitudes assumed in standing, by, 
120 ; average age of the, 14 ; barley 
for the, 228 ; beans for the, 225 ; 
beddini;' of, 240; best age to breed 
from, 145; Birman, the, 26; bit 
used for breaking, 175 ; blood 
most suitable for breeding hunters, 
153 ; bounding on his hind legs, the, 
169; breaking of the colt, 164; 
breaking to harness of the, 183; 
breed of, in India, 25 ; Dr. Bunting's 
break for, 185; remarks on the 
buying of, 601 ; carrots for the, 229 ; 
castration of the foal, 164 ; causes of 
a "hit" in breeding, 143; chaiF for 
the, 229 ; choice of sire and dam in 
breeding, 148 ; classification of the, 
5; clipping the, 247 ; clothing, prices 
of, 216 ; comparative stoutness of, 
73 ; concluding remarks on breeding, 



INDEX. 



613 



155 ; com for, 223 ; daily exercise 
of the, 255 ; dental formula of the 
5 ; distribution of weight in. 119 ; 
dressing of the, 242 ; early history 
of, 1 ; early maturity of the, 79 ; 
early treatment of the foal, 162 ; 
English imported into America, a list 
of, 37 ; external form of, as indicated 
by points, 6 ; feeding of, farm, 239 ; 
feeding of, harness, ih. ; first thing to 
be done in breaking, 177 ; food of the, 
220 ; general characteristics of, 5 ; 
general history of the English 
thoroughbred, 53 ; general manage- 
ment of the brood mare, 159 ; grass 
for the, 220 ; green food for soiling, 
230 ; grooming of, 242 ; gruel for 
the, 225 ; habits of the, 5 ; halter 
used for breaking in, 175 ; hay for 
the, 221 ; history of, 5 ; hemp-seed 
for the, 229 ; hovel for brood mare, 
156 ; importance of forming the 
mouth in, 178 ; importance of health 
in breeding, 144 ; importance of 
soundness in breeding, ib. ; in-and- 
in breeding, 140 ; increase of size in, 
72 ; increase of symmetry in, ib. ; 
influence of the sire and dam in 
bi-eeding, 146; jumping, 135; leap- 
ing, ib. ; linseed for the, 229 ; loco- 
motive action of, 119 ; management 
of the feet in the, 253 ; maturity of 
the, 13 ; mental development of the, 
14; methods of confining, 571; 
middle piece of the, 10; mixed 
breeds of cart, 118 ; mode of progres- 
sion in, 120 ; most profitable kind for 
breeding piurposes, 154 ; natural and 
acquired paces of, 119; oats for the, 
223; of Abyssinia, the, 17; of 
Dongola, the, ib. ; of the East, the, 
15 ; of the Western Hemisphere, the, 
27 ; of Toorkistan, the, 25 ; omnibus, 
report on the management of, in New 
York, 227 ; on his knees about to 
fall on his side, portrait of the, 170; 
ordinary English method of breaking 
for tbe saddle, 175; origin of the 
thoroughbred, 56; other African, 
17 ; other Asiatic, 25 ; out-cross in 
breeding, 141 ; paces of the manege, 
135 ; pacing, 134 ; paddock for brood 
mare, 156 ; parsnips for the, 229 ; peas 
for the, 225 ; pedigrees of American 
trotting, 34 ; periodical moulting of 
the, 14 ; principles of breeding, 137 ; 
proportions of the various points of 
the, 12; pure Arab, the, 9; purchase 
of the, 601 ; racking, 134 ; Rarey's ap- 
paratus for breaking, 166 ; Rarey's 
method of training, 164; rate of 
walking in the, 126 ; relative pro- 
portions of the, 7 ; roots for the, 
229; running, 134; salt forthe, 233 ; 
selection of blood in each class in 
breeding, 150 ; selling of, 601 ; shav- 
ing the, 250; singeing, 249; small 



stomach of the, 15 ; stable clothing 
for, 216; stoutness of, 17, 59, 70; 
stoutness of the American thorough- 
bred, 42; superiority of the ordinary 
method of breaking, 182; sweaters 
for the, 217 ; synonyms of the, 5 ; 
the agricultural, 112; the Arab of 
antiquity, 3 ; the American thorough- 
bred, 36 ; the Austrian, 45 ; the Aus- 
tralian, 26 ; the British original, 4 ; 
the brood mare, 156 ; the brougham, 
109 ; the cab, ib. ; the carriage, ib. ; 
the Canadian, 28 ; the charger, 100 ; 
the Cleveland, 118; the Clydesrlale, 
117 ; the cob, 95, 107 ; the Conestoga, 

43 ; the covert hack, 1 01 ; the Darley 
Arabian, 57 ; the Egyptian, 4, 16 ; the 
English thoroughbred, 53 ; the Eng- 
lish thoroughbred of 1750, 55; the 
Exmoor pony, 108; the European 
continental, 44 ; the fa^t trotter. 111 ; 
the Flemish, 51 ; the foal of, 156 ; 
the French, 45 ; the Galloway, 107 ; 
the German, 45; the gigster, 111; 
the Godolphin Arabian, 15, 57 ; the 
Greek, 2; the half-bred, 95; the 
Hanoverian, 52 ; the heavy macliiner, 
111; the Highland pony, 108; the 
Hungarian, 45 ; the Irish hunter, 99 ; 
the Italian, 44 ; the ladies', 106 ; the 
Libyan, 4 ; the Lincolnshire dray. 
115; the modern thoi-oughbred, 71; 
the Moorish, 4 ; the Morgan, 29 ; 
the New Forest pony, 108; the Nor- 
folk trotter, 129 ; the Norwegian, 53 ; 
the Numidian, 4; the, of Scripture, 
1; the old English black cart, 112; 
the park hack, 104; the Pei'sia?!, 24 ; 
the phaeton, 111 ; the Portuguese, 

44 ; the Prussian, 45 ; the road hack, 
102 ; the Roman, 3 ; the Russian, 
52; the Shetland pony, lOS; the 
South American, 27; the Spanish, 
44; the Sufiblk cart, 114; the 
Swedish, 63; the Tartar, 25; the 
trooper, 100 ; the Turkish, 25 ; the 
Vermont, 42 ; the Welsh pony, 107 ; 
tamed, portrait of the, 172 ; theory 
of generation of, 137; thoroughbred, 
essentials in the, 82 ; time of sending 
brood mare to the, 160 ; times made 
by, in the middle of the last centui-y, 
75 ; times of the best American, 
made in America and England, 76 ; 
times of best modern EngUsh, ib. ; 
treatment of the brood mare when in 
foal, 160; tieatment of brood mare 
after foaling, 161 ; trimming the, 
250 ; variation in length of stride in 
the, 134 ; water for the, 220, 233 ; 
weaning of the foal, 163 ; wheat for 
the, 228 ; wild, of America, Mr. Her- 
bert's account of the, 28 ; wild Tar- 
tar, 25 ; use and application of ban- 
dages for the, 252. 

Horsemanship, M. Rancher's method of, 
182. 



614 



INDEX. 



Hovel, the, for brood mare, 156. 

Humerus, the, 335 ; and scapula, exos- 
tosis of, 461 ; and scapula, treatment 
of exostosis of, ib. ; external view of, 
336 ; internal view of, 337 ; treat- 
ment of fracture of, 466. 

Hungarian Horse, the, 45. 

Hunter, feeding of the, 238 ; choosing 
of the half-bred, 96 ; blood most suit- 
aV)le for breeding, 1 53 ; final prepara- 
tion of, 271; mouth of the half-bred, 
99 ; points essential to the half-bred, 
97 ; preparation of, 261 ; the half- 
bred, 96 ; the Irish, 99 ; height of the 
half-bred, ib. ; the thoroughbred, 94 ; 
treatment of blows in the legs of, 
272 ; treatment of exhaustion of the, 
ib.; treatment of overreach, ib.; treat- 
ment of thorns in the legs, 273. 

Hydrophobia, nature of, 519 ; symp- 
toms of, ib. ; treatment of, 520. 

Hydrothorax, a sequel of pleurisy, 493 ; 
treatment of, 494. 

Hyoides, os, 314. 



Ilio-ccecal valve, the, 433, 

Hii, OS, 343. 

Ilio-sacral ligament, the inferior, 364 ; 
the superior, ib. ; view of, 363. 

Ileum, anatomy of the, 433. 

Importation of the Damascus Arab into 
England, 5S. 

In-and-in breeding, 140. 

Incisor teeth, sections of, 317. 

India, breed of hor.ses in, 25. 

Indian pony, the, 28. 

Indigestion (Dyspepsia), 500. 

Inflammation of the bones, 454 ; of bursse 
mucosae, 469 ; of tendinous sheaths, 
ib.; of the bladder, 514; of the 
bowels, 503; of the brain, 517; of 
the bronchi, 482; of the eye, thi-ee 
kinds of, 523; of the kidneys, 512; 
of the larynx, 483 ; of the lungs, 
489, 492 ; of the pleura, 493 ; of the 
stomach, 499; of the veins after 
bleeding, 575 ; rheumatic, 467 ; sim- 
ple of the eye, the most common, 523. 

Influenza, nature of, 480 ; treatment of, 
481 ; typhoid symptoms in, ib. 

luuomiuatura, os, 343; upper view of 
OS, ib. 

Insects, treatment of bites and stings 
of, 530, 

Inter-metacarpal articulations, 371. 

luter-metatarsal articulations, 383. 

Inter-phalangeal articulations, 371. 

Inter-sesamoideal ligament, 372. 

Intestines, anatomy of the large, 453 ; 
small, 432 ; division into large and 
small, ib. ; view of the, 433. 

Intussusception, nature and symptoms 
of, 508. 

Irish Hunter, the, 99. 

Iritis, symptoms of, 524 ; treatment of, 
625. 



Iron fittings for stalls and loose boxes, 

208. 
Iron surface gutter, 199. 
Ischii, OS, 343. 
Italian horse, the, 44. 

Jaw, osteo sarcoma of, 464; symptoms 
of caries of, ib. ; the lower, 316 ; 
treatment of caries of, 464. 

Jejunum, anatomy of the, 433. 

Jog-trot, starting into the, 293. 

Joints, general remarks on, 349 ; com- 
position of, 350 — 53 ; classification 
of, 353 ; movements of, 354 ; wounds 
of, 477. 

Jugular vein, when obliterated, renders 
horse unfit to be turned out, 278. 

Jumping, 135. 

KiCKiTs'O out of doors, prevention of, 
299 ; in-doors, 261. 

Kidneys, anatomy of the, 435 ; diseases 
of the, 512; inaction of, 514; section 
of the, 436; situatiim of the, 435; 
view of the, 436. 

Knee-joint (wrist, or carpus), back view 
of, 350 ; postero-mternal view of, 
349 ; remarks on strain of the, 472 ; 
symptoms of strain of the, ib. ; treat- 
ment of punctured, 479 ; treatment 
of strain of the, 472 ; articulations 
of, 348; bones of the, 232; move- 
ments of, 351; broken, 478. 

Lacetmal apparatus, anatomy of, 445 , 
ducts, anatomy of, ib. 

Lacteals, the, 428. 

Ladies' horse, the, 106. 

Lady Suffolk, the trotter, 35. 

Laminfe, anatomy of the, 451. 

Laminitis, nature of, 539; symptoms 
of, 540 ; treatment of, 541. 

Lampas, symptoms of, 498 ; treatment 
of, ib. 

Lamp for singeing, 250. 

Laryngitis, nature of, 483 ; symptoms 
of acute, 484 ; symptoms of chronic, 
485 ; treatment of acute, 484 ; treat- 
ment of chronic, 485. 

Larynx, anatomy of, 420 ; view of, ib. 

Lateral cartilages, ossification of, 458; 
symptoms of ossification of, ib.; 
treatment of ossification of, ib. 

Leaping, 135. 

Leg. bones of the fore, 338 ; of the h:nd, 
346. 

Legs, accidents to, 547. 

Libyan horse, the, 4. 

Lice, destruction of, 529. 

Ligament, astragalo calcanean, 381 ; 
capsular, of the hip, 376 ; common 
to the carpal joints, 370 ; cotyloid, 
376 ; disease of the, 467 ; inferior, 
atlo-axoid, 357; inferior vertebral, 
355 ; inter-articular costal, 359 ; in- 
ter sesamoideal, 372 ; of dorsal ver- 
tebrae, profile view of, 355; of the 



INDEX. 



615 



os.pisiforme, 369 ; of the rows of the 
tarsal boues, 381 ; of the sternum, 
360 ; of the teiupoi'o-maxillary arti- 
culation, 362 ; odoutoid, 357 ; pubio- 
femoral, 3/6 ; the inferior ilio-sacral, 
364 ; the long inferior seaamoideal, 
372 ; the true suspensoiy, 373 ; sacro- 
iliac, 363; sacto-sciatic, 364; strain 
of the suspensory, 473; superior 
tttlo-axoid, 357 ; superior costo-verte- 
bral, 359 ; superior vertebral, 355 ; 
superior sesainoideal, 364; supe- 
rior ilio-sacral, 364 ; suspensory, 
373. 

Ligauientum colli (or nuchas), 356 ; view 
of, ?6. ; teres, 368. 

lighting of stables, 200. 

Limbs, as agents of locomotion, 371 ; 
as means of support, ib. 

Lincolnshire dray-horse, the, 115. 

Linea alba, 393 ; semilunaris, 394. 

Linea3 transversales, 393. 

Linseed as food for the horse, 229. 

Lips, the chief seat of the organ of 
touch, 447. 

List of English horses imported into 
America, 37 ; of French stallions, 46 ; 
of drugs, 596. 

Litter, remedy for eating the, 260. 

Liver, anatomy of the, 434 ; disease of 
the, 512 ; function of, 435 ; structure 
of the, 434; symj^toms of disease of 
the, 512; treatment of disease of 
the, ib. 

Lock jaw, nature of, 520 ; symptoms 
of, ib. ; treatment of, 521. 

Loose boxes, remarks on, 190. 

Lotions, action of, 594 ; recipes for, ib. 

Lower jaw, treatment of fi-acture of, 466 

Lucerne for soiling, 230. 

Lunare, os, 339. 

Lumbo-sacral articulation, 362. 

Lumbar vei'tebra;, articulation of the, 
with sacrum, 361 ; general characters 
of, 330; peculiarities of, 331 ; profile 
view of, 330. 

Lungs, air cells of, 422 ; anatomy of, 
ib.; lobules of, ib. ; parenchyma of, ib. 
remarks on congestion of the, 490 
symptoms of congestion of the, 491 
treatment of congestion of the, ib, 
inflammation of (pneumonia), 492 
treatment of haemorrhage from, 497. 

Lying down at work, management of, 
299. 

Lymphatics of bone, 307. 

Madness, symptoms of, 519 ; treatment 
of, 520 ; nature of, 519. 

Mad staggers, nature of, 517; symp- 
toms of, ib. ; treatment of, ib. 

Magnum, os, 339. 

Mallenders, symptoms of, 529 ; treat- 
ment of, ib. 

Manege, paces of the, 135. 

Mange, insect, 528 ; nature of, ib. ; 
Bjmptoms of, ib, ; treatment of, ib. 



Mangers for stables, 205. 

Mare, management of the brood, 166 
after treatment of the foal of, 163 
early treatment of the foal of, 162 
general management of, 159; hovel 
for, 156; paddock for, ib.; time of 
sending to the horse, 160 ; treatment 
of after foaling, 101; treatment of 
when in foal, l^^O; weaning of the 
foal of, 163 ; the Arab, 23. 

Marshes, for turning out, 277. 

Manger and rack, the, 205. 

Match, celebrated, made by the Duke 
of Queensbury, 59 ; trotting in Ame- 
rica, extent of, 32. 

Matchem, history of, 68 ; pedigree of, 
64. 

Maturity of the hftrse, 13. 

Lleadow land, producing grass, 297. 

Medicines, action of, and recipes for, 
682 ; alteratives, ib. ; anresthetice, 
683; anodynes, 584; antacids, 585; 
anthelmintics, ib. ; aperients, 586 ; 
astringents, 5i7; blisters,5S8; caustics, 
589 ; charges, 590 ; clysters, ib. ; cor- 
dials, ib.; demulcents, 591; diapho- 
retics, ib. ; digestives, ib. ; diuretics, 
692 ; embrocations, ib. ; emulsions, 
593; expectorants, ib. ; febrifuges, t6. ; 
lotions, 594 ; narcotics, ib. ; refrige- 
rants, ib. ; sedatives, 595 ; stimulants, 
ib. ; stomachics, ib. ; styptics, ib. ; 
tonics, 596 ; vermifuges, or worm- 
medicines, ib. 

Medulla oblongata, anatomy of the, 441. 

Megrims, nature of, 518 ; symptoms 
of, ib. ; treatment of, ib. 

Membranes, synovial, 334. 

Membrana nictitans, anatomy of, 445. 

Mental development of the horse, 14, 

Metacarpal bones, 340 ; view of the, ib. 

Metacarpo-phalangeal articulation8,362; 
views of, 353. 

Metacarpus, bones of the, 340 

Metatarsal bones, the, 349. 

Methods of using the horse, ancient, 4. 

Middlepiece of the horse, 10. 

Mode of progression in horses, 120. 

Modern Arab, the, 17 ; Ali Bey's de 
scription of the, ib. 

Modern thoroughlired, the, 71. 

Molten grease, 507 ; treatment of, 508. 

Moor ill, symptoms of, 551 ; treatmeni 
of, ib. 

Moorish horse, the, 4. 

Morgan horse, the, 29. 

Mounting, dii-ectious for, 288. 

Mouth and throat, diseases of, 497. 

Mouth, the three-year old, 318; th? 
six-year old, 321 ; the five-year old, 
320 ; the four-year old, the lowerjaw, 
319; the six-year old horse, showing 
the lower teeth, 321 ; of the eighth 
year old horse, 323 ; of the very old 
horse, 324. 

Mucous membrane lining the abdominal 
viscera, 427; of the stcmaeh, 432. 



6)6 



INDEX. 



Muscle, anatomy of, 384 ; bursoe mu- 
cosae of, 385 ; diseases of the, 467 ; 
examined under the mici-oscope, 384 ; 
identical in composition with the 
fibrine of the blood, ib.; mode of 
describing, 385 ; nomenclature of, 
t6. ; physiolo;iy of, 383 ; sarcolemma 
of, 384 ; voluntary, 385 ; antero- 
inferior scapular region, 397 ; au- 
tero-external humeral region, 399; 
anterior femoro-crural region, 406; 
anterior ilio-femoral region, 404 ; of 
the abdomen, 393 ; the coccygeal, 
396 ; the deep abdominal region, 
395 ; dorsal region, 393 ; deep ilio- 
femoral region, 404; of the external 
ear, 388 ; external scapular region, 
397 ; external iliofemoral region, 
403; external, of the eyelids, 388; 
of the fore-leg, autero-external view 
of, 400; of the fore-extremity, 396; 
of the haunch, 401 ; external view 
of, 402; of the head, 386; inferior- 
cervical occipital region, 391 ; in- 
ferior cervical region, 390 ; internal 
scapular region, 397 ; internal ilio- 
femoral region, 404 ; of the leg, 
external view of the, 405; laryngeal 
region, 389; moving the lower jaw, 
387 ; ocular region, 388 ; of the 
pharynx, ib. ; postero-interual sca- 
pular region, 399 ; postero-external 
scapular region, ib. ; posterior femoro- 
crural region, 406 ; palatine region, 
389; pelvic region, 395; view of 
superficial, of the neck and trunk, 
389; superficial abaominal region, 
393 ; superior cervical region, 390 ; 
connecting the scapula with the 
head, neck, and chest, 391 ; of the 
shoulder and arm, internal view 
of, 398 ; superficial, of the neck and 
trunk, 389 ; of the tongue, 388 ; of 
the thorax, 392 ; of the arm and 
fore leg, 400 ; 1 teral cervical region, 
390 ; gluteal region, 403 ; postero- 
external humeral region, 399 ; of 
the leg and thigh, internal view of 
the deep, 405 ; of the fore extremity, 
external view of, 396 ; view of the 
superficial of the head, 386 ; cuta- 
neous, 385. 

Muscular coat of the hollow viscera of 
the abdomen, 426. 

Muscular system, the, 383. 

Musculus, 386 ; adductor brevis, 404 ; 
adductor longus, 404 ; anconeus, 
399 ; antea spiuatus, 397 ; biceps 
rotator tibialis, 403; buccinator, 
387; caninus, ^'6. ;.complexus major, 
390 ; compressor coccygis, 396 ; co- 
raco - humeralis, 397 ; cremaster, 
395; curvator coccygis, 396; de- 
pressor coccygis, ib.; depressor labii 
inferioris, 387 ; depressor labii su- 
perioris, 387 ; diaphragma, 395 ; dila- 
tator naris arjterior, 387; erector 



coccygis, 396 ; extensor metacarpi 
magnus, 400 ; extensor metacarpi 
obliquus, 401 ; extensor pedis, 400 — 
406 ; extensor suffraginis, 401 ; flexor 
brachii, 397 ; flexor metatarsi, 406 ; 
flexor metacarpi externus, 400 ; 
flexor metacarpi internus, 401 ; flexor 
metacarpi medius, 400 ; flexor pedis 
accessorius, 407 ; flexor pedis perfo- 
rana et perforatus, 401 — 406 ; gas- 
trocnemius externus, 406 ; gastroc- 
nemius internus, ib.; gemini, ib.; 
gluteus externus, 403 ; gluteus in- 
ternus, 401 ; gluteus maximus, 403; 
gracilis, 404; humeralis externus, 
399 ; iliacus, 395 ; lateralis sterni, 
392 ; latissimus dorsi, 391 ; levator 
humeri, ib. ; levator menti, 387 ; 
levator palpebrffi superioris, 338 ; 
levatores costarum, 393 ; levator 
labii superioris alseque nasi, 386 ; 
longissimus dorsi, 393 ; mas.seter, 
388 ; nasalis longus labii superioris, 
386 ; nasalis brevis labii superioris, 
387; naso transversalis, 387; ob- 
liquus abdominis externus, 394 ; ob- 
liquus abdominis internus, ib. ; obtu- 
rator externus, 406; obturator in- 
ternus, ib. ; orbicularis oris, 387 ; 
orbicularis palpebrarum, 388 ; pan- 
uiculus carnosus, 385 ; pectineus, 
404; pectoralis magnus, 392; pec- 
toialis parvus, ib.; pectoralis trans- 
versus, i7). ; peroneus, 406 ; plautaris, 
ib.; popliteus, ib.; postea spinatus, 
397 ; psoas magnus, 395 ; psoas 
parvus, ib. ; pterygoideus externus, 
388 ; pterygoideus internus, ib. ; py- 
riformis, 406; radialis accessorius, 
401; rectus .abdominis, 394; r-ectus 
parvus, 404; retractor ani, 395; re- 
tractor labii superioris, 386 ; retractor 
labii inferioris, 387 ; rhomboideus bre- 
vis, 392 ; rhomboideus longus, 391 ; 
superficial costarum, 392; sartorius, 
404 ; scalenus, 391 ; scapulo-hume- 
ralis externus, 399 ; scapulo-humera- 
lis posticus, ib. ; scapulo ulnaris, 398 ; 
semi-spinalis dorsi, 393; semi-spi- 
nalis lumborum, 395 ; serratus mag- 
nus, 392 ; sphincter ani, 395 ; spinalis 
colli, 390 ; spinalis dorsi, 393 ; sple- 
nius, 390 ; sterno-costalis, 392 ; sterno- 
maxillaris, 390 ; sterno-thyro-hy- 
oideus, 390 ; stylo-maxillaris, 388 ; 
sub - scapularis, 397; sub-scapulo- 
hyoideus, 390; temporalis, 387; 
tensor vaginae femoris, 4o3 ; teres 
internus vel major, 398; teres ex- 
ternus, 399; trachelo - mastoideus, 
390 ; transversalis abdominis, 394 ; 
transversalis costarum, 392 ; tra- 
pezius, 391 ; triceps adductor fe- 
moris, 403 ; triceps extensor brachii, 
390 ; trifemoro rotulaeus, 404 ; ul- 
naris accessorius. 401 ; zygoinaticus, 
386. 



INDEX. 



617 



Narcotics, action of, 594. 
Narragansit pacer, the, 36. 
Nasal cavities, 420; oriSces, 419. 
Natural history of the horse, 5. 
Navicular disease, neurotomy for, 546; 

symptoms of, 544; treatment of, 546. 
Naviculare, os, 341 
Neck, relative proportions of the, 8. 
Nephritis, cause of, 512 ; symptoms of^ 

ib. ; treatment of, 513. 
Nerves of the stomach, 431 ; supplying 

the abdominal viscera, 427 ; the 

sympathetic, 443; the spinal, 441. 
Nervous system, chief divisions of 

the, 439; disease of, 517; diagram 

of the, 440 ; of animal life, 439 ; 

of organic life, 439 ; physiology of, 

438. 
Neurotomy for navicular disease, 546. 
Nicking, operation for, 580. 
New Forest pony, the, 103. 
New^ York report on the management 

of omnibus hoi-ses, 227. 
Norman charger, the, 45. 
North America, wild horse of, 27. 
Norwegian horse, the, 53. 
Noseband, the Bucephalus, 287. 
Nose, haemorrhage from the, 496. 
Numidiau horse, the, 4. 
Nymphomania, nature and treatment 

of, 517. 

Oats, as food, 223 ; bruisers, 193 ; how 
given, 224; kiln dried, 224; new, 224. 

Object of encouraging the breed of 
racehorses, 80. 

Odontoid ligaments, 857. 

Oesophagus, anatomy of the, 430. 

Oestrus equi, history of, 502. 

Old English black carthorse, the, 112; 
portrait of the, 113. 

Omnibus horses in New York, report 
on the management of, 227. 

Operations, 553-; shoeing, ib. ; admi- 
nistration of chloroform, 571 ; 
methods of confining the horse, ib.; 
bleeding, 573 ; firing, 567 ; setona 
and rowels, 576; blistering, 577; 
castrating, ib. ; nicking and docking, 
580 ; unnerving, 581 ; reduction of 
hernia, ib. ; administration of physic, 
ib.; clysters, 582; back-raking, ib. 

Ophthalmia, symptoms of purulent, 
524 ; treatment of purulent, ib. 

Original British horse, the, 4. 

Origin of the thoroughbred horse, 56. 

Os hyoides, 824 ; view of, 420. 

Ossification of lateral cartilages, 458; 
view of, ib. 

Oateo-sarcoma of the jaw, case of, 464. 

Out-crossing breeding, 141. 

Out-door vices, 298 ; treatment of, ib. 

Ovei'-reaches, stable management of, 
273; treatment of, 549. 

Ozena, nature of, 480. 

Paces of the man(5ge, 135. 



Paces, natural & acquired of horses, 119. 
Pacing, nature of, 134. 
Paddock, the, for brood mare, 156. 
Pancreas, anatomy of the, 435; func- 
tion of, ib. 
Paralysis, nature of, 521 ; from injury 
of the spine, 522 ; symptoms of, 521; 
treatment of, 522. 
Parenchyma of the lungs, 422. 
Park hack, the, 104. 
Parotid gland, anatomy of, 429. 
Parsnips as food, 229. 
Pastern joint, anatomy of, 373. 
Pasturing, 275. 

Pasture, nature of upland, 276. 
Patella, the, 345; dislocation of, 477; 
internal ligament of, 378; femoral 
capsule of, ib. ; external lateral liga- 
ment of, ib. ; mi<ldle ligament of, 379 ; 
internal lateralligament of, 378. 
Patten, the, 564. 
Pedigree of Eclipse, 62 ; of Herod, 60 ; 

of Matchem, 64. 
Pedis, OS, 342. 
Pelvis, the, 342 ; boundaries of the, 437; 

bones of the, 343 ; cavity of the, 437. 
Polham, the plain, 287; the Hano- 
verian, ib. 
Pepsine, 432. 

Pericardium, anatomy of the, 412. 
Perichondrium. 350. 
Peritoneum, anatomy of, 426. 
Pei-itonitis, nature of, 503 ; symptoms 
of, 504 ; treatment of, ib. ; to dis- 
tinguish from col'c, 505. 
Periodical moulting of the horse, 14. 
Periosteum, 307. 
Persian horse, the, 24. 
Peas as food, 225. 
Phaeton horse, the. 111. 
Phalangeal bones, the fore, 340; the 

hind, 349, 
I'halanges, posterior view of, 341. 
Phalangio-pedal articulation, 374 ; view 

of, ib. 
Pharynx, anatomy of the, 430. 
Phrenitis, nature of, 517 ; symptoms 

of, ib. ; treatment of, ib. 
Phthisis, symptoms of, 494 ; treatment 

of, ib. 
Physic, circumstances which modify 
the dose of, 270 ; cooling powers of, 
ib. ; injurious effects of, 271 ; mode 
of administering, 581 ; remarks on, 
269 ; superseded by the Turkish bath, 
as a mode of reducing flesh, 270. 
Physiology of the blood, 409 ; of 
digestion, 427 ; of muscle, 383 ; of 
respiration, 418 ; of secretion, 42S ; 
of the nervous .system, 438. 
Piping, nature of, 488. 
Paps, treatment of, 499. 
Pisiforme, os, 339. 
Plantar artery, the, 457. 
Plate, the, for racing, 563. 
Plate vein, anatomy of, 417. 
Pleura, anatomy of, 407. 



618 



INDEX. 



Pleurisy, symptoms of, 493 ; tr^^at- 
inent of, ib. 

Pleurodynia, nature of, 494 ; symptoiiia 
of, ib. ; treatment of, ib. 

Plunging, treatment of, 299. 

Pneumonia, cause of, 489 ; definition 
of, i'j. ; divided into acute and sub- 
acute, ib. ; hepatization in, ib. ; 
symptoms of acute, 492 ; symptoms 
of sub-acute, 493; termination of, 
ib.; treatment of acute, 492; treat- 
ment of sub-acute, 493. 

Pocahontas, the trotter, 35. 

Points of the horse, 6. 

Poll evil, nature of, 463; symptoms of, 
ib. ; treatment of, ib. 

Ponies, feeding of, 239. 

Pony, the, 95; the Exmoor, 108; the 
Highland, ib. ; the Indian, 28 ; the 
New Forest, 108; the Shetland, ib. ; 
the Welsh, 107. 

Portuguese horse, the, 44. 

Preparation, final, of the hunter, 271 ; 
of the hunter, 261 ; for work, ib. ; 
of hacks for work, 272. 

Pricks, froni a nail picked up on the 
road, 549 ; in shoeing, ib. ; treatment 
of in shoeing, ib. ; treatment of, from 
a nail picked up on the road, ib. 

Progression, mode of in horses, 120. 

Proportions of the various points of 
the horse, 12. 

Prussian horse, the, 45. 

Ptyaline, 429. 

Puffs, treatment of, 470. 

Pulmonary apparatus, component parts 
of, 419; mechanism of, i6. ; glands, 
&c., 422 ; tissue, the, ib. ; veins, 418. 

Purity of blood in the race-horse, 82. 

Piu'uleut ophthalmia, symptoms of, 
524 ; treatment of, ib. 

Quarter, nature of false, 536 ; treat- 
ment of false, ib. 

Queensbury, celebrated match made by 
the Duke of, 59. 

Quittor, nature of, 536 ; treatment of, 



Rabiks, nature of, 519 ; symptoms of, 
ib. ; treatment of, 520. 

Race-horse, crouf) of the, 86; back of 
the, ib. ; back ribs of the, 89 ; belly 
of the, ib. ; bone of the leg of the, 
92 ; coat of the, 94 ; colour of the, 
93 ; extern.vl formation of the, 83 ; 
feeding of, 238 : flank of the, 89 ; fore- 
arm, or arm of the, 92 ; head of the, 
90 ; height of the, 93 ; hind quarter 
of the, 92 ; knee of the, ib. ; loins of 
the, 86 ; mane of the, 94 ; neck of 
the, 90 ; object of encouraging the 
breed of, 80 ; purity of blood in the, 
82 ; shoulder-blade of the, 91 ; tail 
of the, 94. 

Racing or liunting stable, 212. 

Rucking, 134. 



Racks for stables, 205. 

Radio-carpal articulation, 307. 

Radius, the, 337. 

Rarey's apparatus for breaking horses, 
106 ; halter or bridle for colts, 176 ; 
leg .strap. No. 1, 107; No. 2, 168; 
method of training, 164 ; reflectiona 
on plans of, 172. 

Rearing, management of, 298. 

Rectum, anatomy of the, 434. 

Refrigerants, action of, 594. 

Reins, management of, 290. 

Relative proportions of the fore quarter, 
8 ; of the head, 7 ; of the horse, ib. ; 
of the neck, 8. 

Respiiatiou, effect of on atmospheric 
air, 418 ; physiology of, ib. 

Rete mucosum, tlie, 446. 

Rlieumatic inflammation, 467; peculiar 
to foals, 469. 

Rheumatism, symptoms of acute, 467 ; 
treatment of acute, ib. ; symptoms 
of chronic, ib. ; treatment of chronic, 
408. 

Ribs, the, 332 ; cartilages of, 360 ; treat- 
ment of fractured, 466 ; view of a 
true and false, 333. 

Riding, and driving, 282 ; to hounds, 
295 ; to hounds, rules adopted in, 
295 ; to hounds, directions for, 290 ; 
modes of starting the horse in the 
various paces, 292 ; mcjunting and 
dismounting, 288; management of 
the reins in, 290; necessity of good 
hands in, 291 ; the seat in, 289 ; 
starting into a gallop, 294 ; starting 
the horse into a jog trot in, 293 ; 
starting into a regular trot, in, ib. ; 
starting the horse into a walk in, 
292 ; use of spurs in, 291. 

Rima gloltidis, anatomy of, 421. 

Ringbone, case of, 457 ; nature of, 456 ; 
sym])toms of, 457 ; treatment of, ib. 

Road hack, the, 102. 

Roaring, hereditaiy nature of, 489 ; 
produced by alteration in the shape 
of the cartilages, 487 ; produced by 
thickening of the mucous membrane, 
486 ; produced by paralysis of the 
muscles of the larynx, 487 ; remarks 
on, 486; plan for stopping the noise 
made in, 487. 

Roman horse, the. 3. 

Roots for the horse, 229. 

Roughing shoes. White's mode of, 569. 

Round worms, 511. 

Run at grass, choice of, 276 ; a winter's, 
279. 

Running, the pace, 134. 

Running away, manaj^ement of, 299. 

Ru[iture of tlie bowels, 508. 

Russian horses, the, 52. 

Rye-grass for soiling, 230. 

Sacro-ILIac articulation, 363 ; ligament, 
i6.; sciatic lifj;ament,364 ; view of, 363. 
Sacrum, the, 331 ; view of, ib. 



INDEX. 



619 



Saddlery, care of, 280. 

Saddle airer, 20'J; brackets, 210; prices 
of patent, 211; nifthod of drying, 
210; girths, 284; horse of iron, 210; 
remarks on, 282. 

St. Bel's measureiiient of Eclipse, 69. 

Sale of horses, remarks on, 601. 

Saliva, composition of the, 429. 

S'llivary glands, anatomy of, 429. 

Salleiidcrrf, symptoms of, 529; treat- 
ment of, ib, 

Salt as food, 233. 

Sand for bedding, 241. 

Sandcrack, nature of, 535; treatment 
of, id. 

Sainfoin for soiling, 230. 

Saunterer, porti'ait of, 85. 

Sawdust for bedding, 241. 

Scaphoides, os, 339. 

Scapula, the, 3;!4. 

Scapido-humeral articulation, 334 ; view 
of, 305. 

Scapula, profile view of, 335; treatment 
of fracture of, 4G6. 

Schindylesis, 353. 

Scripture, the horse of, 1. 

Seat in riding, directions for, 289. 

Secretion, physiology of, 428. 

Sedatives, action of, 695; recipes for, ib. 

Seedy toe, nature and treatment of, 
543. 

Selling of honses, remarks on, GOl. 

Sensation, nerves of, supplied to the 
lips, 447. 

Sesamoideal ligament, the long inferior, 
372; supetior, ii. ; the short inferior 
ligament, 371. 

Sesamoidea, 0!<sa, 323. 

Setons, insertion of, 570 ; remarks on, lb. 

Seton needles, description of, 570 ; 
view of, ib. 

Shaving, 250. 

iShetliuid pony, the, 108 ; portrait of 
the, 109. 

Shr)e, Bracy Clark's hinged, 501 ; Mr. 
Goodwin's improvement on the 
French, ib. ; nailing ou of, 500 ; 
remarks on the hind, ib. ; selection 
of, by the, smith, 504 ; the bar, 
563 ; the common English, 555 ; the 
concave-seated, 556 ; the French, 
559 ; the half-moon, 5(i2 ; the mode 
of fitting, 505 ; the patten, 504 ; the 
racing or plate, 503 ; the, recom- 
mended by Mr. Spooner, 557; the 
tip, 503 ; Turner's unilateral, 562 ; 
view of hind, 507, 508 ; view of the 
bar, 503 ; view of the concave-seated, 
556 ; view of the French, 500 ; view 
of the, iised in iiunting, 558. 

Shoes, list of varieties of, 564-5 ; modes 
of roughing, 509 ; patent machine- 
made, ib. ; view of patent machine- 
made, 570; White's mode of rough- 
ing, 509. 

Shoeing, leather sole used in, 504 ; 
pricks in, 549 ; remarks on, 553. 



Shouldering, the bad habit, 299 

Shoulder joint, the, 364 ; profile view 
of, 3()5. 

Shoulder, oblique, of the hoi'se, 9 ; re- 
marks on strain of, 471 ; symptoms 
of strain of, 472 ; treatment for strain 
of, ib. ; upright, of the horse, 9. 

Shying, management of, 298. 

Sidel)one, nature of, 450 ; symptoms of, 
457 ; treatment of, ib. 

Side line, description and use of, 573. 

Singeing, 249 ; lauip for, 250. 

Sitfast.s, treatment of, 529. 

Size, increase of, in horses, 72. 

Skeleton, the, 307 ; chief divi.sions of 
the, 309; in general, the, 307; num- 
ber of bones composing the, 309 ; 
the artificial, 309; view of the aititi- 
cial, 308. 

Skin, anatomy of the, 440; hairy ap- 
pendages of the, 447 ; papilla) of the, 
440 ; the organ of touch, 447. 

Skull, treatment of fracture of, 406. 

Sleejjy staggers, 521. 

Smell, anatomy of the organ of, i44. 

Snafllc, the chaiu, 280 ; the double 
mouth-pieced, 285; the double ring, 
286; the double-jointed, 286; the 
g;ig,ib.; the unjointed, ti.; the plain, 
285 ; the twi.sted, ib. 

Sole, anatomy of the, 450 ; the leather 
for shoeing, 564 ; treatment of bruise 
of, 550. 

Soiling, clover for, 230 ; fuize for, ib. ; 
gorse for, ib. ; green food for, ib. ; 
green oats for, ib. ; lucerne f(jr, ib. ; 
remarks on, 274 ; rye-grass for, 230 ; 
Sainfoin for, ib. ; tare.s for, ib.; vetches 
for, ib. ; whins for, ib. 

Sore-throat, treatment of catarrhal, 480; 
treatment of, 498. 

Soundness, remarks on the law of, 601. 

South American horse, the, 27. 

Spanish horse, the, 44. 

Spiisin of the diaphragm, symptoms of, 
490; treatment of, ib. 

Spavin, natiue of bog, 408 ; nature of 
bone, 459; symptoms of bone, ib.; 
treatment of bone, 400; view of bone, 
459. 

Speed of the Arab horse, 20. 

Spinal column, bones composing the, 
310. 

Spinal cord, anatomy of the, 439; view 
of, 441. 

Spine, injury of the, causing paralysis, 
522. 

Spleen, anatomy, of the, 435; function 
of, ib. ; view of, 430. 

Splint, definition of, 454; symptoms of, 
ib.; treatment of, 455; view of, ib. 

Spurs, use of in tiding, 291. 

Standing, attitude assumed by horses 
in, 120. 

Stables, 180 ; accessories, prices of, 
117; adamantine clinkers for floors 
of, 195; a gangway bail for, 205; 



620 



INDEX. 



aspect of, 187; Broseley bricks for 
floors of, 195; chaff machines for, 
193; clothing, 215; clothing, prices 
of, 216 ; coachman, 214 ; concrete for 
floors of, 195 ; common stock bricks 
for floors of, 194; doors of, 196; 
drainage of, 197; Dutch clinkers for 
floors of, 195 ; enamelled tiles for, 
207; fittings, 203; foundations of, 
189; granary of, 192; groom, 215; 
ground plans of, 212; harness room, 
for, 209; hay chamber of, 191 ; height 
of, 189 ; implements, 215 ; iron man- 
gers of, 207; li^liting of, 200; 
management of, 214; management 
continued, 256 ; mangers for, 205 ; 
materials for mangers of, 206 ; ma- 
terials for floors, 194 ; materials for 
racks of, 206 ; materials for walls of, 
193; necessity of airing new, 213; 
oat-bruisers for, 193; pebbles lor 
floors of, 194 ; plan of for three 
horses, 213; prices of iron mangers, 
207 ; prices of wooden mangers, ib. ; 
proper temperature of, 256 ; racks 
for, 205 ; remedy for crib-bitiug, 
257 ; duties, recapitulation of, 256 ; 
remedy for eating the litter, 260 ; 
remedy for kicking the wall, 259; 
remedy for tearing oS" the clothes, 
259 ; remedy for weaving, 260 ; re- 
medies for vices, 257 ; remedy for 
scratching the ears, 259 ; servants' 
rooms, 211 ; situation of, 187; stalls 
versus loose boxes, 190; superficial 
area of, 189; the helper, 215; the 
travis, 204 ; ventilation of, 200 ; walls, 
lining of, 209 ; water pipes for, 200 ; 
water supply of, 197; windows for, 
ib. ; wooden mangers of, 206. 

Staggers, mad, nature of, 517; mad, 
treatment of, ib. ; mad, symptoms of, 
ib.; sleepj', 521; stomach, nature of, 
500; stomach, sjnnptoms of, ib.', 
stomach, treatment of, ib. 

Stalls, 190 ; versus loose boxes, ib. 

Stallions, list of French, 46. 

Starting the horse in his various paces, 
modes of, 292. 

Steeplechaser, the thoroughbred, 94. 

Stench traps, 199. 

Sterno-costal articulations, view of, 345. 

Sternum, the, 334; ligaments of, 345; 
proijer view of, 334. 

Stifle, capsular ligament of, 359; crucial, 
ligaments of, ib. ; semilunar fibro- 
cartilages of, 358 ; lateral ligaments 
of, 359; posterior ligament of, ib.; 
synovial membrane of, ib. ; joint, the, 
358; symptoms of strain of the, 476; 
treatment of strain of the, ib. 

Stimulants, action of, 595 ; recipes for, 
ib. 

Stings of insects, treatment of, 530. 

Stomach, anatomy of the, 430 ; arteries 
of the, 431 ; mucous membrane of 
the, 432 ; nerves of the, 431 ; veins 



of the, ih. ; view of, 430 ; staggers, 
nature of, 500 ; symptoms of, ib. ; 
treatment of, ib. 
Stomachics, action of, 595 ; recipes for, 
ib. 

Stoutness of horses in 1759, 70. 

Strain, nature of, 471 ; of the back 
sLaews, symptoms of, 474 ; of the 
back sinews, remarks on, 473 ; of the 
back sinews, treatment of, 474 ; of 
the fetlock, remarks on, 472 ; of the 
fetlock, treatment of the, 472-3; of 
the hip joint, symptoms of, 476 ; 
of the hip joint, treatment of, ib. ; of 
the hip joint, rarity of, 475 ; of the 
knee, symptoms of, 472 ; of the knee, 
remarks on, ib. ; of the knee, treat- 
ment of, ib. ; of the shoulder, re- 
marks on, 471 ; of the shoulder, 
symptoms of, 472 ; of the shoulder, 
treatment of, ib. ; of the stifle-joint, 
symptoms of, 476; of the stifle-joint, 
treatment of, ib ; of the suspensory 
ligaments, remarks on, 473 ; of the 
sus23ensory ligaments, symptoms of, 
ib. ; of the suspensory ligaments, 
treatment of, ih. ; symptoms of, 471 ; 
symptoms of in the back and loins, 
ib. ; treatment of in the back and 
loins, ib. 

Strangles, symptoms of, 498 ; treatment 
of, ib. 

Strangulation of the bowels, symptoms 
of, 508. 

Straw-yard, the, 279. 

Stringhalt, nature of, 522. 

Structure of bone, 305. 

Stumbling, management of, 300. 

Styptics, action of, 595 ; recipes for, ib. 

Sublingual gland, anatomy of, 429. 

Submaxillary gland, anatomy of the, 
429. 

Suftblk cart-horse, the, 114; portrait 
of the, ib. 

Sufifiaginis, os. 341. 

Superpurgation, treatment of, 507. 

Summering, remarks on, 273. 

Superior cervical vertebral joints, view 
of, 357. 

Suprarenal capsule, the, 436. 

Surfeit, nature of, 526 ; symptoms of, 
527 ; treatment of, ib. 

Suspensory ligament, 373 ; remarks on 
strain of the, 473 ; symptoms of sti-ain 
of the, ib.; treatment of strain of 
the, ib. 

Sutura, 353. 

Sweat, mode of giving the ordinary, 
264. 

Sweaters for the horse, 217. 

Sweating, process and object of, 
262. 

Swedish horse, the, 53. 

Swelled legs, treatment of, 530, 

Symmetry, increase of ia horses, 72. 

Sympathetic system of nerves, 443. 

Synonyms of the horse, 5. 



INDEX. 



621 



Synovia, 353, 

Synovial membranes, 352 ; diseases of, 
463 ; inflammation of, ib. 

Tail, the, 312 ; bones of the, 332. 

Tan, for bedding, 241. 

Tares, for soilins^, 230. 

Tarso-metatarsal articulation, 382. 

Tarsus, the bones of, 347 ; lateral liga- 
ments of the, 381 ; interosseous liga- 
ment of the, ib. ; view of, 347. 

Tartar horse, the, 25. 

Teeth, after nine years, 322 ; at nine 
years, ib. ; at about the eighth year, 
ib. ; at the end of the first year, 317 ; 
bishoping of, 323 ; composition of, 
316; development of the, r6. ; during 
the second year, 318 ; during the third 
year, ib. ; horseman's nomenclature 
of, 317; irregularities in the growth 
of, 324 ; lower nippers and tushes at 
five years, 321 ; mouth at three years, 
319 ; mouth at four years, ib.; mouth 
at five years, 320 ; of the very old 
horse, 324 ; shedding of, between 
four and a half and five years, 320 ; 
the six year old mouth, 321 ; view of 
the mouth at four and a half years, 
319; view of the three year old 
mouth, 318; view of upper nippeis 
and tushes at five years, 320 ; upper 
nippers in the eight year old horse, 
323. 

Temporo-maxillary articuiation, 386. 

Tendinous sheaths, inflammation of, 
469 ; sheaths, treatment of inflamed, 
ib. 

Tendons, anatomy of, 383. 

Tendon, disease of the, 467; treatment 
of smaU tumours on the, 468; tu- 
mours on the, ib. 

Tetanus, nature of, 520 ; symptoms of, 
ib.; treatment of, 521. 

Thigh bone, the, 345. 

Thick wind, nature of, 495 ; treatment 
of, ib. 

Thoracic arch, 311. 

Thoracic duct, 428. 

Thoracic organs, 407; remarks on the 
diseases f. 479. 

Thorax, articuiac'ons of the, 358 ; bones 
of the, 311 ; boiradaries of, 407 ; con- 
tents of, ib.; longitudinal section of 
the, 408 ; plan of, 407. 

Thorns in the leg of the hunter, treated 
of, 273. 

Thoroughbred, essentials in the, 82 ; 
English horse, the, 53; general history 
of the, ib.; hunter, the, 94; origin of 
the, 56 ; stoutness of the American, 
42; the English of 1750, 55; the 
steeple-chaser, 94; the modern, 71; 
the American, 36. 

Thoroughpin, natiire of, 468 ; symptoms 
of, ib.; treatment of, v'6. ; treatment 
of, when in the bursa, 470. 

Threadworms, 511. 



Thrush, varieties of, 537 ; treatment of, 
538. 

Thymus gland, anatomy of the, 423. 

Thyroid body, anatomy of the, ib. 

Thyroid cartilage, anatomy of, 421. 

Tibia, the, 346 ; view of the. ib. 

Tibio-fibuiar articulation, 379; tarsal 
articulation, 381. 

Tiles, enamelled for stables, 207. 

Times made by horses of the middle of 
the last century, 75 ; of the best Ame- 
rican horses made in America and 
England, 76 ; of the horse, best mo- 
dern EngUsh, ib. 

Tip, the, 563 ; needed for the fore feet 
in turning out, 278. 

Tissue, white fibrous, 351. 

Tonics, action of, 596 ; recipes for, ib. 

Toorkistan, the horse of, 25. 

Tooth, section of incisor, 317. 

Touch, anatomy of the organ of, 446 ; 
sense of, necessary to the appreciation 
of form, ib. 

Trachea, anatomy of, 422. 

Training horses, Rarey's method of, 164. 

Trapezoides, os, 339. 

Travis, the, of stables, 204. 

Trevis, the, or break, 573. 

Trimming, 250. 

Trooper, the, 100. 

Trot, the, 127 ; action in the truo, 128; 
starting into a, 293. 

Trotter, the American, 31 ; the fast, 
111 ; the Norfolk, 129. 

Trotting horses, American, pedigrees 
of, 34 ; American, fastest on record, 
31. 

Trumpeting, nature of, 488, 

Trustee, the trotter, 35. 

Turning out, marshes for, 277 ; meadow 
land for, ib. ; to gi-ass, 275. 

Turkish bath, description of the, 266 ; 
plan of, 267. 

Turkish horse, the, 25. 

Twitch, the, 573. 

Typhoid fever, symptoms of, 550 ; 
treatment of, 551. 

Ulna, the, 338. 
Unilateral shoe, 562. 
Unciforme, os, 339. 
Unnerving, remarks on, 581. 
Unsoundness of the feet and legs, 

marshes useful in, 277. 
Upland hay as food, 221. 
Upland pasture, nature of, 276. 
Upper arm bone, the, 335 
Ureter, the, 436. 
Urinary calculi, 515. 
Urine, bloody, 514, retention of, 515; 

treatment of retention of, ib. 
Uterus, inversion of, 517. 

Valve, the ileo-coecal, 433. 

Vein, inflammation of after bleeding, 
575 ; the axiUary, 418 ; the plate, 
417 ; the sunerficial brachial, ib. ; the 



6'22 



INDEX. 



vertebral, ib. ; auatomy of the, ib. ; 
of the btomach, 43 1 ; the pulmonary, 
418; the superficial, 417. 

Veua-cava, auatomy of, ib. ; anterior, 
anatomy of, ib. ; posterior, anatomy 
of, 418. 

Venous blood, action of air on, 418. 

Ventilation of stables, 200. 

Ventilating shaft, 202 ; windows, 197. 

Vermifuges, action of, 59G. 

Vermont cart-hoi'se, the, 42. 

Vertebra atlas, 310. 

Vertebra dentata, anterior view of, 328 
posterior view of, ib. 

Vertelrao, body of, 325; cervical, ib 
coccygeal, 332 ; general character of, 
325 ; general character of dorsal, 329 
general character of the lumbal", 330 
general movements of the, 358 
]jeculiarities of certain cervical, 326 
peculiarities of the dorsal, 330 
peculiarities of the lumbar, 331 
profile view of the cervical, 326. 

Vertebral column, articulations of the, 
354; ligament, inferior, 355; liga- 
ment, superior, 355. 

Vetches for soiling, 230. 

Vices, out-door, 298 ; treatment of, ib. ; 
shying, 298 ; rearing, ib. ; kicking, 
299 ; lying down, ib. ; plunging, ih. ; 
running away, ib. ; stumbling, 300. 

Viscera, muscular coatof thehollow, 426. 

Vives, treatment of, 499. 

Walk, action of the, 124 ; exceptional 
mode of starting for the, 123; mode 
of starting the horse into, 292 ; of 
horses, the, 121 ; received interpreta- 
tion of the, 122 ; starting for the, ib. 



Walking, rate of, 126. 

Warbles, treatment of, 529. 

Warts, removal of, 533. 

AVater, remarks on, 220, 233; proper 
quantity of, 234 ; proper temperature 
of, 235; supply of stables, 197. 

Water in the chest, treatment of, 494. 

Water-pipes for stables, 200. 

Weaving, remedy for, 260. 

Weight, distribution of, in horses, 
119. 

Welsh pony, the, 107. 

Western hemisphere, horses of the, 27. 

Wheat as food for the horse, 228. 

Wheat straw for bedding, 240. 

Wheezing, nature of, 488. 

Whins for soiling, 230. 

Whistling, nature of, 488. 

Wild horse of America, Mr. Herbert's 
account of the, 28; of North America, 
27. 

Wild Tartar horse, the, 25. 

Windgalls, treatment of, 470. 

Windows for stables, 197. 

Winter's run, 279. 

Withers, nature of fistula of, 462 ; 
symptoms of fistula of, 463; treat- 
ment of fistula of, ib. 

Woi'k, preparation for. 261 ; treatment 
of the horse after, 272. 

Worms, intestinal, 511 ; symptoms of 
intestinal, ib. ; treatment of intes- 
tinal, ib. 

Worm medicines, action of, 596. 

Wounds of joints, 477. 

Wrist, articulations of, 348 ; bones of 
the, 322; movements of, 357. 

Young Black Hawk, the trotter, 85. 



THB Km. 



II. CL4T, SON, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS, LOKDON. 



APPENDIX 



TO 



STONEHENGE'S WORK 



ON 



THE HORSE, 

IN THE STABLE AND THE FIELD: 

CONTAINING DISEASES INDIGENOUS 



TO 



AMERICA, 

WITH OTHERS, NOT MENTIONED IN THE WORK, BUT NOT PECULIAR TO AMERICA. 
INCLUDING, ALSO, REMARKS ON THE MODIFICATIONS RE- 
QUIRED IN THE TREATMENT OF DISEASES 
COMMON TO ENGLAND AND THIS 
COUNTRY. 



By ALFEED large, M.D., M.R.C.V.S.L. 

PB0FES80K OF THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MEDICINE AT THH HEW TOBK OOLLBOa 
OF VETERINARY SURGEONS. 



NEW YORK: 

GEORGE ROUTLEDGE AND SONS. 

416 Broome Street. 

1869. 



Entered according^ to Act of Congress, in the year 1868, 

Bt JOSEPH L. BLAMIRE, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern 

District of New Yorls. 



APPENDIX. 



The object of this Appendix is, to give a brief description of sev- 
eral diseases of Horses not mentioned in the body of the work, and 
inasmuch as they are not alluded to in foreign works on veterinary 
subjects, they may be looked upon as indigenous, or peailiar to this 
country. 

In the vast area of the United States, there may be more indigen- 
ous diseases than will be considered here, though as a general rule, 
the maladies peculiar to any one country are few in number ; but 
the absence of the statistics of diseases and their nature, owing 
to the very small number of educated veterinarians, renders it difficult to 
arrive at definite conclusions. It is to be regretted that we are not 
better acquainted with the diseases to which the horses of different 
sections are liable ; these, if carefully noted, would enable us to ar- 
rive at some important pathological conclusions. This end, however, 
cannot be obtained until a sufficient number of qualified practi- 
tioners are scattered from one end of the country to the other ; "a 
consummation devoutly to be wished." 

The first disease in regard to importance, on account of its fatality 
and the number of its victims, is one that, at the present time, is 
creating considerable excitement among stock owners in different 
parts, VIZ., the States of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, 
from whence we receive the most frequent accounts of it. It is not 
new; it appeared on Long Island eighteen or twenty years ago, and 
assumed the form of an epidemic ; since that time there have been occa- 
sional outbreaks in different parts. 

We have had opportunities of seeing a number of cases, not only in 
the epidemic form, but also some in the sporadic ; the latter a rare 
one usually occurring in cities, while the epidemic form is generally 
found in the agricultural, or country districts ; this sometimes also 
occurring in cities, as in Brooklyn, August, 1868. 

Although this disease is not a new one, we believe its nature to 
have been misunderstood ; in the different works on veterinary liter- 
ature it is not mentioned ; and those persons that have witnessed it, 
have called it by different names according to their fancy, or on ac- 
count of some special symptom. Thus, some have termed it stag- 
gers, others putrid fever, others paralysis, paralysis of the throat, etc. 
While some few, on account of the difficulty in swallowing, have 
termed it diptheria, a disease which, if it existed in the horse, could 



4 APPENDIX. 

noc be diagnosed with any degree of accuracy during life ; as an ex- 
amination of the fauces, which is necessary for diagnosis, cannot 
easily, if at all, be made. We have been for some years a disbeliever 
in the prevailing opinions with regard to this pathological condition, 
on account of the symptoms exhibited and the post mortem appear- 
ances. We considered it (when dealing with sporadic cases) as a 
grave affection of the nerve-centres. This opinion was corroborated 
during the investigation of the disease in an epidemic form on sev- 
eral occasions. The symptoms then exhibited in the different cases 
affected, and the post-mortem appearances sustained our diagnosis 
and previous ideas of the disease, and in our opinion (in which we 
are happy to say we were sustained by a number of medical gentle- 
men) definitely established its pathology, which is — 

" CEREBRO-SPINAL MENINGITIS," (epidemic). 

The same disease that has prevailed, and is prevailing in the 
human race, and sometimes known as spotted fever. 

We will endeavor to give a brief outline of the symptoms as they 
occur in succession, causes as far as known, post-mortem appear- 
ances, etc. 

Animals being deprived of the power of speech, cannot communi- 
cate to us their sensations, as pain in the head, spine, etc., which we 
know to be prodromes of diseases of the nervous centres ; and pain 
is not alwaj^s produced by pressure on the vertebrai ; consequently 
the disease usually has made considerable progress, and the products 
of the inflammation of the membranes of the spinal cord, or the ex- 
tension perhaps of the inflammation to the cord itself (myelitis) of 
some portion of the spinal tract, causing loss of power of the muscles 
supplied by the nerves of the part, is the first intimation that we 
have of its existence. 

The symptoms by which we recognize the disease appear suddenly, 
and they denote that some portion of the spinal tract is first affected, 
and is more marked throughout the career of the disease than the in- 
flammation within the cranium as a rule, as the disease appears to 
affect first the membranes of one part of the cord, extend to the re- 
mainder, and involve the head in its coui'se, but at a later stage. The 
attack may begin in one of two ways, though their terminating 
stages in fatal cases are similar. 

In one of the two modes of attack, and the rarest form, the animals 
appear unsteady in action, and in the course of a few hours are pros- 
trated from an inability to use the posterior extremities, the sphinc- 
ters are relaxed, the muscles of the anterior parts of the body, neck, 
and head will usually be found in a state of tonic spasm (Trismus 
and Opisthotonos, the condition of tetanus or lock-jaw), the pulse will 
be found quickened but soft, breathing accelerated. The change 
that occurs between this condition and death is the extension of the 
paralysis from behind forwards until it becomes apparently complete; 
a condition of coma or insensibility usually precedes death by sev- 
eral hours. 

The second of the two modes of attack we wish to call especial 
attention to, as it is the way the majority of cases are first affected, 
•while to an ordinary observer there appears to be little if anything 
amiss with the animal. At first, there is an inability to swallow 



APPENDIX. 5 

fluids ; in the course of a few hours to a day, there is a copious dis- 
charge of sah'va and mucus from the mouth, the animal may be con- 
tinually masticating ; if the mouth is opened, food will usually be 
found on the tongue, between the teeth of the upper and lower Jaws, 
and between the teeth and the cheeks; in fact the power of deglutitiorl 
or swallowing is now completely lost for solid food as well as for 
fluids. The respiration in this stage is normal ; pulse also, if any 
change it may be a little soft ; bowels usually costive. If the hand 
is passed into the mouth, over the base of the tongue, the fauces 
seem relaxed, baggy to the feel. These are the only symptoms ex- 
hibited as a rule in this stage ; though in one case which we had 
under treatment (May, 1868), active delirium existed, the animal 
fought and bored his head at the wall of his box similar to an attack 
of phrenitis. This case recovered, but it was a sporadic case, and 
they are usually more amenable to treatment than when they are of 
an epidemic character. 

If pressure be made directly over the spine, pain is not usually 
evinced, and yet when the power of deglutition is completely lost, one 
may safely predict that before long the patient will be prostrated, un- 
able to rise from lost power behind. When this condition or stage is 
arrived at, the further course of the disease is similar to that de- 
scribed as occurring in the first mode of attack : tonic or tetanic 
spasms of some muscles, while those behind are paralyzed, delirium 
more or less marked in the different cases, the paralysis extending 
forward presently, coma more or less profound supervening, eyes 
glassy in appearance and pupils somewhat dilated ; the patients pre- 
sent no other changes, and death finally ensues. 

Thus the cases, though beginning by two modes, have symp- 
toms in common during their career ; with, towards the close, loss of 
power, but not of sensation, tonic spasms etc., increased respira- 
tion, pulse increasing as the cases approach a fatal termination, but 
remaining soft. We have noticed as a rare symptom, abnormal ac- 
tion of the heart, amounting to palpitation. 

Post-mortem : 

The " pia mater " exhibits appearances of acute inflammation, and 
coagulable lymph is usually found in abundance beneath the arach- 
noid membrane, the latter membrane has a blanched appearance. 
The inflammation is more strongly marked at the anterior cervical and 
lumbar regions of the cord and base of the brain than at other sec- 
tions ; (it is at parts of the body corresponding with these sections 
that we have the symptoms of paralysis from pressure most strongly 
marked during life.) The substance of the brain and the sections of 
the cord where the inflammation seems to be most intense, appear to 
be softened ; it is reasonable to infer from certain symptoms that the 
inflammation extends to the nerve substance and produces changes in 
it, but this can only be decided by the microscope. The lung corre- 
sponding to the side the animal was lying on at the time of death is 
generally congested, but this appearance has no particular connection 
with this individual disease ; a coagulum is sometimes found in the 
right cavities of the heart, this appearance also has no direct patho- 
logical connection with this individual disease. 

These morbid appearances are all that are discovered, all the or- 
gans and viscera, with the exceptions noted, appear to be normal ; 
perhaps the morbid appearances would not be so marked if an ex- 



6 APPENDIX. 

amination was made of a patient dyiug sooq after being attacked, as 
we have known a case run its coui'se to a fatal termination in eighteen 
hours after the first symptom was noticed. This remark will lead us 
to the consideration of the duration of the disease in fatal cases. 
According to our experience the minimum being eighteen hours, the 
average the latter part of the third or beginning of the fourth day, 
the maximum about eight days, from the appearance of the first 
symptoms. These remarks apply to the disease in an epidemic form; 
in the isolated or sporadic^ form as we have occasionally in cities, 
the cases are not as a rule as strongly marked in symptoms (thougli 
they may prove equally fatal in character) and are of longer average 
duration. 

Pathological character, or nature. The anatomical characters point 
to inflammation of the meninges (membranes) of the brain and spinal 
cord, perhaps the brain and cord being implicated as well. But in 
view of the disease assuming an endemic or epidemic form, the in- 
flammation must be looked upon as an effect of some pre-existing 
pathological condition of the blood ; what that condition is, of course 
in our present knowledge it is impossible to say. 

But there is one important point to be considered in this connec- 
tion. In view of its endemic or epidemic character, the question 
naturally arises : Is this disease contagious or infectious ? We do 
not believe it is either one or the other. When this disease breaks 
out among animals in a certain location, it may be fatal to many or 
all ; but that is no proof of contagion or infection, for they are all 
alike exposed to the local existing cause whatever it may be. A 
healthy animal being placed in an affected district, and allowed to 
remain, may be affected, similar to a person contracting intermittent 
fever (fever and ague), but that is no proof of contagion or infection, 
for the same reason above stated. The only proof we can have, is of 
an animal affected carrying the disease from the locality where it 
was contracted and communicating it to healthy animals. Can this 
be done ? In answer to this question we will say, that two years 
ago we had an animal affected with the disease removed to a stable 
among a number of healthy horses ; the disease was fatal to the 
patient, but was not communicated to any others. We had a second 
case, placed under the same conditions, resulting the same as far as 
other horses were concerned, but the patient recovered, as it was 
seen early in the disease. 

The non-communicability of the disease has again been proved by 
a recent epidemic in Brooklyn, 

The Causation. When disease assumes an epidemic or endemic 
character, there is a special cause in operation, a blood-poison of 
some kind ; but what it is we do not know. There may possibly be 
co-operating causes, which may assist the special unknown cause in 
producing the disease ; for example : it usually makes its appear- 
ance in the spring and early summer months of the year, when the 
weather is changeable in temperature and frequently wet, like ani- 
mal poisons generally that require a certain amount of heat and mois- 
ture to render them active in the production of disease, as they are 
considered by some as totally inert in power when in a quite dry con- 
dition, even under an elevated temperature. According to. our ex- 
perience, stable management has nothing whatever to do in its pro- 
duction, as it attacks those animals that are well cared for as well as 



APPENDIX. t 

those that are not ; attacks in the field as well as in the stable. In 
fact, neither age, sex, condition nor mode of living seem to give 
exemption from an attack, or to modify the symptoms when it occurs. 

Prognosis. There is no disease of the horse with which we are ac- 
quainted so fatal as this one. In the last two epidemics that came 
under our notice, every animal attacked died ; and in the different 
parts of the country where this disease (though under the different 
names previously stated) has been described by the newspapers 
as having occurred during the present year, the mortality they 
have said has been very large. In previous outbreaks very few 
horses recovered. We have succeeded in carrying four through the 
disease, but these were seen when they could not swallow fluids but 
could still swallow food. The prognosis is, therefore, a grave one, 
and in the large majority of cases must be unfavorable. 

Treatment. In a disease so rapid in its course and fatal in its 
character, it is extremely difficult to say anything satisfactory of the 
course of treatment to be adopted. There are certain indications to 
be fulfilled, the question is, How is it best to carry them out ? We 
must take into consideration the nature of the disease, the probable 
progress it has made, and the mischief done before the case is seen; 
it is not often that the veterinarian is called in at the onset, but 
generally when he examines his cases, he will find from the paralysis 
of some parts, as the throat or posterior extremities, that the inflam- 
mation has existed long enough for its products to be exuded from 
the vessels. We must also take into consideration that in the cases 
where the power of deglutition of both fluids and solids is lost, we 
are deprived of one method of administering medicine, viz., by the 
mouth, unless a stomach-pump should be within reach, whereby we 
might pump or pour the medicines through its tube safelj'- into the 
stomach. We must give a caution with regard to administering 
draughts or medicine in a fluid form — it is often a risky ex- 
periment for an inexperienced person, even on an animal whose pow- 
ers of deglutition are perfect, but in the cases now under considera- 
tion, where those powers are but imperfect, if not altogether lost, it 
is fraught with great danger, the fluid may perhaps pass down the tra- 
chea to the bronchial tubes and produce death by suffocation. l^Jluid 
medicine is administered, it must be of a clear nature and but 
little in quantity. There are other methods of administering medi- 
cines, such as by the rectum, or the hypodermic method ; but when 
suddenly called away from home, we have not always these facilities 
for administration. 

The next questions are, What medicines should be administered ? 
What is the course of treatment to be adopted ? As we have inflam- 
mation of a very important and grave character to deal with, all our 
treatment must be brought to bear upon it, to subdue it, if possible, or 
endeavor if we can to diminish its intensity, to limit it to a part 
of the spinal tract, and prevent it spreading to others. If when the 
surgeon is called, he finds the patients down, prostrated, or that they 
have lost for some little time previously all power of deglutition, he 
will find it almost useless to attempt treatment ; but should the ani- 
mal not be prostrated, and should it be able to swallow food, or a 
bolus, though it cannot swallow water, the prognosis is more favor- 
able, and treatment should be undertaken and persevered in while 
there is a i-easonable hope of recovery. 



8 APPENDIX. 

Blood-letting is a powerful antiphlogistic agent, but in the large 
majority of these cases there are no indications by the pulse for its 
use ; it must therefore be dispensed with. We must resort to cathartics, 
such as aloes, as the depletive agent, and besides make use of those 
sedatives whose action is directed principally to the nervous system 
and that exercise an influence on the capillary vessels and limit the 
supply of blood going through them to a part. The agents we have used 
for this purpose are Tinct. of Aconite, and Ext. of Belladonna, altern- 
ately ; commencing their administration soon after giving the cathar- 
tic, not waiting for its action, as time is very precious ; in fact, we 
frequently combine the sedative with the cathartic, as follows : 
from 3 i. to ii. of Ext. of Belladonna with a full dose of aloes, for an 
adult horse ; then administer Tincture of Aconite Root, f 3 ss., in half 
a tumbler of water every three hours ; or alternating every other dose 
with a medium dose of the extract. This is the course of treatment 
followed by us for several years, and in the case^ where recovery 
took place. Local applications such as stimulants or counter irri- 
tants (blisters), to produce a revulsive action, should be applied to 
the spine and throat ; these should be repeated from time to time if 
relief is afforded. Finally, should the case or cases be so protracted 
that failure of the vital forces (or great exhaustion) is apparent, 
all agents of a depletive or sedative nature must be abandoned, and 
stimulants and tonics be administered in their stead. 

When the patients respond to the treatment, it will be found that 
the muscles regain their power in a short time, so that if it is the 
throat that is affected, in the course of a few days the patient will 
be able to swallow well, though some time will be required for a 
complete restoration to health. 

Prevention. Can this disease when breaking out in some animals 
in a locality be prevented from attacking the others of the same lo- 
cality ? We think this can be answered satisfactorily ; at least it has 
proved so, on more than one occasion. The idea occurred to us while 
attending an outbreak on Long Island. From the commencement of 
the epidemic there had been one or two fresh cases occurring every 
day, and as there were other animals on the same farm, both 
in stable and field, that as yet appeared well, we thought it advisable 
to put them under a course of treatment to save them if possible. 
There were twelve horses and colts still remaining ; three of these as 
an extra precaution we sent some little distance away ; of the 
others, some were kept in the stable where the first case occurred ; 
others were running in a field where two cases had also occurred, 
but all of the animals whether at home or those sent away, with the 
exception of an old blind mare that was considered useless, were 
placed under the same course of treatment with the following result. 
The old blind mare that received no treatment, died ; no other cases 
:have occurred on the farm though fifteen months have elapsed. This 
result was very encouraging ; every animal that was put under treat- 
ment escaped an attack, while the onlt/ one not treated died. Acquaint- 
ing a professional friend, Prof. Liautard, with the above facts, he 
soon had an opportunity of testing its merits for himself, and related 
to us its results. He placed all of the animals exposed to the dis- 
ease in the outbreak he attended (and there was quite a number) un- 
der ,the treatment with the view of preventing an attack, and suc- 
ceeded in every instance except one. This animal was well, or 



APPENDIX. 9 

apparently so, when the treatment was commenced, but subsequently 
died. It was discovered, however, that he was a very bad animal to 
give medicine to, and as its administration was left to a stable-boy, 
and as he was obliged to put his hand in the horse's mouth to 
give it, it is presumed from the fact of finding some of the medi- 
cine on the floor of his stall, that he received but little if any of it. 
Now a few words about the treatment adopted. When the idea sug- 
gested itself to us we knew nothing of the cause of the disease, 
and could do nothing in that regard ; but knowing the effects, i. e. 
the inflammation, and that it might be lighted up at any time, we 
directed our treatment to the object of preventing it, if such a thing 
was possible. With this end in view, we pursued the same plan as 
with those already attacked, viz., depletion by cathartics, closely 
following it with medium doses of the sedatives before referred to, 
and with the happy results above stated. 

Other measures of treatment, both as regards those attacked and 
those under preventive treatment, will have reference to hygiene 
and diet. Keep the animals in stables or apartments that are clean, 
airy, but free from draughts. Let them have fresh water by them 
constantly ; even if they cannot swallow much of it it will be grate- 
ful to them to wash their mouth, and they may even manage to get 
a little down. With regard to food; let them have small quantities 
of nutritious food, of small bulk, nicely prepared, and moderately 
thick gruel etc. The surface of the body and extremities should be 
watched as regards temperature ; if cool, then light, warm clothing and 
bandages to the limbs will, by equalizing the circulation, materially 
assist the treatment. 

In pointing out the nature of, and naming this disease, we were 
guided by its identity with the cerebro-spinal meningitis or spotted 
fever of the human subject. The same lesions appear upon post- 
mortem ; the symptoms referable to the nervous system are alike, 
with this exception, that paralysis is not as frequent in the human as 
in the equine race ; it was only several years after we had written 
on this disease in the horse that we saw noticed by medical writers 
on the disease in the human subject the paralysis of the throat that 
is one of the most marked symptoms, in the majority of cases, in the 
horse. No petechia or spots were discovered on the animals, but 
they are frequently absent from cases in the human subject. Other 
points of similarity are the short career and fatal character, and be- 
ing epidemic, or endemic ; also, although we do have some few cases 
in cities, usually of the sporadic form, it is generally in the rural dis- 
tricts where this disease appears. 

There is a disease in India known as "^wmree" that was very fatal 
to horses some years ago, the pathology of which was stated to be 
hemorrhage in the cord or between its membranes, causing paralysis 
by pressure, and terminating fatally. We mention this that the two 
diseases may not be confounded. 

The diagnosis of cerebro-spinal meningitis is not very difficult if 
the animal is prosti'ated, the symptoms being well marked. But it is 
in the early stage when the throat is first affected that we must make 
the diagnosis if the animal is to have a chance of recovery. For this 
purpose, we make it a rule to have all the apparently unaffected 
animals frequently tested with a bucket of water to see if they can 
drink. If the amount of water is much diminished in the pail by 



10 APPENDIX. 

swallowing, not spilled over, well and good. It is necessary for the 
test that they drink out of a bucket, or small vessel of some kind, 
where the amount taken can be noted, else a person may be deceived ; 
for an affected animal will persevere in the effort for minutes, and to 
an ordinaiy observer seem to drink well, but no water passes down 
the EBSophagus. As soon as an animal seems to be affected it must 
be placed under treatment immediately, and if it is in the country 
and likely to be epidemic (and it will soon prove itself), the effort to 
prevent others from being attacked had better be made, for an 
" ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure." But in cities it will 
occasionally be found that out of a stable full of horses a sporadic 
case will occur, with no tendency to attack the others ; it may be 
that the animal has been to an affected district, and brought the seeds 
of the disease away with it ; but this is merely a matter of supposi- 
tion, as we have no data to guide us. 



"BIG HEAD;" "OSTITIS." 

The disease commonly known as "big head," is peculiar to the 
Western States, as Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Indiana. It more par- 
ticularly affects coarse or low-bred horses ; those having naturally 
large heads. 

Of this disease we have had but slight personal experience, but 
shall endeavor to lay before the reader the information we have ob- 
tained, which is not as satisfactory as it might be. 

It is stated that big head first shows itself in young animals be- 
tween the ages of two-and-a-half and five years. If the animal re- 
mains free from an attack until it matures, or reaches the adult 
period, it is then exempt from it. 

Nature. The disease consists in an enlargement of the face from 
the orbit (eye) to the point of the nose. The enlargement is at first 
yielding to the touch, and is represented as presenting a soft spongy 
or cellular appearance, the cells being filled with a substance like 
jelly ; but it soon takes on the ossific inflammation (ostitis), and the 
deposition of bone continues to such an extent that the face, just 
above the false nostrils, is sometimes half as large again as it would 
oe in a natural state, and to the touch has the same consistence as 
the bones at other parts of the head. 

The nasal chambers, it is said, in some cases, from the deposit, be- 
come gradually obliterated, and occasionally death takes place from 
suffocation. In other instances, there appears to be a natural limit 
to the bony deposit and the animal continues to be useful though de- 
formed. 

Besides the above symptoms, there is a general unthrifty appear- 
ance, associated with some debility. 

Cause. On this point I shall offer the suggestions of Prof. G. 
Varnell, late of the Royal Veterinary College of London, who some 
years ago visited this country, saw the disease in the Western States, 



APPENDIX. 11 

and wrote an article concerning it on his return to England. He 
says, " I will venture to oflfer an opinion as to the cause of the 
disease designated ' Big Head.' There is, perhaps, more Indian corn 
or maize grown and sold at a cheaper rate in the States where this 
disease prevails than in any other part of the Union. Now, as soon 
as the foal is taken from its dam, or at any rate from the first winter 
of its existence, the food is Indian corn ; and often the fodder consists 
of the corn-blades, which have been stripped off the stalks while 
green, and preserved after the manner of hay. The corn not being 
ground or softened before giving it to horses and colts, is very hard 
and resisting, and the corn-blades being also very hard, the force 
necessary to masticate such kinds of food at the period of dentition 
induces inflammation, which commencing in the parts contiguous to 
the fang of the tooth, is speedily succeeded by tumefaction, followed 
by a deposition of ossific matter. This I consider to be one of the 
causes in operation. But from the information I could obtain re- 
specting the disease, I have reason to believe that a susceptibility to 
it is in some degree hereditary, particularly as it is more prevalent 
in some settlements, where they ' breed in-and-in,' as it is called, 
than it is in those where the breed is crossed by importations from 
England and other countries." 

There would seem to be reason in the remarks of Prof. Varnell, 
from the fact that in the Eastern and also in most of the Middle 
States, where corn in its hard,' unprepared condition is given to a 
comparatively small extent, j^^^^^^'^'^^c-^'^i/ to young stock, this disease 
does not exist. 

Treatment. The treatment usually practiced by farmers and others 
has been to divide the skin by an incision at the lower part of the 
tumor, and then bore into it with a red-hot iron, or to insert a small 
quantity of arsenic into the wound, or else to score the face with a 
red-hot iron. They assert that if the sloughing process is extensively 
set up, a check is put to any further deposition of bone ; and some- 
times through this they effect what they call a cure. This strikes us 
as being not only unscientific but barbarous; such potent agents in 
our opinion, are only called for as a last resource, or where the case 
is of long standing ; instead, we should try to combat the inflamma- 
tion with agents that have a powerful effect on inflammation of the 
bony tissue, or its covering the periosteum, and exert a salutary in- 
fluence on new and abnormal growths or deposits, tending to lessen 
them; for this purpose we should make use of the preparations of 
iodine. Administering internally the iodide of potassium several 
times a day, in doses appropriate to the age of the animal ; combin- 
ing it with the vegetable tonics, to combat the debility associated 
with the disease. As a local application to the diseased part, the 
iodine ointment, or the compound iodine ointment, should be applied 
with friction till the parts are moderately sore, when its administra- 
tion should be omitted for a short time, to be again renewed. The 
tincture of iodine could be painted on every day instead, if it were 
preferred, following the same precaution. Or should a stronger local 
application be required, the Biniodide of mercury ointment could be 
used, but this requires circumspection in its use, as do all the 
preparations of mercury ; and we think the iodine preparation inter- 
nally and externally, if persevered in (carefully watching for the 
effects of iodine on the system when it should be suspended for a 



12 APPENDIX. 

little while), will fulfill all indications. The administration of the 
iodine might be preceded by a cathartic, if the local symptoms were 
acute, and the general condition of the patient in other respects, as 
regards strength, etc., would bear moderate depletion ; but unless 
seen at the commencement of the disease, it would be of no avail. 



RUPTURE OF THE LIGAMENTS OF THE SESSAMOID 
JOINT AND FOOT. 



This pathological condition is not mentioned in any veterinary 
works as far as we know. Our observation of the disease is limited 
to the neighborhood of New York, whether it exists or is prevalent 
in other parts of the United States we have not the means of know- 
ing, on account of the absence of periodicals on veterinary subjects. 

In works on veterinary surgeiy, we have very full accounts of rup- 
tured ligaments or tendons, or strains, " breaking down," as it is 
generally termed ; it usually occurs from severe work, as racing, 
pulling heavy loads, making an unconscious step, etc.; this condition 
usually affects some portion of one extremity, and the cause usually is 
easily made out. We make mention of this in order to draw a dis- 
tinction between it and the subject under consideration. 

Rupture of the inferior sessamoid ligaments (the divisions beneath 
the sessamoid bones of the strong fibrous ligament, sometimes called 
the suspensory ligament, that extends from the superior and posterior 
part of the metacarpal and metatarsal bones to the sessamoid s and 
there divides), or of the inferior navicular ligaments, for these some- 
times are involved, as is also the extremity of the flexor pedis per- 
foraus tendon, occurs with scarcely any premonition, and is not con- 
fined usually to one foot or extremity ; it generally affects both of the 
fore feet, sometimes the hind ones ; we have seen one or two cases 
where all four were affected, one after the other, and all within eighteen 
hours from the beginning. 

This disease is a peculiar one ; its cause and duration are involved 
in mystery ; for the suddenness with which the different feet, though 
separately, are so closely attacked, without any apparent cause, 
shows that some latent disease or change has been going on in the 
parts for some time. It is not confined to any particular class of 
horse, but certain seasons of the year seem to exert an influence 
over it. As for example, the cases are usually observed after an in- 
clement fall, winter, or spring, when from the state of the Weather 
and the condition of the roads and streets the horses remain idle for a 
long time, standing in the stable, and when they do go out their feet 
are exposed to cold and wet ; it may be the standing idle so much 
on plank floors, when previously accustomed to a fair amount of 



APPENDIX. 13 

work, that has a tendency to produce a latent inflammation or other 
change in some of the tissues (particularly the fibrous) of the fetlock 
and foot, and render this accident liable, for we do not remember a 
case where the antecedent history of it was not that the animal had been 
taken out for a little drive or exercise after having stood in the stable 
for a length of time. If this should be the predisposing cause of this 
accident, all horses are not equally liable, for it is in the experience 
of every horseman no doubt, that horses will frequently be kept in 
the stable during an entire winter and yet escape trouble, excepting, 
in some cases, an atrophied or contracted condition of the heels of 
the feet from long resting. 

When alluding above to the condition known as " breaking down," 
we stated that it usually occurred under severe exertion of some 
kind, or from a misstep, and that the cause was usually apparent at 
the time, and one extremity only as a rule was affected. We will 
now describe the symptoms or clinical history of our proper subject, 
in order to make the differential diagnosis of the two as clear as pos- 
sible. 

Clinical History (symptoms). We will suppose an animal under 
the conditions we have named as favoring this pathological condition ; 
that he has been standing idle in the stable for some time, and finally 
is taken out for a ride or drive. Should he be attacked while at 
work, and with no apparent cause for it, as hard or fast work or 
missteps, but going along at an easy road gait, it may first be no- 
ticed that the animal suddenly does not move as usual, has a short, 
mincing step, and does not go with its usual freedom ; this premoni- 
tion, we repeat, may occur, and may last for some time after the ani- 
mal has returned home. When in the stable, it will be found to move 
its weight repeatedly from one fore leg to the other, as we might 
suppose a person would standing barefooted on something too hot to 
be comfortable ; this continues until rupture takes place, of which 
we shall give the symptoms presently. 

We will now consider a -second mode in which they are attacked 
while being driven or exercised. Instead of having a short, mincing 
gait, as in the former case, rupture of the ligament, in one or more of 
the extremities, suddenly occurs while in harness ; — this is known by 
the animal being unable to support the weight of the body on the 
limb or limbs affected, and by the toe turning up ; the foot cannot re- 
main flat upon the ground ; all the internal support at the heel seems 
to be gone. The ligaments of one foot only may rupture at first, 
generally a fore foot, but it is usually speedily followed by the other 
fore foot ; if it occurs before the animal is returned to the stable, and 
it makes the eff'ort to move, it walks on the fetlocks and end of the 
metacarpal bones instead of the foot. The toes of the hind feet may 
turn up so closely on those of the fore feet that the animal may be 
prostrated on the road or street, if at a distance from home or a sta- 
ble. We have known of such a case. 

There is still a third mode of its occurrence ; as it happened in the 
last patient of the kind we had under observation, we will describe 
in general terms the case. The animal went out for exercise under 
the saddle, performed his work well, was returned to the stable ap- 
parently all right in the evening. When seen next morning, was so 
lame in one fore extremity that he could not sustain the least weight 
on it. In the course of a few hours, however, he could bear his 



14 APPENDIX. 

•weight well on the leg that had been aflfected, but could not on the 
opposite one. From its migratory character the lameness was diag- 
nosed as depending on acute rheumatism, but in the afternoon, the 
toe of one fore foot turned up, in the evening another. The animal 
was then prostrated, but made many efforts to get up. Next day in 
one of these efforts, it was noticed that the toes of both the hind feet 
had turned up as well. 

Now, what are the predisposing and exciting causes of this condi- 
tion, if any exist ? When a portion of the ruptured ligament was 
placed in the field of the microscope by my friend Prof. Liautard, it 
was found from some cause or other not previously recognized, to 
have undergone fatty degeneration. This condition would of course 
destroy the integrity of its tissue, and very materially impair its 
strength, and only awaited the exciting cause, the strong movement 
of the joints in the act of flexion and extension to produce the acci- 
dent of rupture. 

Treatment. Very little can be said in the way of treatment. When 
a tissue has undergone fatty degeneration, its true material has been 
changed or destroyed. It cannot, therefore, be expected when an 
accident of this kind has happened, that the reparative or uniting 
process can properly take place, if it takes place at all, which is very 
doubtful. Therefore, even in the case of an animal valuable for 
breeding purposes, to say nothing of work, if more than one foot is 
affected, (and it is usually the case to have two or more,) the animal is 
valueless and the case hopeless, and had better be destroyed. 

If one foot only is affected, splints and bandages or artificial appli- 
ances of some kind may be used to keep the foot in proper position 
with the limb, but to repeat, there is but little hope of union of the 
ruptured parts taking place. 

If two or more feet are affected, the ammal is unabie to sustain 
the weight of its body on them. Slinging is of no use, as the animal 
cannot stand ; the weight of the body on the slings would produce 
so much pressure on the abdomen as to destroy life in a short time ; 
and as an animal in the prostrated position will die of nervous ex- 
haustion in a few days time, it is better to kill it and thus end the 
euffering:. 



SUNSTROKE.— INSOLATION. 

This pathologial condition, although not mentioned in the body of 
the book, is not indigenous to this country, but affects persons and 
animals wherever a high temperature and long heated terms are ex- 
perienced ; it is therefore, of common occurrence in tropical coun- 
tries. 

During the past summer (1868) large numbers of horses have died 
from the effects of heat and of the sun, not only in the large cities, 
but also in the agricultural portions of the Western States — accounts 
having reached us of animals dying while working in the fields. 

As generally understood, the term sunstroke signifies a sudden 
prostration while exposed to the rays of the sun ; but it must be 



APPENDIX. 15 

used in a more extended sense, and include also those cases of pros- 
tration produced by exposure to great heat. 

The pathology varies in diflfereut cases ; in some, the animals pre- 
sent the appearance of having been worked beyond their powers of 
endurance, to be exhausted in fact, the vital powers prostrated. 
The respiration is quickened, and the circulation, as noted by the 
pulse, very much enfeebled. In other cases, the symptoms being a 
sudden loss of consciousness, followed by stertorous breathing and 
convulsions frequently, and ending in death in a space of time vary- 
ing from minutes to hours, show clearly that the brain is principally 
affected, the condition being congestive apoplexy, as proved by post- 
mortem. In other cases, the symptoms will show a combination of 
the two conditions, congestion and exhaustion. 

With regard to the post-mortem appearances, the vessels of the 
membrane investing the brain, the pia mater, will as a rule be found 
in a congested condition, particularly in the cases where the symp- 
toms have been of congestive apoplexy, or where they show a com- 
bination of the two forms. While in those cases where the symp- 
toms have been those of exhaustion, the vessels may not be found 
unduly injected. The lungs are generally found in a congested con- 
dition. The condition of congestion must not be confounded with 
that of inflammation. In these cases the examination shows no 
signs of inflammation, no exudations, or products of any sort. 

The attack of sunstroke or from the efiects of great heat, usually 
occurs in horses without warning, and while they are in harness in 
the performance of their usual duties. Exceptionally it may be 
slight, the animal appearing giddy or confused, when if it is rested 
in a shady place the attack may pass off without prostration ; we 
have noted such a case. But in the great majority of cases, the 
effect is not thus transient, but instead the animal is prostrated, and 
it is in this condition that the practitioner usually sees the case. 

The Cause of these attacks is, of course, either the effects of the 
sun's rays direct on the patient, or excessive heat ; but while this is 
the most important, there are usually auxiliary causes. Animals are 
not often prostrated while in a quiescent state, but usually when at 
work, either at draught or speeding, as the case may be. Muscular 
exertion is a powerful co-operative circumstance. Exceptionally the 
attack does not occur while in the act of work, but speedily follows 
its cessation ; this is more markedly the case, we think, in race- 
horses, or those kept for speed, than in other classes of patients. 

The prognosis in cases of sun-stroke, excepting in the mild cases, is 
a grave one. Where the insensibility is marked, it is decidedly un- 
favorable. 

We have alluded to the different pathological characters that 
attacks of this affection may assume, and it is very necessary to keep 
this in mind in treating the different cases, for the measures indi- 
cated in one form are the very opposite to those required in other 
forms. 

Treatment. We have spoken of the grave nature of this affection, 
the percentage of deaths in proportion to the number of cases being 
large in the severe forms, it is therefore evident the sooner a patient 
is seen after being attacked the better. 

When called to these cases, if attacked at a distance from home, a 
cool, shady place should be found, if possible near where the attack 



16 APPENDIX. 

occurred, as the animal requires to be kept as quiet and free from 
excitement as possible ; in the form where they are suddenly pros- 
trated it will be impossible to move them ; in such cases, an at- 
tempt should be made to screen them from the sun. 

When the pathological condition is that of exhaustion, represented 
by a quick but feeble pulse, rapid and panting breathing, stimulants 
are to be administered to rouse the vital powers and increase the 
force of the circulation, and thus endeavor to obviate the tendency 
in these cases to death by asthenia or exhaustion. The alcoholic 
stimulants, or preparations of ammonia, or spirits of turpentine may 
be given ; if they cannot quietly and safely be administered by the 
mouth, they, particularly the alcohol or the turpentine, can be used 
in the form of an enema. The temperature of the surface of the 
body should be carefully watched, and everything possible should be 
done for the comfort of the patient. 

Depletives of any kind, such as bleeding, purging, etc., are not to 
be thought of in this form of attack; as the pathological condition is 
exhaustion, or failure of the vital forces, all depressing agents are 
highly pernicious as favoring a more speedy fatal termination. 

In the cases of well marked congestion of the brain, where the 
symptoms are a full and perhaps hard pulse, respiration slow and 
stertorous or moaning, insensibility more or less marked, the treat- 
ment required is the opposite of the above form ; depletive measures 
are indicated, to relieve the pressure of the distended vessels. When 
the pulse is full and hard, blood-letting should be practiced, not as 
usually performed by drivers or horsemen generally, by plunging a 
penknife into the bars of the mouth and abstracting a pint or quart 
of blood ; this operation is to be condemned under all conditions and 
circumstances as being barbarous, and, in the present instance, being 
totally useless. On the contrary, blood must be taken by opening 
the jugular vein, in order to get a strong flow of blood ; this is to be 
continued until an impression is made on the pulse, showing that 
the circulation has been affected by the operation. The bowels 
should be freely acted upon by a cathartic, assisted by enemas, 
choosing for the cathartic an agent or agents that will act promptly 
and eflSciently. The purging of horses by the usual method is gen- 
erally a slow process, requiring from twenty to twenty-four hours ; 
this can sometimes be hastened by combining a little Croton oil with 
aloes, the usual cathartic, and diminishing the amount of the latter 
in a corresponding degree. Cold or ice-water should be applied to 
the head, a good sized sponge being fixed to the halter just between 
and in front of the ears and kept saturated and cold ; the head, if 
possible, should be kept elevated above the line of the body either by 
a pile of blankets, or something of the kind, in order to facilitate the 
flow of blood from the head. All harness should be removed, partic 
ularly from the neck, as it might by pressure retard the circula- 
tion in the veins carrying the blood from the head and thus ag- 
gravate the already existing congestion. The temperature of the 
body must be watched, and by light clothing to it and the extremi- 
ties, or by heated blankets an endeavor must be made to equalize the 
circulation as much as possible by drawing the blood to the sur- 
face of the body. 

It is thus seen that, in some cases, stimulants are indicated, in 
others the very opposite plan of treatment ; in fact, the indications 



APPENDIX. It 

must be adapted to each individual case, and the carrying out of 
these indications of treatment requires the services of an educated and 
skilled veterinarian, as do all acute or severe affections, and we may- 
add all conditions that call for treatment, and should not be left to 
the uneducated or inexperienced, as is too often the case. 

It will be remembered that a third form of attack was mentioned 
where the symptoms presented a combination of those of the two 
other forms. It is in 'the treatment of this form that the greatest 
care must be exercised, as it depends on the predominence of one set 
of symptoms over the other to decide whether the depletive or stimu- 
lating^ plan of treatment is to be adopted and how far to be carried. 
If the predominant symptoms are those of congestion, depletive 
measures are indicated, but judgment is required in executing them ; 
if, on the contrary, the symptoms of exhaustion are predominant, 
stimulants are to be used, depletives not to be thought of 

It is impossible to lay down strict rules for guidance, as it de- 
pends much upon the judgment and experience of the educated veter- 
inarian, and to such only should the cases be submitted for treat- 
ment. 



SWEENEY, OR SWANEY. 

In the agricultural districts of many of the States, there is sup- 
posed to exist, a disease called Sweeney, or Swaney. The 
seat of the so-called disease is the shoulder, and its nature a 
wasted or atrophied condition of the muscles of that region. 
If an animal is lame in one of the fore extremities from any cause, but 
flinches at the thumping and pinching of the shoulder that is unmer- 
cifully inflicted, it is said to be Sweenied, and accordingly treated for 
that imaginary disease ; the cure being affected by lotions or blisters 
to the part, or in some cases making an incision in the skin, inserting 
a quill, and with the breath inflating the part and giving to it its 
natural full appearance. It has been stated that if Sweeney exists 
for a length of time, it leads to wasting or contraction of the hoofs, on 
account of the feet not being used to the extent they should be. 
This, we think, is a grave error, and that the cause has been mis- 
taken for the effect. 

We shall try to prove, (but it may be difficult to convince those 
who notwithstanding the want of an education in the veterinary 
science, imagine their knowledge of diseases of animals to be most 
profound, on account of the opinions and receipts that have been 
handed down to them by predecessors as little skilled as themselves), 
that there does not exist such a disease as Sweeney, per se. It is 
true we will sometimes find the muscles of the shoulder and chest of a 
horse atrophied or wasted, smaller in volume than is natural ; but 
this condition exists much oftener in imagination than in reality. 
Still, when it does exist, it is not the disease but the effect of some pre- 
existing disease, or condition, which by occasioning great pain to 
the animal, causes it to rest the extremity a great deal, and to save 
it from motion as much as possible. If this resting of the limb con- 
tinues for a considerable length of time, the muscles not being called 



18 APPENDIX. 

upon to perform their function, will waste, but this is a matter of 
time, and, we repeat, the majority of the so-called Sweenied cases 
have no trouble whatever of the shoulder, not even the wasting of 
the muscles ; but some pathological condition or disease can gener- 
ally be found to account for the lameness, and although we can have 
lameness in the shoulder, produced usually by some strain or violence 
of some kind, shoulder lameness is rare compared to the other regions 
of the extremity, and in the imaginary disease now under considera- 
ation (Sweeney) as a rule the cause of the trouble will be found 
lower down the leg, in the region of the fetlock or foot. In order to 
illustrate more clearly this fact, and it is well understood by profes- 
sional men, we will select three out of a number of cases that have at 
different times been presented to us as Sweeney. One is that of a 
bay mare, who during the late war was for a time stationed at Har- 
risburg ; while there she became lame in one of the fore extremities, 
and was pronounced Sweenied. She returned to Brooklyn where 
she belonged. There was no wasting of the muscles, or trouble of 
any kind at the shoulder, her lameness being occasioned by neglect- 
ing her feet as regards shoeing, allowing the shoes to remain on too 
long. As soon as this defect was remedied, the animal showed im- 
provement, and in a short time was perfectly well. But no treatment 
was applied to the shoulder. 

The next case is that of a sorrel horse, a fast trotter, who had been 
lame from Sweenej'', it was said, for a long time, and completely 
thrown out of work. There was, in realitj'', a little wasting of the 
muscles of both shoulders. Apparently there was a great deal of 
wasting, but this appearance depended on the position in which the 
animal stood to rest his feet and give him ease from the pain exist- 
ing. It was a difficult matter to eradicate the idea of Sweeney being 
the cause of the horse's lameness from the mind of his owner, so com- 
pletely was he wedded to the supposed existence of that disease. 
And it was only after the animal had been submitted to the applica- 
tion of the galvanic battery to the shoulders, with walking exercise 
for some time, the shoulders regaining their natural condition, hit 
the lameness still remaining, that he ackno\*'ledged his error. This 
animal was lame in both fore feet from navicular disease, and had 
been for a long time ; he was placed under treatment for the latter 
disease. 

The third case came under observation but a few weeks ago, say 
in August, while we were visiting the country. The animal, a brown 
horse, six years old, was, so his owner informed us, Sweenied the 
previous winter while working in a thrashing machine. We failed 
to discover any lesion of the shoulder whatever, neither tenderness, 
wasting, etc., but the animal was lame ; a cause existed for it some- 
where, and one that was easily discovered, viz., a ringbone — this had 
been completely overlooked. 

It will be inferred from what has been stated, that nothing will be 
said on the subject of treatment for the supposed Sweeney. When 
the lameness exists in the foot or fetlock, etc., it must be treated ac- 
cording to the nature of the trouble. The different conditions pro- 
ducing lameness, and their treatment, are considered under their ap- 
propriate heads in the body of the book. Should the muscles of the 
shoulder be wasted as the result of lameness, when the latter is re- 
covered from, the muscles will usually be restored to their normal con- 



APPENDIX. 19 

dition in time by slow work or exercise, unless they have been so 
long out of use as to undergo fatty degeneration, but this does not 
frequently occur. 

As a fitting conclusion to this Appendix, it might be well to make 
some allusion to the modification in the treatment of diseases men- 
tioned in the body of the work, between Europe and this country, as 
required by the difference in climate of the two countries. 

It is a generally received opinion at the present day, by veterin- 
arians that have had opportunities for practice on both sides of the 
Atlantic, that diseases here are more debilitating in type, and that 
acute diseases, as a rule (for there are exceptions), will not bear the 
antiphlogistic or depleting treatment to the same extent as in Eng- 
land. Unquestionably climate has much to do with this, for the at- 
mosphere is not with us during the entire year as cool and bracing 
as in the former country. It may be the idiosyncrasy of the animals 
themselves may exert some influence, as they are as a rule more 
quiet in disposition. Be that as it may, in this country we deviate 
somewhat in our treatment from the rules laid down in English works 
on veterinary subjects for the treatment of disease. Take as one 
illustration, influenza, or distemper, as it is frequently called, a con- 
dition of low fever of the system, attended by some local manifesta- 
tion, such as sore throat, bronchitis, etc. In most works it is laid 
down to open the bowels with gentle aperients, and to act also on 
the skin and kidneys by diaphoretics and diuretics, and during the 
stage of convalesence, to give mild tonic medicines. Our experience 
in this country has been that purgatives, or gentle aperients in these 
cases must be given with the greatest circumspection. Some of the 
patients from their condition are so susceptible to the action of 
aperients that a dose which in ordinary cases would produce but 
little if any effect, acts as a full cathartic and is consequently preg- 
nant with danger. As the mode of dying usually in fatal cases, 
when not seriously complicated, is by asthenia, or failure of the 
vital forces, the plan of treatment usually adopted here is to 
begin at the onset with stimulants and tonics, combining them at 
first with agents that have a diaphoretic and diuretic action. Should 
the practitioner elect, as he sometimes will, to administer a laxa- 
tive dose of medicine, it is usually combined with, or speedily fol- 
lowed by remedies of a stimulating and tonic action, which, by rous- 
ing the vital forces, prevent the prostrating effects of the aperient 
agent in a measure, and which would not be the case were it given 
alone; but in all cases where even the slight depleting measures can 
be avoided, it is best to do so, for experience has taught us that from 
the great debility which is the marked feature of the disease, the 
best plan to adopt is to husband the resources of the animal by 
every means, and thus place it in the best condition for passing 
through the career of the disease ; the cases do better and the con- 
valescence is more speedy. 

"We will take as another example Pneumonia, or Inflammation of 
the Lungs. It is stated that few cases of genuine pneumonia will be 
saved without blood-letting. We do not think so here. There are 
some cases that require bleeding, or at least will stand it. In these 
cases we have the pulse, which is full and very much oppressed, to 
guide us, but the majority of cases present by the pulse no indica- 



20 APPENDIX. 

tion for abstracting blood, and when it is done it is badly borne; and 
the same eflfect, though not as speedy, can be pi'oduced by medicinal 
agents, and which are not spoliative of the blood as venesection is. 
These agents have a lowering and controlling effect over the heart's 
action, and consequently over the circulation, and that is the effect 
of treatment to be desired, as pneumonia is a self-limited disease, and 
if not cut short in the outset, which rarely happens, must run a defi- 
nite course. 

The medicines recommended are, tartar emfetic, digitalis, hellebore, 
one or more in combination. We prefer aconite, usually administer- 
ing in the form of the tincture, adding to it the spirit of nitric ether, 
which by its effect on the skin, aided by warm but light clothing, 
will have the effect of equalizing the circulation and tend to relieve 
the lungs. This treatment of course is only applicable in the first 
stage of the disease, during acute congestion. As soon as exudation 
has taken place, and the portion of lung inflamed has become solidi- 
fied, or hepatized, then the blood by this process has been sufl&- 
ciently depleted, and a condition of debility manifests itself The 
treatment then to be adopted is, by gentle stimulants and good nurs- 
ing, with nutritious food in a small compass, to save the animal as 
much as possible until absorption of the exudation takes place, 
which will occupy some time before completed. 

There is danger of an accident occurring during the stage of hepa- 
tization ; and that is of sudden death, without increase of the in- 
flammation, and when the inflamed lung seems to be doing well, and 
the animal progressing favorably. This will usually be found to be 
caused by the debility of the heart's action, allowing the fibrin of the 
blood to coagulate within, its cavities, forming a heart-dot, that para- 
lyzes and stops its functions ; to guard against this accident is an 
additional reason why, in the stage of hepatization, gentle stimulants 
should be administered, taking care on the other hand not to push 
their action too far. Some preparation of ammonia, the carbonate 
perhaps, is the best arterial stimulant. It has been stated to be par- 
ticularly appropriate, from the idea that has been advanced that the 
fibrin of the blood is held in solution by ammonia, and consequently 
by administering it a solvent action is produced ; but this needs 
confirmation, and as much can be said against as in favor of the 
theory ; besides, if the ammonia prevents the formation of the heart- 
clot, its action we think, can be explained on other grounds besides 
a supposed solvent action, and that is, its stimulating effect on the 
heart strengthens its action, and by increasing the churning motion 
to which the blood is exposed, keeps that fluid in a condition unfa- 
vorable to the coagulation of its fibrin. 

While on the subject of Pneumonia, it may be as well to mention 
what is termed in veterinary works one of the terminations of it, viz., 
Hepatization. It is stated that it is always attended with thick wind 
and the animal remains permanently unsound. We think this is an 
error, as there are animals now working that have been the subjects 
of pneumonia, that present no embarrassment in respiration. One 
would infer from the remark, that hepatization occurred only occa- 
sionally in attacks of pneumonia, and when it did was never recov- 
ered from. We cannot have inflammation of the lung without hepa- 
tization, as it is the second stage of the disease ; the first, as before 
remarked, is acute congestion ; if the disease then subsides without 



APPENDIX. 21 

further change, it was congestion not inflammation. The criterion of 
the latter is the solidification or hepatization of the tissue, depending 
on the vessels being unloaded of fibrin, it is a natural event of pneu- 
monia and as it occurs so frequently, and many cases entirely re- 
cover,' the exuded material being absorbed, we repeat we look upon 
it as an error to consider it a termination, and to say all animals 
affected will remain permanently unsound. 



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LONDON: BROADWAY, LUDGATE. 

1868. 



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LONDON : THE BROADWAY, LUDGATE, 

1868. 



